Oe ice MCh cS ® Covers all the key points of Bleed CUE Le CNH aecm nd ou CUcy ® Thousands of examples © All grammatical terms explained ier la ® Detailed tables of Japanese Adem eat) Author, Jonathan Bunt, is Associate Director Cymer Centre at the University of Manchester. Reon CM A mater MUy-Ur ime oe ere Ca Linguistic Science at the University of Reading. O x FORD 1 0-19-860382-7 www.oup.com AskOxford cmv I 198 Oxford Dictionaries Passionate about language £9.99 rap $14.95 603825" >Grammar & Verbs Clear and simple ea lire (Hi cyOXFORD ‘UNIVERSITY HSS Great Clarendon Street, Oxford OX2 6DP ‘Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford it furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship and education by publishing worldwide in ‘Oxford New York ‘Auckland Bangkok Buenos Aires Cape Town Chennai ‘Dar es Salaam Delhi Hong Kong Istanbul Karachi Kolkata Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melboumne Mexico City Mumbai Nairobi Sao Paulo Shanghai Singapore Taipei Tokyo Toronto ‘Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries Published in the United States by Oxford University Press Inc., New York © Oxford University Press 2003 First published 2003 ‘All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, ‘stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, ‘without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction ‘outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Data available ISBN 0-19-860382-7 10987654321 ‘Typeset by Graphicraft Limited, Hong Kong, Printed in Great Britain by Clays Lad, Bungay, Suffolk Preface ‘Acknowledgements Parts of speech Topic, comment, and predicate In-group and out-group Conjunctions and conjunctive particles Particles ~ Auniliary suffixes The < - = - &- E group of words Numbers, counters, time, dates Nominalization: the nominalizer @ and the noun = & Reigo Interrogatives Perspective and pronouns Punctuation and script terms Glossary of grammatical terms Appendices. Hiragana chart Katakana chart "Word endings for finding the dictionary form English index Japanese indexPreface | The Japanese Grammar and Verbs is part of a series of Oxford grammars of modern languages. It includes information on a wide number of structures likely to be encountered in the first few years of studying Japanese at school or college and contains everything that is essential up to A level. For those living and working in Japan, it presents commonly seen and heard material. It is designed to serve both as a source of information in itself, and as a supplementary reference for users of textbooks which may not cover grammar topics adequately. | The book is largely organized according to parts of speech. | This is not an approach often taken in textbooks and it has been adopted here to try to present a picture of Japanese grammar overall. Japanese parts of speech are discussed in their own chapter (see pp. 1-4). | About the example sentences The issue of style in Japanese grammar is crucial. In this book the examples are presented in a mixture of styles to reflect formal and informal spoken and written usage. If you are uncertain about the styles of Japanese you should look at the chapter on style (p. 10). To allow the book to be as widely usable as possible, a romanized form of Japanese example sentences has been given. As learning the kana scripts as quickly as possible will aid the learner's pronunciation (and because the rows and lines of the kana chart are important in making/explaining certain ‘forms’), there are kana charts as appendices. The example sentences are given in two Japanese versions. The first version presents a normal, Japanese version without spaces, in a mixture of kanji (Chinese characters) and kana. Numerals are not given in kanji as this is unnatural in horizontal[Preface text, Whether or not kanji should be used to write a particular word is sometimes a matter of personal choice or of a sense of ‘balance’ between kanji and kana in a sentence, but the examples try to reflect current usage. Some words are mostly in kana although the kanji forms may also be common, e.g. < and & #. Learners need to grow used to varied orthography at an early stage. ‘The second Japanese version is a romanized one with spaces between ‘words’ although this should not be taken to imply that the Japanese can or should be separated in this way. The romanization is given simply as an aid to learners and is very much secondary to the ‘real’ Japanese version. The system used for romanization is modified Hepburn. The Japanese examples have been kept as natural as possible while the English translations, while trying to sound natural, have sometimes been made slightly literal where this may help the user understand a structure in use. Jonathan Bunt Acknowledgements | Many people have contributed to the writing of this book. The Series Adviser (Dr Richard Ingham) and Academic Adviser (Dr Phillip Harries) made helpful and constructive comments and suggestions. Lynne Strugnell was heroic, cheerful, and clear-sighted in editing the text into its final form and getting this. project to completion. The author would like to especially thank the Trustees of The Great Britain Sasakawa Foundation and Mike Barrett, the Chief Executive, whose support enabled him to take leave from teaching in order to complete this book. The author would also like to thank: Suzuko Anai at the University of Essex; my friend and colleague Yukiko Shaw; Noriko Kajihara, Atsumi Griffiths, Minako Oshima, and Motoi Kitamura at the Japan Centre North West; and friends and colleagues in the British Association for Teaching Japanese as a Foreign Language (BATJ). Special thanks are due to the author's wife Atsuko (RF), and sons George (#874), and Harry (#8). Thanks are also due to those students at the University of Salford, Manchester Metropolitan University, and Manchester University who tried out sections of the book. ‘The editors at OUP were extremely helpful and thanks go to Della Thompson and Vivian Marr for their support. ‘The author's sincere hope is that users of this book will sometimes say (sincerely) 725(ZE as well as € U7| Proprietary terms The inclusion in this book of any words which are, or are asserted to be, proprietary names or trademarks (labelled propr.) does not imply that they have acquired for legal purposes a non-proprietary or general significance, nor is any other judgement implied concerning their legal status. Parts of speech | Japanese and English are considerably different in structure as well as vocabulary. For example, meanings expressed with verbs in English may use adjectives in Japanese, and words that do not change form in English may do so.in Japanese (and vice versa). The English sentence “I want a car’ features a pronoun (‘I’), a verb (‘want’), and a direct object noun (‘car’) with an indefinite article (a’), but the Japanese translation #.%@k LW has no pronoun, no article, and ‘car’ is the subject of an adjective. ‘The grammatical terms for Japanese parts of speech vary a great deal in textbooks, dictionaries, grammars, and more scholarly works. The system for parts of speech used in this bookis basically that taught in Japanese schools (sometimes called Hashimoto grammar, or Kokugo grammar) but with modifications to include terminology widely used in teaching Japanese as a foreign language (see, for example, the discussion of stems in the chapter on verbs, pp. 21-24). Japanese classification recognizes as parts of speech certain dependent words such as ~ $ and ~7Z1) which cannot appear in sentences as words in their own right, but only when they are attached to other ‘words’. Japanese classification also makes a distinction between words that change their forms (to indicate, for example, past tense or negation) and those that do not. The term ‘conjugate’ is used to describe changes in the form of verbs and adjectives. Information about the part of speech of a Japanese word can usually be found in a Japanese dictionary designed for native Speakers of Japanese (<< “UTAy + fSIRBEBA). Textbooks and dictionaries for non-Japanese learners do not usually use the Kokugo categories for parts of speech. The English names Riven here are for guidance only.