Tung K.K. Partial Differential Equations and Fourier Analysis, A Short Introduction

Partial Dierential Equations
and Fourier Analysis | A

Short Introduction
Ka Kit Tung
Professor of Applied Mathematics

University of Washington
Preface
This short book is intended for a one-semester course for students in the
sciences and engineering after they have taken one year of calculus and one
term of ordinary differential equations. For universities on quarter systems,
sections labelled optional can be omitted without loss of continuity. A
course based on this book can be offered to sophomores and juniors.
Examples used in this book are drawn from traditional application areas
such as physics and engineering, as well as from biology, music, finance
and geophysics. I have tried, whenever appropriate, to emphasize physical
motivation and have generally avoided theorems and proofs. I also have
tried to teach solution techniques, which will be useful in a students other
courses, instead of the theory of partial differential equations.
I believe that the subjects of partial differential equations and Fourier
analysis should be taught as early as feasible in an undergraduates curriculum. Towards this end the book is written to present the subject matter
as simply as possible. Ample worked examples are given at the end of
the chapters as a further learning aid. Exercises are provided for the purpose of reinforcing standard techniques learned in class. Tricky problems,
whose purpose is mainly to test the students mental dexterity, are generally
avoided.
ii
Contents
1 Introduction
1.1 Review of Ordinary Differential Equations . . . . .
1.1.1 First and Second Order Equations . . . . .
1.2 Nonhomogeneous Ordinary Differential Equations .
1.2.1 First-Order Equations: . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2 Second-Order Equations: . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Summary of ODE solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4 Partial Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5 Exercise I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6 Solutions to Exercise I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7 Exercise II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8 Solutions to Exercise II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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1
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17
18
2 Physical Origins of Some PDEs

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Conservation Laws: . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1 Diffusion of a tracer: . . . . . . . .
2.2.2 Advection of a tracer: . . . . . . .
2.2.3 Nonlinear advection: . . . . . . . .
2.2.4 Heat conduction in a rod: . . . . .
2.2.5 Ubiquity of the Diffusion Equation
2.3 Random Walk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.1 A drunken sailor . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.2 Price of stocks as a random walk .
2.4 The Wave Equation . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5 Multiple Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6 Types of second-order PDEs . . . . . . . .
2.7 Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.8 Initial Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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CONTENTS
iv
2.9 Exercises
2.10 Solutions
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3 Method of Similarity Variables (Optional)

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Similarity Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 The drunken sailor problem solved . . . .
3.4 The fundamental solution . . . . . . . . . .
3.5 Examples from Fluid Mechanics . . . . . . .
3.5.1 The Rayleigh problem . . . . . . . .
3.5.2 Diffusion of vorticity . . . . . . . . .
3.6 The Age of the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.9 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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37
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4 Simple Plane-Wave Solutions

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Linear homogeneous equations . . . . . . . .
4.2.1 Three different types of behaviors . . .
4.2.2 Rossby waves in the atmosphere . . .
4.2.3 Laplaces equation in a circular disk .
4.3 Further developments (optional) . . . . . . .
4.3.1 The wave equation . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.2 The diffusion equation . . . . . . . . .
4.4 Forced oscillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.1 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.2 Subsoil temperature . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.3 Why the earth does not have a corona
4.5 A comment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6 Exercise I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7 Solutions to Exercise I . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.8 Exercise II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.9 Solutions to Exercise II . . . . . . . . . . . .
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53
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5 dAlemberts Solution
5.1 Introduction . . . . . .
5.2 dAlemberts approach
5.3 Example . . . . . . . .
5.4 Reflection . . . . . . .
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CONTENTS
5.5
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6 Separation of Variables
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 An example of heat conduction in a rod:
6.3 Separation of variables: . . . . . . . . .
6.4 Physical interpretation of the solution: .
6.5 A vibrating string problem: . . . . . . .
6.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.7 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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7 Fourier Sine Series

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2 Finding the Fourier coefficients . . . . . . . .
7.3 An Example: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4 Some comments: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5 A mathematical curiosity . . . . . . . . . . .
7.6 Representing the cosine by sines . . . . . . .
7.7 Application to the Heat Conduction Problem
7.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.9 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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83
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103
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. 105
. 109
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. 110
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. 113
. 115
8 Fourier Cosine Series

121
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
8.2 Finding the Fourier coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
8.3 Application to PDE with Neumann Boundary Conditions . . 123
9 Eigenfunction Expansion
127
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
9.2 Eigenfunctions and boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
9.3 Orthognality Condition for Xn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
10 Nonhomogeneous Partial Differential
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2 Eigenfunction expansion . . . . . . .
10.3 An example . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Equations
135
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11 Collapsing Bridges
141
11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
11.2 Marching soldiers on a bridge, a simple model . . . . . . . . . 141
11.3 Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
CONTENTS
vi
11.4
11.5
11.6
11.7
11.8
Resonance . . . . . . . . . .
A different forcing function
Tacoma Narrows Bridge . .
Exercises . . . . . . . . . .
Solution . . . . . . . . . . .
12 Fourier Series
12.1 Introdution . . . . . . .
12.2 Periodic Eigenfunctions
12.3 Fourier Series . . . . . .
12.4 Examples . . . . . . . .
12.4.1
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12.4.2
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12.4.3
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12.5 Complex Fourier series .
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145
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148
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151
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162
13 Fourier Series, Fourier Transform and Laplace

13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.2 Dirichlet Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.3 Fourier integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.4 Fourier transform and inverse transform . . . .
13.5 Laplace transform and inverse transform . . . .
Transform 165
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14 Fourier Transform and Its Application to Partial Differential

Equations
171
14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
14.2 Fourier transform of some simple functions . . . . . . . . . . 171
14.3 Application to PDEs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
14.4 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

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ii
Contents
1 Introduction
1.1 Review of Ordinary Differential Equations . . . . .
1.1.1 First and Second Order Equations . . . . .
1.2 Nonhomogeneous Ordinary Differential Equations .
1.2.1 First-Order Equations: . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2 Second-Order Equations: . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Summary of ODE solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4 Partial Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5 Exercise I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6 Solutions to Exercise I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7 Exercise II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8 Solutions to Exercise II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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1
1
1
7
7
10
11
12
14
14
17
18
2 Physical Origins of Some PDEs