[Lt parsotspecch 1A list of Japanese parts of speech jependent words part of speech characteristics ESC: iia (verb)* dictionary forms* end with a sound from the 3 line of the kana chart; conjugate GWESU- ESB or 4 WESL-4 ram Giadjective) SESW Bea Ki end with asound from the 6) line of the kana chart; conjugate GUESESL> raw or HF GHSL-F ESA (na adjective) any (4) anu (2) (Fhe (K) (fhe (7) Lm (e) LY (7) ‘end with % or related form (including 2 in front of a following noun); viewed as conjugating part of speech, as #E conjugate OWL: 2H (noun) eae [za tatty can be joined to other nouns with particle ®; do not change form F5l- Re (counter) BED Bev EY SAIEA Bom expressions for counting; do not change form &A BD BAL WBA various BES dig... Suen omall... dP our... (DS what's known as. BSS every kind of... only used in front of nouns; donot change form toE TH. (For adjectives with C7, see the chapter on adjectives, ‘pp. 96-111.) It is usual to keep a conversation or piece of writing consistently in one style | Polite, plain, and written styles of Japanese In addition to the plain and polite styles discussed above, there is also a written style which has a small but consistent variation in the forms of ## - TY. Each of the styles is briefly described and illustrated with examples below. Style 113 | ‘desu-masu’ style (2 + YAM) ‘This style is used mostly in spoken language or in letters, and features polite style verb forms and TF (including TF following ( adjectives). Keigo, or respect language, comes within this category (see p. 213): © AYE VSeBTIMSSTMCRLUTH Rondon wa shuto desu kara sasuga ni utsukushil desu. ‘You would expect London to be beautiful as itis a capital city © BIR, BAAOMEAIC. WHE< THLOIISVEKA ee: HBOICL CTLED | This tentative form of #¢ is used to indicate conjecture, although it is not always necessary or appropriate to translate it into English with ‘probably’. It follows the plain forms of verbs, adjectives, and nouns: © RBS eAFETL ES Mayumi chan wa shogakusei deshd Mayumi is an elementary student, ion’t she? * HAMARSES5 Ashita ame ga furu daré | will probably rain tomorrow © 4¥VATHRISORBUTL ED Igirisu de gaishoku suru no wa takai desho Eating out in England is expensive, ten't it? An adverb of conjecture, such as 7:%Ay ‘maybe’, ‘perhaps’, issometimes used with #5 - CL & 3 (see adverbs): © BARES ARAWTL ES Tamura sensei wa tabun konai desho Ms Tamura probably isn't coming #245 - CLs 5 can be used in questions as a polite equivalent off - ct: s + A-WEATL ESD HOru-san deshé ka Are you Ms Hall? © BRASLMA SERA OTL ESD Nihonjin wa doydbi mo gakk6 e iku no deshé ka lin Japan, do they go to school on Saturdays too? BD - TU & 3 is commonly used to seek agreement with a statement. This is similar in function to the tag question in English: * BREAISBSATL ES Okesan wa Nihonjindeshd Your mum's Japanese, ien’t she? © MAOKSMAMBUTLES Ame dattara, shiai ga nai deshd- if rains, there won't be a match, will there? HEBD * TCU£ 4D is also discussed in the chapter on auxiliary Suffixes (see p. 181). ON eee Se Gh ee MI ce ee ae a| Verbs 1 What is a verb? ‘A verb is a word which expresses an action or a process: I watched TV last night ‘The door opened A verb can also describe a state of affairs: The horse is standing in the field All the cups are broken. | Properties of Japanese verbs English verbs change their endings according to the person doing the action (‘I go’, ‘she goes’), but this is not the case with Japanese verbs. Neither do they need a pronoun (‘I’, ‘you’, ‘he’, etc.) to show the grammatical subject. The subject of the sentence is usually clear from the context. This means that many of the examples given below have pronouns such as ‘I or ‘she’ in the English translations but not in the Japanese (see pronouns) The main verb comes at the end of a Japanese sentence, although both verbs and verb phrases are also used in clauses within complex sentences. In this latter use they are often referred to as ‘modifiers’ because the verb or clause modifies the following noun of noun phrase (see p. 209). 1 Verb forms Japanese verbs are usually spoken of as having ‘forms’, e.g, ‘= form’ and ‘~fE40 form’. In fact, ~¥F and ~7RU are auxiliaries which are attached to particular stems of verbs, and are called jod@shi ( 98)85)) in Japanese. This book refers to ‘forms’ of verbs, in line with most textbooks, but also uses the term Nerds 21 J ‘auxiliary’ as an English equivalent of joddshi. Auxiliaries are very important in Japanese, and they are considered in their ‘own chapter (see p. 181). Allverbs have dictionary forms ending in one of the syllables from the 5 line of the kana chart (see p. 255). The possible endings Bie. ~ So ~< wd. 2, ~0~8, ~R, ~S. 1 Verb stems Japanese verbs have a series of stems to which suffixes are added. ‘The following chart gives the stems together with their names, examples, and the most common suffixes attached to them. ‘The verbs used as examples are the wR eS~ [ED ~ed (~kttA, ~ELK etc.) PALIT BAB [EV~ [ES a7 L~| ttt __| (see a~ [BS Conjunctive ER~_ [RRS _ | form) L~ [5% a~_ [ SS EAN~/ERS also called th~ [Fs Ld LISL) > RET ~t9 nels or ~£5 0) he ay AI «RTE ~BUb mee? Bae ih #2 #2 ~BIEW = 2 The reason forhaving [ES [eS ce za Soe airmen alternative names is that (see VE ESL é3~ [és the dictionary form p. 181) lst~| (sey can be sentence final a~ [as NED (- Lie 3 UIFU\) or Fock mg ER~ [ERS form part of a modifying, modify nouns CE~ [FS clause and join toa ieaiaiaias See following main clause : (= AAR). Both p. 209) ae BRE [DIT |< forms are the same in rs A [bd (see Imperative modern Japanese, Ea Ex) form) so VU &ITU is the én tS referred term. tafett [tee aT [lteF__| (see Uses of the BA BS gee hea. 7 Setaneg Im) ERB [ERS ERS [RRS ta te 75 [33 ea cu ks ~e ¥ot [kD |~Hs got [eS |~a< eet |aer |~ ERT [ERS ~bhuy (see ~T form) Ux (t3 act |<é EI 9H PE [D< ~% form Bor [65 ~CEMbS Kok | FD ~ ES UY got [ES |~me BELA aS ak [bs (see ~# form) ERE [RRS Lk [FS nz |[<é {Verb conjugation groups Japanese verbs can be divided into two main groups according to how they conjugate (change the endings to indicate, for example, a negative or a past meaning). These groups are known as ichidan (—F&) verbs and godan ( 8%) verbs. There are also two slightly irregular verbs which do not fit into these groups, FS and <4. (522A verbs in the dictionary form end in a kana from the Wor Z line of the kana chart, followed by ~ . The possible he Verbs 125 | endings for (\5 EA, verbs are ~11S,~2RB,~LS,~HS, ~55,~TS, ~KcS, ~NS, ~US,~NS,~HS, ~03,~5,~nd ‘Verbs with other endings in the dictionary form are classified as SEA verbs, except for the two irregular verbs $% and <3. ‘The majority of verbs can be identified as either WE 7EA, or HEA, verbs by their dictionary form ending, but note that there are some <7) verbs ending in -eru of -iru, i.e, a kana from the % or | lines of the kana chart followed by 3. A list of some of the ‘most common of these is given after the basic conjugation charts. The best way to be certain of the conjugation of an unknown verb ending in -eru or-irwis to look in a good learner’s dictionary (such as the Oxford Starter Japanese Dictionary) where the conjugation group of a verb is given. CRA verbs The verbs in this group are sometimes called -u verbs’ in English, 4s the final -u of the romanized dictionary form is dropped before other endings are added. Other English terms found in text books are “vowel stem verbs’ and ‘group one verbs’. The Japanese term godan (if), meaning ‘five-step’, refers to the fact that the final kana of the dictionary form changes to another from the same row ofthe kana chart when making different forms, and these changes involve all five vowels. This is shown below with the verbs AG + ML ‘to read’ and [d/2F - HF “to speak’: BO REG RAT ROHS Rod yomu yomanai yomimasu yomeru—-yomd Mo Bee BlLst BtS Hts hanasu hanasanai hanashimasu hanaseru _hanasd Conjugation chart for “7A, verbs ‘Note that the inclusion of a form in the chart does not necessarily ‘mean that it is in common use, and some verbs may be rarely used in certain forms:[261 ves Verbs |27 J 7 ee ese fo meaning | dictionary form | passive potential tend_{wat_|iomp_|reat_| te (> mS ns | PAS ar 2 Be au 7) rt0.90 << Dens [ngs es es les les les lev orcad [kU MG [eens [ewe conjmeiveau [me [mu feb [ew [ew [EU roopeak |aat BY [amend [ames ore #4) foretumn |DAS-WS [MASS [DANS stem ~RW eu |me l>u [es [eu [ke [ey W6A verbs ao lab [Au jen lew jen jeu RW Bd [om los [ee [ele [ke [eS my jen [en jen joo jan jan Bot Put PUT FoT EAT EAT EDT Bok|Puk| PLe| Foe EAM | KA | Ee > [ow lor [fe [eA [ta [eo eS [RS [ko [RS [KS [RS [AS Bo [ow leu feo [EA [kA [eo ry [ey jev jay [ey [ey |ey wit BAls| ois | ovis | RTS | Eels | hols | Ett potential [BAS | mits |MeS| ETS EXS| KOS ENS passive lab lom [me lke [ete [ke [eS ne [ne [ho |no [na [ne [hd causative |&b |om |e [RK [eis |eE [eS causative. |Sdt|mme|not [Re eee eRe|coe passive |5S|5hS|used |5nS|5n|| 5nd |5ns volitional |%3|—3|MF5/#ES [ES | £3/e55 imperative |2 [mit [me [ec [EX [kw [En negative || D [ener rs $55 5 > 5 DRS MS |toreturnhome |#@AS | tochange 22. aoe e = $ goer nee DES BS |rohunry <> # [next Bid OF - RF [tolena v3 U [oust US ES |tobe (BS) | toexior lated + HT [to speak Fv > [teres necesoary #22 [towaie D> > 5 lesar AS BA |todecrease |S ‘to pass (time) Lia: Hwa | todie wm > Kk [beer UBS [RS |tobedamp | POS | toclose(the EX RE [toy aS feusy window