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Conservation Laws: . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1 Diffusion of a tracer: . . . . . . . .
2.2.2 Advection of a tracer: . . . . . . .
2.2.3 Nonlinear advection: . . . . . . . .
2.2.4 Heat conduction in a rod: . . . . .
2.2.5 Ubiquity of the Diffusion Equation
2.3 Random Walk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.1 A drunken sailor . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.2 Price of stocks as a random walk .
2.4 The Wave Equation . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5 Multiple Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6 Types of second-order PDEs . . . . . . . .
2.7 Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.8 Initial Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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19
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25
26
26
27
27
29
30
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32
iii
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CONTENTS
iv
2.9 Exercises
2.10 Solutions
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3 Method of Similarity Variables (Optional)

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Similarity Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 The drunken sailor problem solved . . . .
3.4 The fundamental solution . . . . . . . . . .
3.5 Examples from Fluid Mechanics . . . . . . .
3.5.1 The Rayleigh problem . . . . . . . .
3.5.2 Diffusion of vorticity . . . . . . . . .
3.6 The Age of the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.9 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
34
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37
37
37
41
43
44
44
46
47
49
50
50
4 Simple Plane-Wave Solutions

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Linear homogeneous equations . . . . . . . .
4.2.1 Three different types of behaviors . . .
4.2.2 Rossby waves in the atmosphere . . .
4.2.3 Laplaces equation in a circular disk .
4.3 Further developments (optional) . . . . . . .
4.3.1 The wave equation . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.2 The diffusion equation . . . . . . . . .
4.4 Forced oscillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.1 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.2 Subsoil temperature . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.3 Why the earth does not have a corona
4.5 A comment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6 Exercise I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7 Solutions to Exercise I . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.8 Exercise II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.9 Solutions to Exercise II . . . . . . . . . . . .
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53
53
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56
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62
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64
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69
70
71
73
74
5 dAlemberts Solution
5.1 Introduction . . . . . .
5.2 dAlemberts approach
5.3 Example . . . . . . . .
5.4 Reflection . . . . . . .
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77
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CONTENTS
5.5
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6 Separation of Variables
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 An example of heat conduction in a rod:
6.3 Separation of variables: . . . . . . . . .
6.4 Physical interpretation of the solution: .
6.5 A vibrating string problem: . . . . . . .
6.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.7 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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7 Fourier Sine Series

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2 Finding the Fourier coefficients . . . . . . . .
7.3 An Example: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4 Some comments: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5 A mathematical curiosity . . . . . . . . . . .
7.6 Representing the cosine by sines . . . . . . .
7.7 Application to the Heat Conduction Problem
7.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.9 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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83
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103
. 103
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. 105
. 109
. 110
. 110
. 111
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. 115
8 Fourier Cosine Series

121
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
8.2 Finding the Fourier coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
8.3 Application to PDE with Neumann Boundary Conditions . . 123
9 Eigenfunction Expansion
127
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
9.2 Eigenfunctions and boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
9.3 Orthognality Condition for Xn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
10 Nonhomogeneous Partial Differential
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2 Eigenfunction expansion . . . . . . .
10.3 An example . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Equations
135
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
11 Collapsing Bridges
141
11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
11.2 Marching soldiers on a bridge, a simple model . . . . . . . . . 141
11.3 Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
CONTENTS
vi
11.4
11.5
11.6
11.7
11.8
Resonance . . . . . . . . . .
A different forcing function
Tacoma Narrows Bridge . .
Exercises . . . . . . . . . .
Solution . . . . . . . . . . .
12 Fourier Series
12.1 Introdution . . . . . . .
12.2 Periodic Eigenfunctions
12.3 Fourier Series . . . . . .
12.4 Examples . . . . . . . .
12.4.1
. . . . . . . .
12.4.2
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12.4.3
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12.5 Complex Fourier series .
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145
145
147
148
148
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151
151
151
153
156
156
158
160
162
13 Fourier Series, Fourier Transform and Laplace

13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.2 Dirichlet Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.3 Fourier integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.4 Fourier transform and inverse transform . . . .
13.5 Laplace transform and inverse transform . . . .
Transform 165
. . . . . . . . 165
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. . . . . . . . 166
. . . . . . . . 167
. . . . . . . . 168
14 Fourier Transform and Its Application to Partial Differential

Equations
171
14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
14.2 Fourier transform of some simple functions . . . . . . . . . . 171
14.3 Application to PDEs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
14.4 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
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Chapter 5
dAlemberts Solution
5.1
Introduction
Consider the wave equation in an infinite domain:

PDE: utt = c2 uxx , < x < , t > 0
(5.1)
BCs:
u(x, t) 0, x , t > 0
(5.2)
ICs:
u(x, 0) = f (x), < x <
(5.3)
ut (x, 0) = g(x), < x < .
(5.4)
The problem can be solved using a Fourier transform, as we will show later.
However, the first person to solve this problem was not Fourier (1768-1830),
but dAlembert (1746). dAlembert had a simpler method, which works only
on the wave equation. It also works whether or not the domain is infinite,
but it can get complicated quickly when finite boundaries are included.
5.2
dAlemberts approach
dAlembert recognized that any function of either x + ct or x ct will satisfy

the wave equation. We can simply verify that any trial solution
u(x, t) = L(x + ct) + R(x ct)
(5.5)
satisfies the PDE (5.1) for any functions L and R (which have second derivatives, of course).
To show this, let us write
x + ct
x ct,
77
CHAPTER 5. DALEMBERTS SOLUTION
78
and
u(x, t) = L() + R().

We use a prime to denote ordinary differentiation with respect to the argument of the function, e.g.
L0 ()
d
d
L(), R0 ()
R().
d
d
The partial derivatives are calculated in the following way:
L() = L0 ()
= cL0 ()
t
t
L() = L0 ()
= L0 ()
x
x
2
L() = (cL0 ()) =

(cL0 ())
= c2 L00 ()
2
t
t
=
(L0 ()) = (L0 ())
= L00 ().
x
d
x
Similarly,
R() = R0 ()
= cR0 ()
t
t
R() = R0 ()
= R0 ()
x
x
2
d
R() =
(cR0 ()) = c2 R00 ()
2
t
t d
2
d
R() =
(R0 ()) = R00 ().
2
x
x d
It is seen that both L() and R() satisfy the wave equations, i.e.

and
c2 2
2
t
x
2
2
2
c
t2
x2

L() = 0,

R() = 0.
Therefore the combination, (5.5), also satisfies the wave equation.