ete) FOR [tread Te Re MS |toknead RS to go to bed tS oe a> 2 saat [Bates todoonesbest |S > YU |MAlLUET i The ~F form the ~3-F form of (15 2A, verbs ‘The use of the auxiliary ~ FF is a feature of keigo (see p. 213), and makes the level of speech polite. For a discussion of politeness levels and the use of ~¥ F versus plain forms, see the chapter on style (p. 10). The ~%&F form is made up of the conjunctive (pre- #7) stem and the auxiliary ~*, which can be made negative, past, past negative, etc. Making the ~% form of “#A, verhs To make the ~&F form of “##A, verbs, the final kana of the dictionary form changes from the ~ 5 line of the kana chart to the ~t) line, and the auxiliary ~# Tis then added: final ~ of the dictionary form is dropped, and the auxiliat ~&T is added: ms dictionary form | meaning with ~3 |~EF dropped _| form [as RS 0.608, to watch |B~ BET [BSS -RFS toot be~ [Beet ERS -RXS [tocar RA~ [ERE [BLURS - HAS [torcach wis [BLA~ [BLART Making the ~ 4 form of $+ and < 3 ot form of $4 is LEF. The~¥F formof < Sis Conjugation of ~ #3 ‘conjugation chart of ~£4 is given below:[22 vets form ending example meaning nonpast [~St est will go past ELE WEEE went negative [~RUA DeRtA won't go past negative |~EUA TUE |WEEEA TUR | didnt 90 volitional [~kU&> [WEKLED |levog0 Thereisalsoa~T formof ~#F, with the ending ~ LT, but this is relatively rare, It is used to connect sentences in formal spoken situations: © FMSLUSLBEVLESZELT. BKSUMES CY WELE ‘Subarashii omiyage 0 itadakimashite, makoto ni arigat6 gozaimashita | am sincerely grateful for the marvellous present | have recalved Other forms of ~&$ may be encountered on rare occasions, but the only common one not in the chart above is \}5 > L PUK t, the expression frequently used by staff in shops and businesses to greet customers. Use of ~ ES ‘The ~#F form is generally used in conversation rather than writing (except in the case of letters, where keigo including ~F is common). Iris used at the end of sentences only, and not in modifying clauses (see p. 209). ‘The auxiliary ~&F makes sentences polite in style (ee style), and so is very common in everyday conversational exchanges between adults who are not familiar with each other: © THEA, BMISA< CSVETD Sumimasen. Denwa wa chikaku ni arimasu ka Excuse me, le there a phone nearby? © ECMSSELED Doko kara kimashitaka Where do you come from? © A-ARDUTMOSSELK Osutoraria kara kimashita _I'm/I come from Australia sy 8 FVESHSUREHA Terebi o amari mimasen © RICFREBAELA ImOto nitegami okakimashita | wrote letter to my sioter ~# L & 5 is an equivalent of the volitional form (see below), and ig used with the meaning ‘Let's ...”: © -@IcHeELES Issho niikimashd Let's go together © Ue, S525MUELES Ja, sorosoro kaerimashd Right! Let's go home 3 L & 3 can be followed by the question particle # to seek agreement with a proposal: * BREANELLID Ocha oiremashdka Shall make tea? FA with the question particle # is a polite way of offering Something or extending an invitation: © T-E-ERAEHAD __ K6hii onomimasen ka + -Hictektam __Issho ni tkimasen ka Idon't watch much TY Would you like a coffee? Shall we go together? 1 The ~7¢1) form ‘This is an auxiliary that is attached to the conjunctive (pre-€F) ‘stem, and gives the meaning of ‘want to’. Itis used to make ‘Statements about the speaker or writer. ~7¢4) is a sentence final form, and so does not need C$ in the plain style, although itis followed by C+ in the polite style (see p. 10) * REAACTALUTS Rainen Nihon ni ikitai desu Iwant to go to Japan next year * ZhURLOoKh, ERHEK q Sore wa tanoshikatta ne. Mata ikitai That: was fun.| want to go again!l 34 | Verbs ‘The particle marking the desired object is usually 4 , but is also found, especially where the feeling is very strong and an effort has to be made in order to bring about the desire: © SRI—AY BRAKE Konban ramen ga tabetai na Tonight |want-to.eat ramen ° KETEMFEMRLEN Daigaku de seibutsugaku o benkyS ‘shitai | want to study biology at university Conjugation of ~7=1' JEU conjugates in the same way as + adjectives to form negative, past, and past negative sentences, etc.: form |meaning ending example plain want to. ~kW Wee negative |don'twantto | ~%<7rby Wer 9 ([itny EG MG — |toread o> eke #2: #2 towait: Dots ies 5 BEA verbs ERS: BRS | teat remove final & [EX 3S RS to 9ee, towatch |remove final S | % ‘The conjunctive stem of $4 is L, and the conjunctive stem of - BS to think bb2T #2 - 2 towait EoT $2 -8D [to hold, to have bot ES -WS-MS — |totake Lor, [OS RS ‘to ride, to travel (on/by) | DT The verbs & 5 - M5 ‘to ask’, ‘to enquire’ and = 5 +9 -E5 “toentreat’, “to beg’ have the~T forms £5 T and <5 T fespectively. The ~T forms of these verbs are relatively uncommon. ‘Merhs ending in~ts , ~~, ~i ‘The final kana of the dictionary form is dropped, and Art is |, and Ay ps dictionary form meaning ST form SG Rt toread FAT toemile (RAAT tofly EAT torejoice, tobe delighted [EBA ‘to die LAT[20 vers Verbs ending in ~~ The final ¥ of the dictionary form is dropped, and LT is added: dictionary form meaning ~T form et - BS talenad PUT eae to speak (LT Verbs ending in ~<, ~: A final < of the dictionary form is dropped, and °C is added. A final Le (honorific), depending on the level and style (see p. 213 and p. 10): * RBCS. MFCLTHVEFOCEREESE _ Saito desu. Rusu ni shite orimasu node dengon o dozo This is Saito, lam out, 60 please leave a message BATA COWIEATUS DLeEWET HD Suzuki sensei wa kono hen ni sunde irasshaimasu ka "Do you live around here, Professor Suzuki? 1s Which are usually or rarely used in the ~C.\ form e verbs with implied continuous meanings tend to be used inthe ~T form with (\. Among the most common of tt to > TATHS ‘tollive (in) W2EhtS ass > IF2EZAUTHS tobe married 62 i> > BTS to hold, to have LS: > LoThS ‘toknow 25 BS > 32THS tosell WEES < <> (AESUTHS — towork — DEHS “HHS > DEBTHS —towork BERS -HAS > BERTHS to remember[Lee tvete © BHMERORPRATHETD Kare ga nani o itta ka oboete imasu ka Doyou remember what he said? © SS-kARMLTUST Mira san wa kekkon shite imasu Me Miller is married The verb LS + #1 ‘to know’ is used in the ~T form with 403 when positive, but not when negative: ° CRREOBMBSEMS CHET ‘Satd sensei no denwa bango o shitte imasu ka Do you know Professor Sato’s phone number? © OUR, MUHA. BRATMUTC ES lie, shirimasen. Jimusho de kite kudasai No, | don't (know it). Please ask at-the office Ifa question with US mentions previously unknown, information, then the answer needs to be in the past negative form, and not the ~T form with WS: * BM Mbehé HeAOTISOS MOTUELEMD Kare ga Kaoru chan to tsukiatte iru no 0 shitte ‘imashita ka Did you know that: he's going out with Kaoru? © WA, MUEHACLE lie, shirimasen deshita No. | didn't know ‘The verbs & % ‘to exist’, ‘to be’, ‘to have’, 1 ‘to exist’, ‘to be’, and) + #4 ‘to need’ are not used in the~T form with WS. Potential forms (see potential form) are not used with ~TUS. However, T&S in the sense of ‘to be completed’, “to be ready’, can be used with~ TS: + SAAR TS Gohan ga dekite iru Dinner is ready Verbs of motion inthe ~T form + (\S When (1 follows the~T form of \<, < S,or PAS, it shows that a state is continuing, and is often translated into English with ‘has gone’, ‘has come’, ‘has returned’: Verbs |47 J EARSUCTOTURT ‘Shujin wa kaisha ni ite imasu My husband has gone to work EALSIRICMDTHS ‘Shujin wa mo ie ni kaette iru My husband has already come home the sentence below, the in-laws have come (and are still here): 8 BORRMRTUTARIL UCT i __Tuma no kazoku ga kite ite taihen isogashii desu ___ My wife's family are here 50 we are very busy! ‘The ~C form + verbs of giving and receiving ‘The verbs (4 ‘I give’, < 714 ‘(someone) gives me’, 655 ive’, and other verbs of similar meaning are used with the _ = form when there is some sense of a benefit being given ‘or received by the action taking place (see pp. 94-95). In the following sentences, the verb is translated as ‘tell’ in Doth cases, but the Japanese equivalents differ. Japanese requires _ ‘verb of benefit’ to be used, especially when both the giver and ‘the receiver of the action are in polite face-to-face discussion (first example), or where the speaker feels that she or he has benefited some way (second example): TV ORUMERERA THIFS Anya no atarashii jUsho o oshiete ageru Iwill tell you Anja’e new address © FLY ORUUEMERATSNSEWUELE ___ Anya no atarashii jUsho o oshiete kureru to iimashita Heald he would tell me Anja’s new addres ‘the same way, the verb % 5 5 “to receive’ is used following a Ee testto sow tharthe speaker or writer has benefited by e's action. This usage is often translated in English as {someone} to... ’, or ‘have someone do. ..": 8 ECM REMNTESS ‘Gakusei ni renrakusakio kaite morau Get the students to write down their contact details epg[8 yes © BMALRGS boc F< RTOSVELSES Jikan ga shinpai nara motto hayaku