The functional forms of L and R should be determined from initial conditions.
5.3. EXAMPLE
79
Since
u(x, t) = L(x + ct) + R(x ct), ut (x, t) = cL0 (x + ct) cR0 (x ct),
it follows from the initial conditions that,
u(x, 0) = L(x) + R(x) = f (x), < x <
0
ut (x, 0) = cL (x) cR (x) = g(x), < x < .
(5.6)
(5.7)
The second equation, (5.7), can be integrated with respect to x to yield

Z
1 x
L(x) R(x) =
g(x)dx + K,
(5.8)
c 0
where K is an arbitrary constant. Adding (5.8) to (5.6) yields
Z
1
K
1 x
L(x) = f (x) +
g(x)dx +
,
2
2c 0
2
(5.9)
and subtracting (5.8) from (5.6) yields

1
1
R(x) = f (x)
2
2c
g(x)dx
K
.
2
(5.10)
We change x to in (5.9) and x to in (5.10), and then add:

u(x, t) = L() + R().
Thus
1
1
1
u(x, t) = f (x + ct) + f (x ct) +
2
2
2c
x+ct
g(x)dx .
xct
(5.11)
This is the full solution to the wave equation in an infinite spatial domain.
5.3
Example
Solve:
PDE:
ICs:
utt = c2 uxx , < x < , t > 0

(
1, 1 < x < 1
u(x, 0) = f (x) =
0, elsewhere
ut (x, 0) = 0, < x < .
80
Since g 0, dAlemberts solution is

1
u(x, t) = [f (x + ct) + f (x ct)].
2
We simply divide the initial shape in two halves. Let one half move to the
left with speed c and the other half to the right with speed c. In the interval
where the two halves overlap we add their amplitudes.
3
ct=0
2.5
u(x,t)
1.5
0.5
0
6
0
x
ct=0.5
2.5
u(x,t)
1.5
0.5
0
6
0
x
5.4. REFLECTION
81
ct=1
2.5
u(x,t)
1.5
0.5
0
6
0
x
ct=2
2.5
u(x,t)
1.5
0.5
0
6
0
x
Figure 5.1. Wave propagation in an infinite domain.
5.4
Reflection
Consider the following problem in a semi-infinite domain:

PDE:
utt = c2 uxx , 0 < x < , t > 0.
(5.12)
BCs:
u(0, t) = 0, u(x, t) 0 as x .
(5.13)
ICs:
u(x, 0) = f (x), 0 < x < .
(5.14)
ut (x, 0) = g(x), 0 < x < .
(5.15)
82
We can proceed as before and easily show that

u(x, t) = L(x + ct) + R(x ct)
satisfies the PDE (5.12). To satisfy the ICs, we have, as before (cf. (5.6)
and (5.7)):
u(x, 0) = L(x) + R(x) = f (x), 0 < x < ,
0
ut (x, 0) = cL (x) cR (x) = g(x), 0 < x < .
(5.16)
(5.17)
An important difference between these ((5.16), (5.17)) and the earlier ((5.6),
(5.7)) is that (5.16) and (5.17) define L(x) and R(x) only for x > 0. We do
not know L(x) and R(x) for x < 0; hence we do not know R(x ct) when
ct > x.
For ct < x, we can proceed as before. Integrate (5.17) and add to or
subtract from (5.16) to obtain (5.9) and (5.10).
So far we have not used the boundary conditions. These provide the
missing information
u(0, t) = 0 = L(ct) + R(ct), t > 0.
(5.18)
Equation (5.18) relates R with a negative argument to L with a positive

argument:
R() = L(), < 0
(5.19)
The solution can be summarized as follows. For = x + ct, = x ct,

u(x, t) = L() + R(),
(5.20)
where
1
1
L(x) = f (x) +
2
2c
g(x)dx, x > 0,
(5.21)
g(x)dx, x > 0.
(5.22)
and
1
1
R(x) = f (x)
2
2c
x
0
In addition,
R(x) = L(x), x < 0.
(5.23)
5.5. EXAMPLE
83
If g(x) 0, the solution is simplified to:

(
1
[f (x + ct) + f (x ct)]
u(x, t) = 21
2 [f (x + ct) f (ct x)]
for x > ct
for x < ct.
(5.24)
A simpler way of writing (5.24) is to define the initial condition for negative
values of x by
f (x) = f (x) for < x < 0
(5.25)
and the solution in (5.24) can be rewritten as

1
u(x, t) = [f (x + ct) + f (x ct)]
2
(5.26)
for all x > 0 and ct > 0.

For x > ct, (5.26) agrees with (5.24). For x < ct, f (x ct) has a negative
argument, and is now defined according to (5.25). With the change in sign
dictated by (5.25), (5.26) is then the same as the second line in (5.24). Since
(5.26) is the same as the solution in the infinite domain problem, we can
pretend that there is no boundary at x = 0, provided we define f (x) for
negative x according to (5.26), find the solution in the infinite domain and
ignore the final result for x < 0.
5.5
Example
PDE: utt = c2 uxx , 0 < x < , t > 0
BCs:
ICs:
u(0, t) = 0, u(x, t) 0, as x
(
2 if 1 < x 4 < 1
u(x, 0) = f (x) =
0 elsewhere
ut (x, 0) = 0, 0 < x < .
dAlemberts solution is
u(x, t) =
1
[f (x + ct) + f (x ct)].
2
This solution is valid for all x > 0, ct > 0, provided that the initial condition
is redefined so that
f (x) = f (x) for negative x.
84
The initial condition is depicted in Figure 5.2(a). We now pretend this is

an infinite domain problem and let the initial shape be split into two halves
propagating to the left and right with speed c.
u(x,0)=f(x), all x
2
1.5
0.5
0.5
1.5
2
10
10
10
u(x,t) at ct=1. Ignore x < 0

2
1.5
0.5
0.5
1.5
2
10
5.5. EXAMPLE
85
u(x,t) at ct=3. Ignore x < 0
1.5
0.5
0.5
1.5
2
10
10
10
ct=4
2
1.5
0.5
0.5
1.5
2
10
86
ct=4
2
1.5
u(x,t)
0.5
0.5
1.5
2
10
0
x
10
At this time part of the image initially at x < 0 moves to the real domain
at x > 0, and cancels with the left going wave initially from x > 0.
ct=5. Ignore x < 0.
2
1.5
0.5
0.5
1.5
2
10
10
5.5. EXAMPLE
87
ct=6. Ignore x < 0.
1.5
0.5
0.5
1.5
10
Figure 5.2. Wave propagation and reflection in a semi-infinite domain.
10
88

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Chapter 8
Fourier Cosine Series

8.1
Introduction
In the previous chapter, function f (x) were represented by a series of sines.

It is also possible to express the same function alternatively in a series of
cosines, in the form
f (x) =
X
n=0
bn cos
nx
, 0 < x < L.
L
(8.1)
Here the summation starts from n = 0, because cos 0 = 1 is not zero. We

will delay the motivation for wanting to write f (x) in this form until later.
Here we discuss only how to find the Fourier cosine series coefficients bn
assuming that f (x) can be represented in the form of (8.1).
8.2
Finding the Fourier coefficients
We multiply both sides of (8.1) by cos mx

L , where m is any integer, m = 0,
1, 2, 3, . . . , and integrate from 0 to L:
Z L
Z L
X
mx
mx
nx
f (x) cos
bn
cos
dx =
cos
dx.
(8.2)
L
L
L
0
0
n=0
There is an orthogonality condition for the cosines which can be written as
Z L
0 if m 6= n
mx
nx
Imn
cos
(8.3)
cos
dx = L2 if m = n 6= 0
L
L
0
L if m = n = 0.
121
CHAPTER 8. FOURIER COSINE SERIES
122
To show this, we note the trigonometric identity

cos a cos b =
so
Z L
0
Z
(m n)x
(m + n)x
1 L
cos
cos
dx +
dx
L
2 0
L
0
L

(m+n)x L

sin (mn)x
sin

L
L
=
+

2(m n)/L
2(m + n)/2
mx
nx
1
cos
cos
dx =
L
L
2
1
1
cos(a b) + cos(a + b),
2
2
L
=0
if m 6= n.
When n = m 6= 0
mx
nx
1
cos
cos
=
L
L
2
2mx
1 + cos
L

.
The integral from 0 to L of the first term, 12 , is L/2, while the integral of
the second term, 12 cos 2mx
L , is zero. When m = n = 0,
cos
mx
nx
cos
= 1,
L
L
so its integral from 0 to L is L. Thus we have derived the identity in (8.3).

Substituting (8.3) into (8.2) then yields
(
Z L
b0 L if m = 0
mx
f (x) cos
dx = bm Imn =
L
bm L2 if m 6= 0.
0
Thus we have the Fourier cosine series representation for f (x) in the form
f (x) =
X
n=0
bn cos
nx
, 0<x<L ,
L
where,
Z
1 L
b0 =
f (x)dx
L 0
Z
2 L
nx
bn =
f (x) cos
dx, n = 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . .
L 0
L
(8.4)
8.3. APPLICATION TO PDE WITH NEUMANN BOUNDARY CONDITIONS123
8.3
Application to PDE with Neumann Boundary

Conditions
Consider heat conduction in a rod of length L whose initial temperature is

given as
IC: u(x, 0) = f (x), 0 < x < L .
(8.5)
Find the evolution of u(x, t) for t > 0 if the ends of the rod are insulated,
i.e.
BCs: ux (0, t) = 0, ux (L, t) = 0, t > 0 .
(8.6)
Assume heat conduction is governed by the heat equation:

PDE:
ut = 2 uxx , 0 < x < L .
(8.7)
The usual method of separation of variables will lead us to the solution in

the form:
X
u(x, t) =
Tn (t)Xn (x),
(8.8)
n
where the eigenfunction, Xn (x), satisfies

d2
Xn (x) + 2n Xn (x) = 0.
dx2
(8.9)
The only difference between this case and the previous one in Chapter 3,
section 2, is the boundary conditions. Here the Neumann condition. (8.6)
implies
d
d
Xn (0) = 0,
Xn (L) = 0.
dx
dx
(8.10)
Nontrivial solutions to (8.9) and (8.10) are

Xn (x) = cos n x
(8.11)
provided
n
, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . .
L
The Tn (t) satisfies, as in section 3.2:
n =
d
Tn (t) + 2 2n Tn (t) = 0.
dt
(8.12)
124
So
2 2 t
n
Tn (t) = Tn (0)e
(8.13)
The general solution, satisfying the PDE and the BCs, is

u(x, t) =
nx
.
L
(8.14)
nx
, 0 < x < L.
L
(8.15)
2 2 t
n
Tn (0)e
n=0
cos
To satisfy the IC, we require, at t = 0,

u(x, 0) = f (x) =
Tn (0) cos
n=0
(8.15) implies that the constants, Tn (0)s, are the Fourier cosine coefficients
for f (x). Thus
Z
2 L
nx
Tn (0) = bn =
f (x) cos
dx, n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
L 0
L
Z
1 L
T0 (0) = b0 =
f (x)dx.
L 0
The problem is now completely solved, assuming f (x) is given.
An Example:
Solve
PDE: ut = uxx , 0 < x < 1, t > 0
BCs: ux (0, t) = 0, ux (1, t) = 0, t > 0
IC: u(x, 0) = x, 0 < x < 1.
Since the boundary conditions are homogeneous Neumann, try a cosine
series expansion of the solution
u(x, t) =
Tn (t)Xn (x),
(8.16)
n=0
where Xn (x) = cos nx. Substituting the assumed form (7.16) into the PDE
yields:
d
Tn (t) = (n)2 Tn (t), n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . .
dt
(8.17)
8.3. APPLICATION TO PDE WITH NEUMANN BOUNDARY CONDITIONS125