kite moraimashd IFyou're worried about time, let's get them to come earlier © BPAAICFROARBEF ry ILTOSI Tanaka san ni tegami no Nihongo o chekku shite morau Ill get Me Tanaka to check the Japanese in my letter Notice that the last sentence above may not be acceptable if Ms. ‘Tanaka is of higher status (such as the speaker's boss), or if she is actually present, in which case the verb is likely to be the more polite (E7E< (see pp. 94-95 and p. 213): ° BRAACFROAABEF sy OUTUAES ‘Tanaka san ni tegami no Nihongo o chekku shite itadaku Fl get Me Tanaka to check the Japanese in (my) letter The following examples show other situations where the action of the verb is seen as beneficial to the speaker or listener, and so the ~T form is followed by a verb of giving or receiving: * AYEBNTLENELL. RLTCHECAD Pen o wasurete shimaimashita. Kashite kuremasen ka Ihave forgotten my pen. Could you lend me one? © BUSABL BOTTLE OR Gomen ne. Kare ni md itte shimatta Sorty. Ive already told him (and | shouldn't have) _ Inthe spoken language, ~ 5 3 as a contracted form of ~TL “2 is very common. Verbs with a~T form of ~AvT have the “contracted form Ue 5 * SBRX5 25 Zenbu tabechau Iwill eat it all * E-WER< SAMA POR Biiruwo takusan nonjatta | drank loads of beer The ~T form+ 4B “The use of the verb 44 ‘to see’ after a~T form is equivalent to ‘the English ‘try to ... and see what happens’; © CHERNTATSEAW Kore otabete mite kudasai Please taste this and eee * BHERLAYea—s THO THR ‘Shukudai o atarashii konpyata de utte mita tried using the computer to do my homework * RESTO SPENT I THR Ichido dake demo ii kara Chagoku e Ite mital Even ifit’s only once, | want to go to China and see what faite ime ‘The ~T form +S The basic meaning of the verb & % is ‘to exist’. The use of a~T form with 4% shows that something was affected by an action, and it still exists in that state. This structure occurs mostly with ‘Atansitive verbs (see pp. 87-91), but notice that the particle used ‘4s to show a subject, rather than € to mark a direct object: * Sim cTHs Mado gaaketearu The windowie openee © BAMRRCRNTHS ‘Shukudai ga kokuban ni kaite aru The homework le written on the blackboard ~ Td often occurs with the adverb > ‘already’: © PRESS DTHS ‘Yahan wo mé tsukutte aru \ have already made dinner ‘The particle & in the sentence above shows that the emphasis is on the person who made dinner. The particle 4 could also bbe used, in which case the emphasis would be on dinner being ready: © SRMSIOTHS ‘Yahan ga mo tsukutte aru Diner's already made ‘The agent (the person who does the action) is not usually explicitly stated, but implied by the context. The ~T form + 5 < ‘The basic meaning of the verb #< - HE< isto put’. The~T form with @&< shows that an action is done to prepare something for future use: * E-LERPLTHEST Biiru ohiyashite okimasu | will chill the beer ROLMORFEBUTHEET Boku no namiae no kanjic kaite okimasu Vl write down my name in kanji (For you) AA ORRO ROI MML THOTT SEW ‘Ashita no shiken no tame ni benkyé shite okanakereba naranai | must etuidy in order to be ready for the exam tomorrow. WITHUTCL ES Nimotsu 0 doa no chikaku ni olte olte kudasai Please put the bags by the door ‘Compare the following pairs of sentences which show the difference between ~T#% and ~T8<: © ROMEAOFVHY bee THAET toto no tanjobi no purezento o katte okimasu Iwill buy my brother a birthday present (in advance) Otto no tanjdbi no purezento ga katte arimasu “thave bought my brother's birthday present: MAEMWUTHUTHIFET KE . ZU 0 kaite oite agemasu yo Tildraw a map for you (to take along) SHRM UTHVETE Ochizugakaite arimasu yo The map is ready Cform +295 after a~T form shows that the action of the verb is, d before a subsequent event or action begins: RPMS TPSBLELES ‘Shokuji ga owatte kara hanashimasho Let’s talk about it after we finish the meal WEALTH SRMABICAU ELE _Kikoku shite kara shishoku katsudé ni hairimashita or Ineturned home (to my own country),| started looking for 3 form + (£4 UMF7EU\ + SRW + EH (72) This structure expresses negative obligation ‘must not..." © KIFC SMI TSF a Tabakoo sutte wa ikenai You mustn't smoke ARIF CHS TEOEL ori dake de itte wa dame da yo | You mustn't go on your ownl palso ~7E< TIEUMI TEL and MeSH SB + AIFS 75) under ~%51 below. ~T form + (¢ sis often used when making suggestions ‘how about EHR SMBIC2 DHA TILED TID e nara dOji ni futatsu tanonde wa db desu ka that cage, why not order two at the same time?[sa tverts ‘The E5 CFM can be implied and omitted: * SHKOER, TABS Tt? Kyo wa dame da na. Dewa ashita itte wa Well, it’s no good today, then. OK, how about going tomorrow? ~T form + & The addition of $ toa ~~ T form gives a structure meaning ‘even. elves MhldoTH1IATETEBWNK Ganbatte mo ichinichi de wa dekinai yo Even if | really work at it, | can't do it in one day PrV—-HREIMD TOTS YATIA VENI MR Ferii dai o haratte mo Furansu de wain o kau hd ga yasui Even after paying for the ferry, wine is cheaper in France ‘The addition of (1) gives a structure used to ask or grant permission: ¢ BREHOTHNUTTD Denwa o tsukatte mo ii desu ka May luge the phone? © EDERATOULE Dozotabetemoliyo You may start eating For (&<) T followed by ©, see below under #2< TS. For more on ®, see the chapter on particles (pp. 167-169). i The ~7z(.\ form This is the negative form, and is made by adding the auxiliary ~fE(\ toa verb stem. ~724) is a conjugating part of speech, i.e. it alters its endings to show negatives and other forms. (For more information on auxiliaries, see p. 181.) Making the ~75\ form of C7 line to the ~& line before adding ~#£1. Verbs ending in ~3 in their dictionary form change this to~4 (rather than ~d). There is one very important irregularity: the verb @H has the ~/2U) form of 7) (rather than % 57241), The following chart shows the changes, with examples: rhs | 55 form | meaning change in |~724\ form final kana to meet 3 > blSbeu to receive 3 > bl eb5bmt towrite <> Pl ppA 0 hurry <> milneaA tolend > &lPen to speak F > siidmann towait D> RFRA todie tm > | LAY tofly & > el eléau toread b> FteRW D - NS - MS |totake % > 5le5RW todoone'sbest |S > 6 l MAIZE toexist, tobe, | (irregular) [70 to have the ~72.1) form of (\57EA, verbs final~& ofthe dictionary form of (\ #¢/v verbs is replaced vith ~72 11: meaning ~7RU form tosee,towatch | IEL\ togetup Ben toeat RR B-MTS- ATS | toattach DIF ‘to turn on, to light Zz. conjugates by dropping the final \ before adding endings the past tense and other forms, such as ~f 5 and ~Id: _Nanimoiwanakatta | didn’t say anything[so tverts © NAMR1 ORCAMIREIDY—THEELLS Basu ga ato jup-pun konakattara takushii de ikimasho Ifthe bus doesn't come in 10 minutes, let's get. a taxi © BBFEORTIERRLET Ashita tegami ga konakereba denwa shimasu Ifthe letter doesn't come tomorrow, | will telephone For more on ~t£ and ~25, see conjunctive particles. ~" as an alternative to ~7z4. ‘The ending ~¥" instead of ~/E4 is an older form of negative that is still quite commonly used: © BRIARICMST. TIESHCWELE ‘ShUmatsu wa ie ni kaerazu zutto kaisha ni imashita He wasin the office the whole weekend, without going home at ail ‘The formation of the negative of ¥ 4 in this way is irregular, being er: © QUAYAFAL—-Yavees, 25HEMARLE Kurisumasu dekoréshon 0 sezu ni-{G-go-nichi o mukaemashita We had Christmas Day without putting up any decorations The ending ~¥ is commonly followed by IZ to mean ‘without . ing’. For examples, see the section on ~7E4)T below. Uses of the ~7r(\ form This form is used for negative sentences in the plain style {see p. 10): © WET A-WERERW Watashi wa aruk6ru 0 nomanai © AKVELe Ty bMAadDBW Zubon to jaketto ga awanai The trousers and jacket don't match Like the dictionary form, the ~754\ form can also be used ina modifying clause in complex sentences (see p. 209): * BRET /EBSPACRELAVARLF CASAL) Mainichi piano wo chanto renshd shinai hito wa j6zu ni naranai People who don't practise the piano properly every day will not improvel | don't drink alcohol Yerbs 57 | + PPSRWVESARICMUT< EEN _ Wakaranal toki wa boku ni kiite kudasai _ Please ask me when you don't underetand (something) Constructions using ~7r1. AST "The form ~7z< T can be used as a negative equivalent of the >T form (see ~T form). The ~/z< T ending shows a cauise or ‘Teason, often shown in English translations with ‘because’ or ‘as": © FYUATIP IIL Y MMAR < CRUEL Igirisu dewa yappari densha ga konakute komarimashita Iwas in trouble because the train didn't come —as youd expect in England! * BAMiME in informal spoken language58 | Verbs © fToR< be Ikanakucha [must go. IES THU and ~B #¢ is form [meaning final kana [~% form «| dropped 25 tomeet b~ bok 3-85 to think bb~ Bok ie) towait ~ Fok #2 tohold,tohave [S~ bok “WS “MS |totake é~ Ese RS to ride, to travel |Q~ Ook (on, by) everbs & 3 + PIS ‘to ask’, ‘to enquire’, and 23 “to entreat’, ‘to beg’ have ~#t forms