The solution of (8.17) is
2
Tn (t) = Tn (0)e(n) t .
Therefore,
u(x, t) =
Tn (0)e(n) t cos nx, 0 < x < 1.
n=0
To satisfy the IC, we require

x=
Tn (0) cos nx, 0 < x < 1.
n=0
So the Tn (0)s are the Fourier cosine coefficients of the function x, and thus
Z
Tn (0) =
xdx =
0
Tn (0) = 2
Finally,
1
0
1
2
(
0
x cos nxdx =
4
(n)
2
if n = even
if n = odd.
1
4 X 1 (n)2 t
u(x, t) = 2
e
cos nx.
2
n2
n=1
n odd
126
Chapter 9
Eigenfunction Expansion
9.1
Introduction
The Fourier sine and cosine series discussed in the previous two chapters are
special cases of a more general method of eigenfunction expansions. In
this method, the eigenfunctions Xn (x) obtained from separation of variables
are used to expand any function of x as a linear combination of the Xn (x)s:
f (x) =
an Xn (x), 0 < x < L,
where the coefficients an of the expansion, are constants. For a function of x

and t, the coefficients of expansion are in general function of t. Thus, u(x, t)
can be expanded as
u(x, t) =
an (t)Xn (x), 0 < x < L,
which we re-write as
u(x, t) =
Tn (t)Xn (x), 0 < x < L.
[We write Tn (t) instead of an (t) simply to be consistent with our previous
notation]
What eigenfunctions Xn (x) to use depends very much on the type of
boundary conditions and the type of PDE we are given. Below we shall
review different cases using the diffusion equation as an example.
127
CHAPTER 9. EIGENFUNCTION EXPANSION
128
9.2
Eigenfunctions and boundary conditions
To solve the diffusion equation

ut = 2 uxx , 0 < x < L, t > 0
PDE:
IC:
u(x, 0) = f (x), 0 < x < L.
(9.1)
Case A.
Step (1) If the boundary conditions are of the homogeneous Dirichlet type,
i.e.:
u(0, t) = 0, u(L, t) = 0, t > 0
(9.2)
use a sine series expansion of the form:
u(x, t) =
Tn (t) sin
n=1
nx
, 0 < x < L.
L
(9.3)
Which automatically satisfies the boundary conditions.

Step (2) Substitute this assumed form into the PDE (9.1). Note the partial
derivatives
X
nx
ut =
Tn0 (t) sin
L
n=1
uxx =
X
n=1

nx
n 2
sin
Tn (t)
.
L
L
Therefore (9.1) becomes
X
n=1
Tn0 (t) sin
n 2
X
nx
nx
2
Tn (t) sin
=
, 0 < x < L.
L
L
L
n=1
The above equation is satisfied if

Tn0 (t) = 2
n 2
L
Tn (t), for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
(9.4)
The solution of (9.4) is

2
2 n
Tn (t) = Tn (0)e ( L ) t ,
9.2. EIGENFUNCTIONS AND BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
129
and so (9.3) implies

u(x, t) =
X
n=1
2 n
nx
Tn (0)e ( L ) t sin
.
L
Step (3) To satisfy the IC, set

f (x) = u(x, 0) =
Tn (0) sin
n=1
nx
, 0 < x < L.
L
Thus the Tn (0) are the Fourier sine series coefficients of the given
function f (x), i.e.
Z
2 L
nx
Tn (0) =
f (x) sin
dx.
(9.5)
L 0
L
Step (4) Find Tn (0) by evaluating the integral in (9.5). This then completes the solution.
Case B.
Step (1) If the boundary conditions are of the homogeneous Neumann
type, i.e.
u
u
= 0 at x = 0,
= 0 at x = L,
x
x
(9.6)
use a cosine series expansion instead:

u(x, t) =
Tn (t) cos
n=0
nx
, 0 < x < L.
L
(9.7)
This assumed form automatically satisfies the boundary conditions.

Step (2) To satisfy the PDE, substitute (9.7) into (9.1)
X
n=0
Tn0 (t) cos
X n 2
nx
nx
2
Tn (t) cos
=
, 0 < x < L.
L
L
L
n=0
The above equation is satisfied if

n 2
Tn0 (t) = 2
Tn (t), for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . .
L
(9.8)
130
The solution
2 n
Tn (t) = Tn (0)e ( L ) t .
Profides the full solution (9.7) is

u(x, t) =
X
n=0
2 n
nx
Tn (0)e ( L ) t cos
, 0 < x < L.
L
(9.9)
Step (3) To satisfy IC, we must have

Z
2 L
nx
Tn (0) =
f (x) cos
dx, n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
L 0
L
Z
1 L
Tn (0) =
f (x)dx.
L 0
(9.10)
Case C.
A more systematic way to proceed is to use the method of separation of
variables. Here we shall emonstrate this method on a more general boundary
condition (Robin condition):
u(0, t) + 1 u(0, t) = 0
x
2 u(L, t) + 2 u(L, t) = 0.
x
1
(9.11)
For 1 = 0, 2 = 0, (9.11) becomes the Dirichlet condition (9.2). For

1 = 0, 2 = 0, (9.11) becomes the Neumann condition (9.6). So what
follows applies to both cases A and B.
Step (1) Assume a solution of the separated form
u(x, t) = T (t)X(x).
Substituting into the PDE (9.1) yields
T 0 (t)X(x) = 2 X 00 (x)T.
Divide by TX:
T 0 (x)
X 00 (x)
= 2
.
T (t)
X(x)
9.2. EIGENFUNCTIONS AND BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
131
Step (2) LHS being a function of t only and the RHS being a function of
x only, the only way that the LHS can be equal to the RHS is for
each to be equal to a constant. Let that constant be denoted by
2 2 , so
T 0 (t)
2 X 00(x)
=
= 2 2 ,
T (t)
X(x)
and
T 0 (t) = 2 2 T (t)
X 00 (x) = 2 X(x).
(9.12)
(9.13)
We now solve (9.13) subject to the boundary condition

1 X 0 (0) + 1 X(0) = 0
(9.14)
2 X (L) + 2 X(L) = 0.
(9.15)
The general solution to (9.13) is

X(x) = A sin x + Bcosx.
Boundary condition (9.14) implies that
1 A + 1 B = 0.
(9.16)
Boundary condition (9.15) implies

2 (A cos L B sin L) + 2 (A sin L + B cos L) = 0.
(9.17)
(9.16) yields B = 1 A/1 , so (9.17) becomes:
A{[2 cos L + 2 sin L] +
1
[2 sin L 2 cos L]} = 0.
1
Step (3) For a nontrivial solution, we must have

{[2 cos L + 2 sin L] +
1
[2 sin L 2 cos L]} = 0.
1
(9.18)
(9.18) is called the eigenvalue equation. Its solutions are expected

to be discrete
= n , n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . .
(9.19)
132
These are called eigenvalues. For each eigenvalue there is a corresponding eigenfunction
X(x) = Xn (x) = An sin n x + Bn cos n x.
(9.20)
The explicit forms of n and Xn are obtainable for specific values
of 1 , 2 , 1 and 2 .
Step (4) The most general solution is obtained by superimposing all separated solutions Tn (t)Xn (x):
u(x, t) =
Tn (t)Xn (x),
(9.21)
n=0
where Tn (t) is determined from (9.12) to be

2 2 t
n
Tn (t) = Tn (0)e
(9.21) already satisfies the boundary conditions and the PDE.

Step (5) To satisfy the initial condition, we require
f (x) = u(x, 0) =
Tn (0)Xn (x),
n=1
so
Tn (0) = R L
0
1
Xn2 dx
Z
0
f (x)Xn (x)dx.
(9.22)
This then completes the formal solution of this problem. (The

derivation of the orthogonality relationship for the Xn s used in
(9.22) will be derived in the next section. It does not need to be
re-derived each time you solve a problem.)
9.3
Orthognality Condition for Xn
In (9.22) we have used the orthogonality relationship for the eigenfunctions

Xn , subject to the general BCs (9.14) and (9.15). A derivation is given here.
From (9.13), Xn (x) is an eigenfunction corresponding to the eigenvalue n ,
satisfying (9.13), (9.14) and (9.15):
d2
Xn + 2n Xn (x) = 0, 0 < x < L
dx2
(9.23)
9.3. ORTHOGNALITY CONDITION FOR XN
133
1 Xn0 (0) + 1 Xn (0) = 0
(9.24)
+ 2 Xn (L) = 0.
(9.25)
2 Xn0 (L)
Let Xm (x) be the eigenfunction corresponding to the eigenvalue m ,

where m is not necessarily the same as n. So Xm (x) satisfies
d2
Xm + 2m Xm (x) = 0, 0 < x < L
dx2
0
1 Xm
(0) + 1 Xm (0) = 0
0
2 Xm
(L)
(9.26)
(9.27)
+ 2 Xm (L) = 0.
(9.28)
Multiply (9.23) by Xm and (9.26) by Xn and subtract. We get

Xm
d2
d2
X
X
Xm = (2m 2n )Xm Xn .
n
n
dx2
dx2
Integrate both sides from 0 to L:

Z
0
d
d2
(Xm 2 Xn Xn 2 Xm )dx = (2m 2n )
dx
dx
L
0
Xm Xn dx.
(9.29)
The left-hand side of (9.29) can be evaluated through an integration by

parts, to yield:
L
L
d
d

Xm Xn Xn Xm ,
dx
dx
0
0
which is zero when the boundary conditions (9.24), (9.25), (9.27) and (9.28)
are applied. We therefore have, from (9.29):
Z
(2m
2n )
Xm Xn dx = 0,
(9.30)
Xm Xn dx = 0 if m 6= n.
(9.31)
so
Z
0
(9.31) is the orthogonality relationship we were seeking.
134

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Chapter 12
Fourier Series
12.1
Introdution
We discussed the Fourier sine series in Chapter 7 and the Fourier cosine
series in Chapter 8. Now, we shall combine the two to form a periodic Fourier
series (or simply called the Fourier series). Before we do so however, we first
try to motivate the need for such a series by looking for the eigenfunctions
satisfying periodic boundary conditions.
12.2
Periodic Eigenfunctions
Consider heat conduction in a circular ring. Let us denote the circumference

of the ring by 2L. Denote any point on the ring by x = 0. Then the points
x = L and x = L are actually the same point. The problem is to be solved
in the domain L < x < L, subject to the boundary condition that the
solution should be the same at x = L and x = L.
PDE: ut = 2 uxx , L < x < L, t > 0
(12.1)
BCs:
u(L, t) = u(L, t)
(12.2)
ux (L, t) = ux (L, t)
(12.3)
u(x, 0) = f (x), L < x < L.
(12.4)
IC:
As we will show, that these boundary conditions are sufficient to define a

periodic function. That is, we can look for a solution for all x, < x < ,
with the condition that it repeats itself with period 2L, i.e.
u(x, t) = u(x + 2L, t) .
151
(12.5)
CHAPTER 12. FOURIER SERIES
152
We will get the same result as (12.2) and (12.3).

We shall again use the method of separation of variables, and we first
try
u(x, t) = T (t)X(x).
Substituting into the PDE yields
T 0 (t)
X 00 (x)
=
= 2 ,
2 T (t)
X(x)
where 2 is the separation constant. The eigenfunction X(x) = Xn (x) is
determined from
X 00 (x) + 2 X(x) = 0
0
(12.6)
0
X(L) = X(L), X (L) = X (L).
(12.7)
The boundary conditions for X comes from (12.2) and (12.3). The solution
to (12.6) is
X(x) = a sin x + b cos x,
(12.8)
so the first boundary condition in (12.7) implies

a sin L + b cos L = a sin L + b cos L,
i.e.
2a sin L = 0.
(12.9)
The second boundary condition

a cos L + b sin L = a cos L b sin L,
is
2b sin L = 0.
(12.10)
Both (12.9) and (12.10) can be satisfied if sin L = 0, or by taking

= n/L n , n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . .
(12.11)
So the eigenfunction corresponding to n is