of & 3% and 23%, tively. The ~7 forms of these verbs are relatively nbs ending in ~&3, ~ 36, ~2a kana of the dictionary form is dropped, and AE is form — [meaning final kana | ~7 form dropped toread &~ EAE CBRE [to omile iZA~ [ISIERAE RE to fly es tne RSBCR- BR | torejoice, tSc~ [ESCA tobe delighted to die l~ LAKThe final ¥ of the dictionary form is dropped, and L-# is added: dictionary form | meaning final kana |~f= form dropped bt - RT tolend Dm DLE (dat - BT tospeak | ldtz~ (aU Verbs ending in~<,~< ‘The final < of the dictionary form is dropped, and \\# is added, A final < is replaced by (WE: dictionary form | meaning final kana |~7 form dropped DSBS towrite D~ DUE BK B< =< |tonork kb~ [RSE VEC: BS — [tohuny ne~ VEE OS RS tosmell,to sniff |7>~ DUE The only irregularity is that the verb ¢< ‘to go’ has the~ft form D2 (and not (14%), Making the ~7 form of (\5 7A, verbs The final of the dictionary form is dropped, and % is added: dictionary form meaning % dropped ~f form B25 -RES togetup |Be~ bar RNS BRS toeat hn~ ERK Uses of the ~ 7 form The ~% form is used for past sentences in the plain style, and shows that an action has been completed: ° MARBERE Kind eigaomita | sawa film yesterday WBS ANSAFESRL COMBHICA DIE Isobe san wa daigaku 0 sotsugyd shite gaimushé ni haitta 'eobe graduated from university and joined the foreign ministry RBS AGM L H CRAIC Amano san wa tenshoku shite ginkoin ni natta ‘Amano changed jobs and became a bank clerk Patt vesob erm 9 2IcRBLE Jonasan to At-chan ga ky0-|0-ni-nen ni kekkon shita Jonathan and Aveuko | married in 1992 MREALRERO TREBLE Endo san wa shigoto o yamete sh6setsu o kaita Endo gave up work and wrote a novel SBME Yohengadekita Suppers ready! 1 ~# form can be used within complex sentences as part of a idifying clause (see p. 209): AE TUB LERMNEDY 2 LBM Oe Daigaku de benkyd shita tokeigaku ga yatio yaku nitatta ‘The statistics course | studied at university finally came in useful AAPRBERSAATRAE HE RICMU ANE Zukobu eiga kantoku wa Nihon de mita né 0 sakuhin ni toriireta | The film director Zhukov incorporated the Noh Theatre he had seen in Japan into hie work 1 ~% form is also used for the instant when something is loticed, realized, or discovered: MP IORT y bICMHEANRAEITE Bok! be! Tashika kono poketto ni saift 0 ireta n da kedo... Ah, atta! \was oure | put the wallet in this pocket ... Ah, here it isl BS. BSC KTMMESE. POH! Hayaku, hayaku doa ga shimaru zo. Yattal Quickly, quickly! The door's about,to shutl We made it![Lest verts seine ever, in some cases a verb describing an action can express When #5 follows the ~# form, it makes the situation described continuing action and completion with ~T 4: by the verb the reason or cause for what follows. (Care should be MAISG 5 ORMERKTHS taken not to confuse this with ~C +45, discussed above): __ Kenta wa mo gohan o tabete iru + REMMEOAMSE? = Kaoruwamonete iru Kaoru's already gone to bed MEERAKU LTRROMY EHO THE © mBSILT OMICRE Zasshi 0 yondari shite kanojo no kaeri o matte ita Kacruwayiijini neta... Kanna went ta bed at 10- Iread magazines and 60 on while | waited for her to come home With verbs which describe actions, ~C4\% usually indicates. his structure is also used with actions of opposite meaning which continuing action: hank a8 iY. DSORYLELE + MALS CMEMKTHS a s Herjeeselvtliaiianyd tebete ra’- Kenta le axting Naitari warattari shimashita _| wae laughing and crying[66:1 verbs © RVEMIFKY, MOLY LATS ay Doa 0 aketari shimetari shinalde kudasai Stop opening and closing the door ~kS This is a conjunctive particle thatis used to join sentences, and add the meaning ‘if’ or ‘when’ to the first clause. Its formed by adding 5 to the ~& formofa verb: + WAMRS PAIR IKS. CHEBLT t+it fazntele #2: tonait [2 > T+lt Exdrd ‘The use of ~(¢ is dealt with in the section on conjunctive particles (p. 129). I The potential form Potential verbs show that someone can do something or that something is possible. aking the potential form of 7:4, verbs Potential form of 7A, verbs is made by changing the last na of the dictionary form from the > line to the & line of the ina chart and adding &: meaning [change in [potential final kana __| form to buy 2 > A_ [mas fain <> [ngs] toread & > 6 [kbs to take S > hn lens Making the potential form of (\ #2A, verbs Potential form of (157 verbs is made by removing the last a of the dictionary form, and adding ~ 541. In spoken ese, ~ 541 Bis often contracted to~H3: meaning | final kana | potential dropped form ‘tocat EX~ ERSAS tolend DU~ DYSNS onjugation of potential verbs ‘verb in the potential form becomes a new verb in its own right, th ~7z1\, ~f, ~#4,, conditional, and ~T forms, etc, tential verbs conjugate regularly as (\7¢A, verbs. The chart slow shows some of the possible variations in the potential verb BA - HAS ‘to be able to buy’, which has been formed from he verb 5 - 5 “to buy’: Example meaning DAB cant buy DART can buy. DAR could buy negative PARDO couldn't buy PAT could buy, and ..[os tects The potential forms of 4 and < S The potential of $4 is T& . The potential of < 4 is C5NS (often contracted to 244 in spoken Japanese). T#% can be used with certain nouns, such as the names of languages, sports, musical instruments, etc., to indicate ability: ETI RCEET Piano gadekimasu {can play the piano ° A-ALEAWBABMCES Kakamu san wa Nihongo ga dekiru Mr Kirkham can epeak Japanese Verbs that do not have potential forms ‘The following verbs are not generally used in the potential form: DPS -RMPS — tounderstand LO:ms ‘toknow bs to exist, to have, tobe WS - BS tobe neceseary WS + BS) to exist, to be Intransitive verbs describing states, such as those listed in the chart of transitive and intransitive verbs (see pp. 87-91), are not generally used in the potential form. Uses of the potential form Potential verbs show that a person etc. can do something, or that something is possible: * BETIVEs-PMR OYE YTAAOMBORSHET __ Rondon de Nihon no eiga mo miraremasu Ih London, you can even eee Japanese films | BAICWTS BBC =a—2ABITS ___ Nihon ni ite mo bii bii shii nydsu ga kikeru __ Even (if you are) in Japan you can hear the BEC news +15 41% is used to talk about the occurrence of phenomena or cumstances: TSF AB) EWS ERT IREPSARLRSNS ‘Sake’ to iu kotoba wa Ainugo kara kita to mirareru The word ‘cake’ (=‘ealmon’)ie eeen as having come from the Ainu language form ~£%54TU indicates a provisional judgement: ABORAUHEEE OBREE RENTS __ Kaji no genin wa tabako no suigara da to mirarete iru A cigarette end deems to have been the cause of the fire No, |ean’t read kanji[2011 vere The intransitive verbs 42 % ‘be visible’ and & = A.S “be ee audible’ suggest that something can be seen or heard without final kana on any effort, or that this is inevitable in a certain situation (see pp. 87-91): eee eaed ae ‘to take — + HEA, MHOFORALTD Sores es Minasan, kokuban no ji ga miemasu ka £ay, Can everyone ee the writing on the blackboard? DSB towrite |< > & [Pons © BIBSIECASWMCMLTS KEN, ES MCAEA : Mé chotto Okii koe de hanashite kudasai, Yoku kikoemasen WSL verbs Pleace speak more loudly. | can't hear you very well EXS-RRB tot (|S > 5 [RXBHS * S96 LD EMI< EMOASSTE LS -MS ‘to know > 56 [b5ns Mo chotto chikazuku to kikoeru hazu da we 40 a bit closer, we should be able to hear There is also a way of expressing possibility with CE MT#S following the dictionary form of a verb. For more on this, see the section on & & (seep. 126 and p. 206) Ie passive of $H is EHS, and the passive of < Sis <5HS. of the passive form e passive can be a counterpart of an active sentence, and efore similar to the English active and passive sentences low: RBSAMBEAERSELE ‘Abe san wa Yamada séin o buchimashita Mr Abe hit Mr'Yamada! WESABE AIC RANE LE ‘Yamada san wa Abe san ni butaremashita Mr Yamada was hit by Mr Abel the active sentence, Mr Yamada is the direct object, marked ith , but becomes the subject, marked by (, in the passive itence. Mr Abe is the subject, marked with (z, in the active tence, but becomes the agent in the passive semtence, marked ith I ‘The agent does not need to be mentioned if itis not important: RABLT S UFCBTONE Todai-jiwa nana-hyaku go-j0-ichi-nen ni taterareta ‘Todai Temple was buitt in 751AD. jere the agent is shown in passive sentences, it can be marked ith either Ic or [Ck > T without a significant difference in -aning, although the latter is more formal. If a passive is used | The passive form Ina sentence with an active verb, the subject performs an action, but when the verb is passive, the subject of the sentence has some kind of action performed on it. active verb: The dog ate the sausage, passive verb: The sausage was eaten by the dog. Making the passive form ‘The passive is formed with the auxiliary (5) 114. All CA, verbs change the final kana of the dictionary form to the & line, and then add 41%. (Verbs