X(x) = an sin n x + bn cos n x Xn (x), n = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
(12.12)
12.3. FOURIER SERIES
153
Superposition over all n then yields the general solution of the PDE in the
form
X
u(x, t) =
Tn (t)Xn (x).
n
Thus
u(x, t) =
[an sin
n=0
nx
nx (n/L)2 t
.
+ bn cos
]e
L
L
(12.13)
To satisfy the IC, we need

f (x) =
[an sin
n=0
nx
nx
+ bn cos
], L < x < L .
L
L
(12.14)
The right-hand side of (12.14) is the Fourier series expansion of f (x) in the
domain L < x < L. It is periodic with period 2L in < x < L.
12.3
Fourier Series
We now return to the mathematical problem of representing an arbitrary,

piecewise continuous, function f (x) in a Fourier series of period 2L,
f (x) =
[an sin
n=0
nx
nx
+ bn cos
], L < x < L.
L
L
(12.15)
If f (x) is itself periodic with period 2L, then the representation is good for
all x, < x < . If f (x) is not periodic outside the interval L < x < L,
or if f (x) is not defined beyond this interval, the representation is good only
in the restricted interval.
There are two ways to find the coefficients an and bn of the Fourier series.
The standard way is to use the orthogonality conditions between sines and
cosines. They are, for integers m and n:
(
Z L
0 if m 6= n
mx
nx
sin
sin
dx =
(12.16)
L
L
L if m = n
L
if m 6= n
Z L
0
mx
nx
cos
cos
dx = L
if m = n 6= 0
L
L
L
(12.17)
2L if m = n = 0
Z L
mx
nx
sin
cos
dx = 0 for all m and n
(12.18)
L
L
L
154
Of the three orthogonality relations (12.16), (12.17) and (12.18), only the
last one is really new. We derived the first two previously when the integration was over half the domain, from 0 to L. Since sines are odd functions of
x and cosines are even function of x, the integrands in (12.16) and (12.17)
are even in x. Thus,
Z L
Z L
mx
mx
nx
nx
sin
sin
sin
dx = 2
sin
dx
L
L
L
L
L
0
Z L
Z L
mx
mx
nx
nx
cos
cos
cos
dx = 2
cos
dx.
L
L
L
L
L
0
(12.16) then follows from our previous results, namely (6.7), and (12.17)
follows from (8.3). The last identity, (12.18) follows from the fact that the
integrand in (12.18) is odd in x and so the integral over positive and negative
values of x yields zero.
Using these orthogonality relations, we can now obtain the coefficients
an and bn in the following way. Multiply both sides of (12.15) by sin mx
L
and integrate with respect to x from L to L to get
Z L
Z L
X
mx
mx
nx
f (x) sin
[an
sin
dx =
sin
dx
L
L
L
L
L
n=0
Z L
mx
nx
+ bn
sin
cos
dx]
L
L
L
= am L.
so
am
1
=
L
f (x) sin
L
mx
dx, m = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . .
L
Multiplying (12.15) by cos mx

L and integrating with respect to x from L
to L yields, similarly,
Z
1 L
nx
bm =
f (x) cos
dx, m 6= 0
L L
L
Z L
1
b0 =
f (x)dx.
2L L
Summary: The Fourier series representation of a piecewise continuous function f (x) in the interval L < x < L is given by
f (x) =
[an sin
n=0
nx
nx
+ bn cos
], L < x < L ,
L
L
(12.19)
12.3. FOURIER SERIES
155
where
1
an =
L
f (x) sin
L
L
nx
dx
L
1
f (x)dx
2L L
Z
1 L
nx
bn =
f (x) cos
dx, n = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
L L
L
b0 =
Notes: (i) If f (x) is an odd function of x, i.e.

f (x) = f (x), L < x < L,
then all the cosine coefficients bn are zero, and the Fourier series (12.19)
becomes a sine series:
f (x) =
X
n=1
where
1
an =
L
an sin
nx
, L < x < L,
L
nx
2
f (x) sin
dx =
L
L
L
f (x) sin
0
nx
dx
L
(ii) If f (x) is an even function of x, i.e.

f (x) = f (x),
then all the sine coefficients an are zero. The Fourier series (12.19) becomes
a cosine series:
X
nx
f (x) =
bn cos
, L < x < L,
L
n=0
where
Z
nx
nx
2 2
f (x) cos
f (x) cos
dx =
dx
L
L 0
L
L
Z L
Z
1
1 L
b0 =
f (x)dx =
f (x)dx.
2L L
L 0
1
bn =
L
(iii) The above discussion suggests a second way for obtaining the coefficients
of the Fourier series (12.19). Since any function f (x) can be written as
f (x) = fsym (x) + fanti (x),
(12.20)
156
where fsym (x) 12 (f (x) + f (x)) is symmetric about x = 0, and

1
fanti (x) (f (x) f (x))
2
is antisymmetric about x = 0.
Now, the symmetric function can be represented by a cosine series in
L < x < L:
X
nx
fsym (x) =
bn cos
,
(12.21)
L
n=0
where, from (8.4),

Z
Z
Z
2 L
nx
nx
nx
1 L
1 L
bn =
fsym(x) cos
fsym (x) cos
f (x) cos
dx =
dx =
dx
L 0
L
L L
L
L L
L
and
b0 =
1
L
fsym (x)dx =
1
2L
fsym (x)dx =
1
2L
f (x)dx.
L
Similarly, the antisymmetric function can be represented by a sine series

in L < x < L:
X
nx
fanti (x) =
an sin
,
(12.22)
L
n=1
where from (7.5),

Z
Z
2 L
nx
nx
1 L
an =
fanti (x) sin
fanti (x) sin
dx =
dx
L 0
L
L L
L
Z
1 L
nx
=
f (x) sin
dx.
L L
L
Combining (12.21) and (12.22) into (12.20) then yields (12.19).
12.4
Examples
12.4.1
(a) Represent f (x) = 1, as a Fourier sine series in 0 < x < L. We let
fs (x)
an sin
n=1
2
an =
L
nx
,
L
f (x) sin
0
nx
2
dx =
[1 cos n].
L
n
12.4. EXAMPLES
157
The Fourier sine series representation, obtained by combining sines

with coefficients determined above is an antisymmetric function and
so looks like:
Fs
1.5
f(x)=1
0.5
0.5
1.5
4
0
x/L
Figure 12.1 Fourier series representation of f (x) = 1, as a function of x/L; 50 terms used
in the sum.
Thus, fs (x) looks like f (x) only in the interval 0 < x < L. It is
antisymmetric about x = 0 and periodic with period 2L.
(b) Represent f (x) = 1 as a Fourier cosine series in 0 < x < L. We let
fc (x)
X
n=0
bn cos
nx
,
L
Z
2 L
nx
bn =
f (x) cos
dx = 0, n 6= 0
L 0
L
Z
1 L
b0 =
1dx = 1.
L 0
fc (x) = b0 is actually a one-term cosine series. With b0 = 1 it is a
perfect representation of f (x) in 0 < x < L.
158
(c) Represent f (x) = 1 as a Fourier series in L < x < L. We let

fsc (x)
[an sin
n=0
an =
bn =
b0 =
1
L
1
L
nx
nx
+ bn cos
],
L
L
f (x) sin
nx
dx = 0
L
f (x) cos
nx
dx = 0
L
L
L
1
2L
L
L
f (x)dx = 1.
L
In this case fsc (x) = fc (x) = f (x) in L < x < L.