ending in 5 change it to 4 and add 2S.) WBA verbs drop the final 8 and then add 5S[22 vers to say who wrote books, films, music, etc., then [£3 T is required, although the passive is not used in this way as much as itis in English: © LOFESLUELI—-FIRE—Y 7 LEK THES nk Kono subarashii serenade wa MBtsuaruto ni yotte sakkyoku sareta This wonderful serenade wae composed by Mozart ‘The particle #5 can also be used as an equivalent of ‘by’ when an item, request, etc. comes from the agent: © ERPSRBOBAEKOSHE Keisatsu kara ssa no kyryoku o tanomareta My cooperation in the investigation was requested by the police Things made offfrom ... The passive is not generally used to describe what things are made from. Instead, the particle T is used where the material does not change in form, but where the material does change in form, either 5 orT can be used. Notice that the choice of kanji for the verb 2< & in the following examples reflects this: © RAGMHTHS Shakuhachi wa take de tsukuru Shakuhachi (Japanese flutes) are made of wood * BISKD SES ‘Sake wakome kara tsukuru Sake is made from rice The indirect passive ‘The passive in Japanese can be used to suggest that something is, perceived negatively, a use that has no real equivalent in English. ‘This indirect passive use is sometimes called the ‘adversative’ or ‘suffering’ passive. The direct object of the active sentence is not converted into a subject, but retains the particle @ andis used with a passive verb. The agent is marked with the particle [c: * AVIEMREBENELL Suri ni saifu o nusumaremashita Mywallet was stolen ky a pickpocket: (cayvea-s—emene oO 0 ni konpydita o kowasareta The children broke my computer = agent can sometimes be omitted if the context makes it clear. following example, itis not stated exactly who trod on my although it was clearly fellow passengers: RMLBECIASEEMEHE _ Boku wa densha de san-kai mo ashi o fumareta “When | wae on the train, my feet: were trodden on three times! ‘negative perception of an event expressed with an indirect sive is sometimes clear from the use of expressions such as AAAy ‘it’s terrible’, or = & 9% ‘I'm troubled’: BCAREN THO Haha ninydin sarete komatta __ Iwas avulwhen my mother went into hospital many cases, the reason for the negative nuance can be deduced sasily from the circumstances: P CAMEL WO ICRF ICAREN Konna isogashii no ni buka ni yasumareta __ Although we're so busy, my staff took time off (and so |had more work!) McBone ‘Amenifurareta | got wet in the rain! BREFALTNSECSSSA & + 3 [Wd USK [tog ([< > = + 9 [hed (ga - EF |tospeak |F > € + 5 [ltwed KO-+HO |tonat [> > € + 5 [RES SO:RC [torad |G > 6 + 3 [£65 £3 - MS Cea the volitional form of (\ 72 A, verbs itional form of (\ 7A, verbs is made by removing the last. form |meaning final kana | volitional dropped _| form RX | tocar ER~ [ERED “RS to.go to bed, to sleep | ta~ tks B+ BES |toget up be~ bets HS to s¢¢, to watch be~ HED ing the volitional form of $4 and <4 of the vt ional form RNICRREMHS, SECCRED Ekimae ni kissaten ga aru, Asoko de ad ®3fTcS MOiko Let’ego | 835m MOikoOka Shall we go? » RATHITLID _ Yonde ageyd ka Shalll| read tt to you? ~£ form above): Ue, BAKOUTELEL ESD Ja nan ni tsuite hanashimashé ka Well, what: hall we talk about? addition of the particle # can add to the nuance of suggestion: volitional of $4 is U&S, The volitional of < 3 is C5. ‘volitional form shows the speaker's proposed intention: ‘There's a coffee shop in front of the station. Let's meet there is can sometimes be an offer of help (see pp. 47-49): fe polite-style equivalent of the volitional is ~# Lx 3, and is is very common, especially for offers (see the section on the[82 1vers ° THRELEID Dewaitadakimashd ka Right, hall we (start to) eat? ‘The volitional is often used with~& 63+ EBS, literally ‘Ithink ll...” Itcan sometimes be translated into English as “have decided”: + REOBARAHCSCRUET Raiinen no natsu Nihon ik® te omoimasu Ihave decided to go to Japan next year Se—SemMRLESLBOTUS Kotoshi isshdkenmel benkyé shlyé to omotte iru \"ve decided to study hard this year DIVAMICS EBS THK ERREDN OHM Dok Furansu e iké to omotte ita kedo kekkyoku doko e mo ikanakatta | hadfintended to go to France, but inthe end | didn't go anywhere: When the intention of the speaker is less fixed, the particle #» ean be used before 8% 5: * REORASNACIMEBUVET Rainen no natsu Nihon e iké ka to omoimasu lam wondering whether to go to Japan next summer The volitional form can be used with the question particle #», or just marked with rising intonation, when seeking agreement (see p. 33): ° 12K, SSRLSD Janiisugi da. Mo neyo ka It's after 12. Shall we go to bed? ° 1 2RMEKE, SSBES Janiji sugida yo. Md neyd it’s after 12, Let's go to bedl When used with ~£$, the volitional form shows that an unsuccessful attempt was made, or that something happened just as the attempt was being made: ° MODCLAMMLITE HORM OK | Yom6 to shita ga muzukashisugite yomenakatta tried to read it but it was too difficult (=| couldn't) BRICFALESEFSERMBBICADTER _Kanojo ni kisu shiyé to suru to ani ga heya ni haitte kita was just about to kiee her when my brother came into the room e imperative and negative imperative ratives are forms used for giving commands, king the imperative form of =7< A, verbs imperative of 7A, verbs is formed by changing the final a of the dictionary form to the . line of the kana chart: meaning change in imperative final kana form §3°83 toy [5 > a lna W<-f<[t090 <> 5. [ug FT ltocpeak |F > # [ame 2-2 to wait eee et “BG [toad |G > © [kB £3-BS rota [8 > A len king the imperative form of (\ #2 Ay verbs The imperative of (\5 7A, verbs is formed by changing the final tod: dictionary form [meaning Tmperative form ERBRRS |tocat ERS aS - BS 10.90 to bed tosleap [tS BeS-BES_ [toactup Bas BS -RS to 809, to watch BS Making the imperative form of $ and < 5 The imperative of $4 is either LA or the less common tE. ‘The imperative of < is =[84 ters Making the negative imperative The negative imperative is formed in the same way for all verbs: the dictionary form is followed by 7. (Note that there is also a structure using the pre- &F form + Zz which is used for requests and commands, See p. 37.) dictionary form [meaning | negative imperative form ERB-*BNS [tocar ERB aes eT tospeak [tea yas Uses of the imperative and negative imperative ‘The imperative can sound very rough and angry, so requests and instructions are normally given using other forms, such as ~C + < EW) (see above). The imperative is restricted to giving orders in urgent situations, or where there is a clear hierarchy, e.g. when a parent speaks to a child: + S<#8S Hayaku okiro’ Hurry up and get-up! © Sob (AN) ch Kotchi (e) kot Come here! ‘The imperative of #8As1£% ‘to do one's best’ is often used to shout encouragement, e.g. to a team at sports matches: © min Gambare Go forit! ‘The negative imperative is used for urgent instructions and exhortations on signs and posters: © MSe. fe) Sawaruna.Abunai Don't touch! Danger ¢ £2. REBEON—LETN Aseru na! Anzen unten no aru 0 mamore Don't hurry. Drive according to the safety rules! are other, less abrupt-sounding structures, such as the $F form + 72% (\ , which are used for giving orders in most ns (see p. 37). ples are given below: MS 1 EMS = BYERS Xe ‘moru + agaru = moriagaru “topileup togoup toswellup,torise is + eS = maEteS hataraku + sugiru = hatarakisugiru towork tobeexcessive to overwork RS + We = UAT foru + kesu = torikesu totake toextinguich to cancel xe are a number of verbs that can regularly be added to .ctive forms to give new compound verbs. Verbs showing ement in particular directions (‘upwards', ‘downwards’, ards’, etc.) are very common: EVBIFS-MVLFS — toaccept (aplan, etc) DOF5SF +3 FSF — topull downwards/to unseat PEWNS + BANS tofillin(aformetc.) following list shows some of the elements most commonly in compounds, some of which have several meanings:[861 vers ending [meaning [example ‘meaning of ‘meaning | example example example ~H>- |tobein (sELBS - ‘to speak torotate HSEEDS~ | towalk around ee accordwith | L&D ‘together seHS BS - | tofinish £eBDS - ‘to finish reading ET: ltoretum |EVBEF- ‘to put back BS MARDS + (something) | RUBS DAF [toretum |F ‘jogging’, SA & 5 ‘study’, and TAD elephone’, can be made into verbs by the addition of $5. Many the verbs so derived use the particle € to mark the noun as the ect object: PRARIRSRLBILY yA-ETS Gakké ga owattara boku to Satoshi wa sakké o suru Satoshi and | play soccer after school BRYA yIe LET Maiasajoginguo shimasu | willjog every morning WEABBELTHET Kiyoshi kun wa shukudai o shite imasu Kiyoshi ie doing hie homework However, in some cases the verb does not have a direct object ked with &, and can appear as a single unit of noun+ ¥ :[22 terts ° 6RICE—S—(ICRBBLELE Roku-ji ni Piita ni denwa shimashita At 6 o'clock | eallled Peter © SRMULBETS CUD ORMNTLEVET San-jkan ijO unten suru to itsumo tsukarete shimaimasu | always get tired if| drive for more than three hours If there is some modifying element in front of the noun, then & must be used (see p. 206): © RROMRETS shiken no benkyé o suru study for an exam (= do some study for an exam) © CRORBETS gohan no junbi o suru prepare a meal (= do some preparation for a meal) Certain verbs such as HUTS » BFS ‘to love’, toe & in yrmal speech) is used: RRC. OVEvE. EbSMRUTIMD ‘Tokyo to Rondon to dochira ga takai desu ka Which is more expensive, Tokyo or London? BABEL, AX VBC. Cob HOLA? Nihongo to Supeingo to dotchi ga omoshiroi? Which Io more interesting, Japanese or Spanih? answer is given by adding [5 #f o the chosen alternative, the appropriate adjective: RRO MBVTH TokyG no hé ga takai desu BAMOIES HEELS Nihongo ne hé ga omoshirol Japanese is the more interesting (language) parisons with < 54, (ZL, and Bok mparisons such as ‘as cold as ice’ can be expressed with < 51 <1), meaning ‘extent’, ‘level’, following the noun with ich is being used for comparison. In negative constructions e.g. ‘notas hot as last summer’), the particle [&€ is used: OY EVISRR CSUR Rondon wa Tékyé gurai takai London is as expensive as Tokyo! Tokyo io the more expensive[20611 Adictves © AYE YOMMERRIZER< 20 EANSEBOEBULSBVEFKE Rondon no bukka wa Tékyé hode takaku nai io oireru to motto oishiku narimasu yo London prices are not.as high as Tokyo (prices)! It will taste even better if you put some sait in The adverb > & ‘more’ can also be used to show comparison: 6 MMSERICR< AS * DYEVismP oka, RRISGD CMITTE Roku-ji sugi wa ky ni samuku naru Rondon wa takakatta ga Tokyo wa motto takal desu yo After 6 o'clock it suddenly gete cold London was expensive but Tokyo ie (even) more expensive! PRORSARTLAMRMICAY KLE : 4iko no ato wa taihen deshita ga genki ni narimashita The ae ge . Itwas hard after the accident but I've got better ‘The superlative is the form of the adjective which expresses the : e highest degree, such as ‘biggest, "most beautiful’ most expensive’. Fen en neue aes ‘The Japanese equivalent of ‘most’ is }\51£A, (—%), literally it willook even prettier if you wear these shoes (with it) “number one’, and is placed in front of the adjective: 5b eo ekecmuTCeEW + HEC-BRRSATID Md chotto dkiku kaite kudasai Please write alittle larger ‘Sekai de ichi-ban takai kuruma wa nan desu ka What is the most expensive car in the world? AAO 1 SRSouitetwuces Nihon no ichi-ban yiimei-na yama wa Fujisan desu The most famous mountain in Japan ie Mt Fuji \djectives with irregular forms EU FG \e 72. adjective $42 U , meaning ‘the same’, is slightly irregular. ‘Questions giving three choices the end of a sentence it requires #© « C¥, but it does not need In questions where three or more choices are offered, these when it appears in front of a noun: choices are marked with the particle &., and the question word MOZMAOCE Ett is used: Musume no namae ga onajida ° BRBL, AN YBE, OL TRL, EnsRLUTID My daughter's name ie the same (as yours) Nihongo to Supeingo to Roshiago to dore ga muzukashii desu A FURECBALEOMCRUEE ka __ Igirisu to Nihon wa sono men de onajida Which is most difficult, Japanese, Russian, or Spanish? In that respect the UK and Japan are the same BIRMLAULAFE | Adverbial use of adjectives Kimi wa boku to onaji daigaku da ‘Msi a ipa eat ICRU Siscasine TLR You and | are at the same university ives can be used in front of a verb to describe a state ee: resulting from an action or a process. In such cases, the ~< form c pcyea mae we of U\ adjectives is used, and [< is added to # adjectives. This use a ga game person came three times is adverbial and is discussed in more detail in the chapter on a one adverbs (see pp. 119-120) e form #572 U-< is used to combine sentences:[298 1 aaiectves © BLEAseMe ACA < BRE Watanabe san wa Satd san to onajiku ryagakusei da Watanabe is an exchange student, the same ae Sato (ie) BPS +S, CB< > BX, aM BSS - SS ‘The three ( adjectives 52), £456), and S41) are not commonly used before nouns. Instead, the alternative noun forms ending in ~< are used. The particle 0) is needed to join them to the following nouns: * B 2Y ‘completely’ PISL IEW UBLT< EEL M6 chotto yukkuri hanashite kudasai Please speak more slowly RUMCT< DEF OPUENELE Kaimono ni iku no o sukkari wasuremashita | completely forgot o do the shopping! er types of adverb: st adverbs are used to introduce the speaker's judgement opinion (& 5 ‘somehow or other’, 6 3A ‘of course’), request by the speaker (* L ‘if, in that case’), or to emphasize Tequest or hope (t£0): very difficult:[4 aaverts © BLETH & ‘definitely’: © SROBUTL SS Tabun konaideshd Maybe she's not coming REEICABTSTL AD Rainen kitto gokaku suru desh He will definitely pase (the exam) next year, (don't you agree?) | Words which symbolize the sound or manner of an action Japanese has numerous words which imitate sounds, or describe the way something is done, or symbolize psychological states and feelings by their sound. Many words of this type can be used as adverbs to describe the manner in which something happens. They are often joined to the following verb or predicate by the particle &: © RBIS ILERMUTUR Inu ga wanwan to naite ita The dog was barking (woof woof’) KyAvembe Dossuntoochita. It dropped with a crash BIN Y EY ERNE Eta ga pakkin to oreta Rid ERK Chichi wa katto okotta The branch enapped with a crack Dad flew into a temper are also many adverbs of this type which do not require & with the following verb or predicate: RIZBABENSAS LOANS "Kare wa Nihongo o perapera shabereru He can speak Japanese fluently BERUROFE LID UB OK _ Kanojo ga boku no te o shikkari nigitta ‘She gripped my hand firmly BOF (CEMEME 2 LYBEOTHE ‘Densha no naka ni tskinkyaku ga gisshiri tsumatte ita ‘The commuters were jam-packed inside the train BAM RECS MA TISURMS AMOK dibun ga ittai doko ni iru ka sappari wakaranakatta Ihad absolutely no idea where | was Wo< URATCEEW Yukkuri yonde kudasai Pleace read it slowly Adverbials derived from adjectives phrases such as [$< 4% ‘eat quickly’, and UF MIC :t3 ‘read quietly’, the words ‘quickly’ and ‘quietly’ describe the er of eating and reading. Japanese adverbials of this type are ‘ved from adjectives, and in this way they are similar to the sh “ly’ suffix in words such as ‘quickly’ and ‘easily’. Some iples are given below, but they are strictly part of the \jugation and use of adjectives (see pp. 106-107). adjectives change the final (to <: BAM, TDSENB< + iF< ‘close’ and E< + WK “far’ are nouns ‘and take the particle [= when used adverbially. These words and their uses are discussed in more detail in the chapter on adjectives (seep. 108): ° RURIDE< CREATHRT Kazoku wa chikaku ni sunde imasu 4%. adjectives add the particle i © MRMBNICKS YT 14 TEP STHUST Kanojo wa sekkyokuteki ni borantia o yatte imasu She does her voluntary work enthusiastically © BANS ASAT AICEHLTHIS Ojiichan wa maiasa genki ni undo shite iru Grandad does his exercises energetically every morning My family ive nearby | Other adverbs and adverbials Certain common expressions are adverbial, and among these are KARAM ‘regrettably’, HLOFSE, BLALAS ‘probably, perhaps’ (with a tentative ending), and LEW ‘I'm back!, just now’: ° RSGMS. SASATH Zannennagara, kyo wa dame desu Unfortunately, it’s impossible today + OLOTSL, MOMSMPELNETA Moshikasuruto, ame ga furu kamo shiremasen Perhaps it’s going to rain © Husband: AS! Wife: BMUREW Tadaima —'mhomel ‘O-kaeri nasal Welcome back | Comparative and superlative of adverbs The comparative of adverbs is similar to the comparative of adjectives (see p. 104). Comparative of adverbs In English, the comparative of an adverb is formed with the word ‘more’ or with the addition of the suffix ‘-er’: [2201 Adverts ld you speak more quietly, please? he studies harder than | do ith Japanese, the item to which the comparison is being made ‘marked with & U, and the adverb itself doesn’t change: PALME V ES RBLET Kanojo wa watashi yori yoku renshd shimasu She practises more often than | do COMBOSRTH-AN-FYTEMEVBMICTES Kono kikal no o-kage de homu bakingu wa mae yori kantan ni dekiru Home baking can be done more easlly than before, thanks to this machine e adverbs and adverbials of degree can also be used to modify verbs to show comparisons: SoEMBL weakness’, and the same is true of Japanese. me The suffix ~& can be added to the stem of some adjectives to give noun meanings: adjective ‘meaning [derived noun | meaning BSE Kav [big BEE size Be heay _[8bE weight VSU- BW wide USE width, scale BIEL - BU [ead DLE sadness ~h ‘There are also a few nouns formed by adding the suffix ~# to an adjective stem: adjective meaning [derived noun | meaning BEW- HW sweet. BES sweetness SSUW- SUN | painful DRY FY retum, homecoming < toface > GE+Mz direction I< tocontinue > DI#- Me continuation 4S tofinioh > BEY + HY conclusion, finish Dt tolike, to preter > CMa - ta taste, preference SG toshrink > BBA RAH shrinking louns with special functions ‘small number of nouns can have a structural function in certain . There are some examples below to show how the meanings the nouns change in this use, but for more information, refer to section on nominalization (see p. 206). = is is used after the plain forms of verbs and adjectives, with ions of time: FAVAN WIRES when|went-to America ENSER when | eat/when eating BIWce when it’s hot DPVece when | was young ‘® can also be used following another noun, to which itis joined by the particle D:© FROLEE< BROMEMZELE Kodomo no toki yoku kyoryU no e 0 kakimashita When |was.a child, | often drew pictures of dinosaure ce Japanese uses = & ‘abstract thing’ after the plain forms of verbs to form a noun phrase, and this can often be translated into English with an “-ing’ ending (e.g. ‘watching’, ‘going’): * FVEERSCEMSTT Terebi o miru koto ga suki desu © PRAMAVC else < Ak Gakko ¢ ikanal koto wa yoku nal yo Not going to school is a bad thing (to do) When < & comes after the ~ form of a verb, it has the special use of referring to a past experience (see p. 60 and p. 206): + BICROKCEMSVETD Uma ni notta koto ga arimasu ka Have you ever ridden a horse? ccs Although the noun & £4 means ‘place’, it can be used after the plain forms of verbs to refer to an event which is just about to happen or has just happened. In this use it refers to a point in time: © BOISECSCH like watching TV Dekakerutokoro desu 'mJust about to go out © SRERKKETSTH ‘Yohanotabetatokoro desu | have Just eaten With a~TU4 structure, middle of . ..” something: * WEBMULTUSECZKMSb sé MOTH Ima denwa shite iru tokoro dakara chotto matte ne Just a minute - I'm on the phone £4 emphasizes being ‘in the [L226 1 Nouns YU 5, meaning ‘way, street’, is used after the dictionary form 7: form of a verb, or after a noun with @, to talk about the of doing something or way in which something happens: EME SMUICL RAL Watashi ga iu t6ri ni shi nasai PRA BYE Boku gaittatorida it’s just.as| eald RABOMY CB4UTS Setsumeisho no tori ni kumitateru Assemble as per the instructions Please do.as| tell you is used after the plain forms of verbs or adjectives to show there is a likelihood or expectation of something happening: (BSTC TCH Mo sugutsukuhazu desu They should be here shortly BPSASABRAWET CH Tanaka san wa ashita konai hazu desu I'm fairly eure that Tanaka won't be coming tomorrow oy shows the purpose or result of an action. It can follow the in forms of verbs: BAN < OMMBTSROTH Nihon e iku no wa benky® suru tame desu | The reason for going to Japan is to study CHSMMETSLOORMTH Kore wa insatsu o suru tame no kikal desu This is a machine for printing can also be used after another noun when joined by the cle : BBOKYD, AMEE Taifd no tame, ki ga taoreta Attree was brought down as a result of the typhoonl 128 | Nouns © HAOLORBLELE Bydki no tame kesseki shimashita | did not attend, owing to illness For Z20IC, see pp. 144-145, £5 To talk about how something seems to be, & 5 ‘appearance’ is used, following the plain forms of verbs and adjectives: ° HHMICR ABBE SAMHATISLSE ‘Sekai-tekini Nihongo ga hanaseru hito ga fuete iru yo da It seems that the number of people worldwide who can speak Japanese Is increasing ° BRB THLOIICH, HPSRULSKOA ‘Nihongo de hanashikaketa ga wakaranai yo datia | spoke to her in Japanese but che didn't seem to understand For & 3c, see pp. 146-147. | Nouns with the polite prefixes 4 and The style of a sentence can be changed to a more formal or polite register by using the prefixes & or < with certain nouns. For more on this subject, refer to the chapter on keigo (p. 213). | Nouns used as adverbs Some Japanese nouns can also be used as adverbs (see p. 111). This is most common with nouns referring to relative time such as & UK ‘tomorrow’, and tty Li 3 ‘last week’ etc., and with nouns of quantity such as #2 < & Av ‘a lot (of)’. The following sentences show the word 4 LU used first as a noun, and then as an adverb. * RAORRARUORSTH Ashita no jugyé wa tonari no kyéshitsu desu Tomorrow's class will be in the room next door * BURA CIMRARSNEA Moshiwake nai desu ga ashita koraremasen I'm very sorry, but (1) can't come tomorrow What is a conjunction? fons link words, phrases, or clauses. English pnjunctions include ‘and’, ‘but’, and ‘however’, and some pI nor. .."). Subordinating conjunctions and ‘because’ link main and “in order to’, yrdinate clauses. Japanese equivalents of English conjunctions ‘and’, ‘both’, ar’, and ‘neither’ are particles (for ¢ meaning ‘and’, ®, 6, nd 2, see particles). Some of the conjunctions given below can be described as noun and particle combinations. Others are njunctive particles, which are often considered as forms of verbs d adjectives. In addition, all of the ~T form group of endings, g.~T, ~%INT, ~7E< T, T, etc,, are conjunctions in that link phrases and sentences. These are discussed in the shapters on verbs and adjectives. |Conjunctive particles are several particles which are conjunctions in terms of their ition, but which are usually described in textbooks as either ‘of verbs (or adjectives), or as particles. Two of them, ~ 5 nd ~(£, cause changes in the form of the verb or adjective to fhich they are attached. They are included in the charts of forms or verbs and adjectives. ated 4:5 consists of the ~# form of the verb or adjective followed y 5. It joins clauses together and shows that one action begins before another action. In the following sentence, going to Japan scedes the visit to Kyoto:l 130 | Conjunctions and conjunctive particles © BANTORSRBCTALY Nihon e ittara Kyoto ni kitai When if | go to Japan, | want to go to Kyoto ‘The English translation of this sentence can be with ‘when’ or ‘i’, depending on whether or not a trip to Japan is being planned. A ‘wide range of relative time relationships can be expressed with ~#¢6, and there may be a choice as to the use of ‘if’ or ‘when’ (or indeed some other phrasing) in English: * RABRORORBLET ‘Tabeowattara denwa shimasu {will call you when | finish eating * CAERRNTDRSBRICACS Kondo Nihon e ittara onsen ni iko Next time we go to Japan, let's go to an oneen (hot epring) © ROMS TURE RAMAUTUSISTE Kare ga kaette itara denki ga tsuite iru hazu da Fhe is (has come) home, the lights should be on Note that £4376, from (xt) “good”, means “if you like’ © kMokS, BOERATSL RE Yokattara, motto tabete kudasai Please eat some more if you like! ~7¢ 5 in questions and suggestions ‘There is a common use of ~#:5 in ‘what should I do?” questions and in making suggestions in response, as illustrated by the following examples: ° ABBEODER 6 [cor ‘to-go <3 [ne to epeak t > # [eee to wait. 2, Pee[222 1 conjunctionsand conjunctive particles dictionary form [meaning changein [+~It form [meaning [~i%U form |~#iFhit final kana ‘adjectives 55-29 to mest 3 > A [bale LY RU [cold St hn ANKE : BS" RS tosee.towatch | > ti [etd BoS|toocr [Boba |BoSRTHE TS ‘todo a> fh [tne GB ltorad [EERO [kRMIHE KB RS ‘to come S > ih [xne togo [bE [DERI Uses of ~ tf RNS | tocar RABY Reis ‘The two clauses linked with ~t£ show a relationship where pees AB Brats the first action or situation must occur in order for the second statement or action to be true. In the following sentence, a cat todo Ura Liaise must be used in order to complete the journey in 90 minutes: tocome caw Cats * CHIE IORDMS Kuruma de ikeba ky0-jup-pun kakaru Htyou go by car, It takes 90 minutes In the examples below, the CDs must be cheap before the speaker will consider buying any, and it must be raining before a decision is made to cancel the match: © CD SRItUEROET Shildii wa yasukereba kaimasu IfCDs are cheap, Il buy some MORNE CRS ‘Ame ga fureba shiai ga chashi ni naru Ifit rains, the match will be cancelled Ifthe ~1 clause holds true, then the other event becomes true: © MBMNHIZAT EY FICTeEL ES Ashita harereba haikingu ni ikimashd, If it’s fine tomorrow, let's go hiking ~t with negative conditions ‘The addition of ~ Iz to negatives of verbs and | adjectives changes the ~#24Y ending to ~#a144U£ and the condition established with ~Iz becomes negative: CD ISR aITHIERUEEA Shiicii wa yasukunakereba kaimasen IFCDs aren't cheap, | won't buy any ERE AMRUIINLS ACTHAS PSL OR Sato san ga konakereba san-nin de shial o yaru shika nai HSato doesn't come, there's nothing for it but to play thematch | with three people RB SROR SHIRES Ashita tegami ga konakereba denwa shimasu ifthe letter doesn't. come tomorrow, Ill telephone also the section on the#Z4) form in the chapter on verbs where atic uses of ~ 7x (S41 are discussed, and (3 in the ter on particles for ~Ié ~IZE. lL MOE is an idiomatic structure meaning ‘I wish that . . .’: SrcMeTHIZLMIe Motto Benkyé sureba yokatta I wish I'd studied more!