Fc
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
f(x)=1
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
4
0
x
Figure 12.2 Fourier series representation of f (x) = 1.
12.4.2
(a) Represent f (x) = 1 + x as a Fourier sine series in 0 < x < 1.
The sine series representation, fs (x), is plotted in Figure 12.3, for all
x.
12.4. EXAMPLES
159
Fs
2.5
2
1.5
1
f(x)=1+x
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
4
0
x
Figure 12.3 Fourier sine series representation of f (x) = 1 + x; 50 terms used in the sum.
(b) Represent f (x) = 1 + x as a Fourier cosine series in 0 < x < 1. The

cosine series representation, fc (x), is plotted in Figure 12.4 for all x.
Fc
2
1.9
1.8
1.7
f(x)=1+x
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1
4
0
x
Figure 12.4 The Fourier cosine series representation of f (x) = 1 + x; using 50 terms in
the sum.
(c) Represent f (x) = 1 + x as a Fourier series in 1 < x < 1. fsc (x)

is plotted in Figure 12.5 for all x. Notice that fsc (x) is different rom
fc (x) or fs (x) beyond the interval 0 < x < 1.
160
Fsc
2.5
f(x)=1+x
1.5
0.5
0.5
4
0
x
Figure 12.5 Fourier series representation of f (x) = 1 + x; 50 terms used in the sum.
12.4.3
(a) Represent f (x) = ex as a Fourier sine series in 0 < x < 1. fs (x) is
plotted for all x in Figure 12.6
Fs
4
f(x)=exp(x)
4
4
0
x
Figure 12.6 Fourier sine series representation of f (x) = ex ; 50 terms used in the sum.
12.4. EXAMPLES
161
(b) Represent f (x) = ex as a Fourier cosine series in 0 < x < 1. fc (x) is

plotted for all x in Figure 12.7
Fc
2.8
2.6
2.4
f(x)=exp(x)
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
4
0
x
Figure 12.7 Fourier cosine series representation of f (x) = ex ; 50 terms used in the sum.
(c) Represent f (x) = ex as a Fourier series in 1 < x < 1. fsc (x) is

plotted for all x in Figure 12.8.
Fsc
3
2.5
f(x)=exp(x)
1.5
0.5
0
4
0
x
Figure 12.8 Fourier series representation of f (x) = ex ; 50 terms used in the sum.
162
12.5
Complex Fourier series
In this section we will discuss other forms of Fourier series (12.19).

In (12.19), the Fourier coefficients are
Z
1 L
nx
an =
f (x) sin
dx
L L
L
Z
1 L
nx
bn =
f (x) cos
dx, n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
L L
L
Z L
1
b0 =
f (x)dx.
2L L
If we change n to n in the above definition for an and bn , we will find
an = an , bn = bn .
Therefore we can rewrite the sum in (12.19) as
f (x) =
1 X
nx
nx
[an sin
+ bn cos
], L < x < L,
2 n=
L
L
(12.23)
where now, for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .

Z
1 L
nx
an =
f (x) sin
dx,
L L
L
Z
1 L
nx
bn =
f (x) cos
dx,
L L
L
[Note that b0 defined this way is twice as big as the definition obtained in
(12.19). This is an advantage, since b0 now has the same form as the rest of
the bn s.]
The form (12.23) is equivalent to (12.19) but is sometimes preferred
because the coefficients are easier to remember.
(12.23) can be further written more compactly using the complex notation:
f (x) =
cn einx/L , L < x < L,
n=
where
1
cn =
2L
f (x)einx/L dx.
(12.24)
12.5. COMPLEX FOURIER SERIES
163
To show this, we use Eulers identity

ei = cos + i sin .
Changing to gives
ei = cos i sin .
Adding yields
1
cos = (ei + ei ).
2
Subtracting yields
1 i
(e ei ).
2i
sin =
nx
inx/L . (12.23) beWe now also rewrite sin nx
L and cos L in terms of e
comes
f (x) =
1 X
1
[bn (einx/L + einx/L )
2 n= 2
1 inx/L
einx/L )]
(e
2i
1 X 1
1 X 1
=
(bn ian )einx/L +
(bn + ian )einx/L .
2 n= 2
2 n= 2
+ an
In the first sum we change n to n, which is permitted since n is a dummy

variable. We then see that the first sum is exactly the same as the second
sum. Thus,
f (x) =
cn einx/L , L < x < L ,
(12.25)
n=
where
1
1
cn = (bn + ian ) =
2
2
1
L

nx
nx
f (x)(cos
+ i sin
)dx .
L
L
L
Thus,
cn =
1
2L
f (x)einx/L dx, n = 0, 1, 2, . . . .
(12.26)
The complex form (12.25) appears to be the most convenient to use.
164
12.6
Example, Laplaces equation in a circular disk
Consider again the solution of Laplaces equation in a region bounded by a

circle of radius a:
PDE:2 u = 0, 0 r < a
BC:u(r, ) = f () for r = a
and is periodic in with period 2. In polar coordinates, the Laplace
operator is (see Figure 4.1)
2 =
2
1
1 2
+
,
+
r 2
r r r 2 2
where is the angle and r is the radius.

Since f () is periodic with period 2, we can expand it in a periodic
Fourier series:
X
f () =
cn ein ,
n=
with cn given by (from 12.26)

cn =
1
2
f ()ein d.
Since the solution u(r, ) should also be periodic with period 2, it too can
be expanded in a periodic Fourier series:
u(r, ) =
Rn (r)ein .
n=
Substituting this assumed form for u into the PDE yields:

1
n2
Rn00 (r) + Rn0 (r) 2 Rn (r) = 0.
r
r
As explained in Section 4.2.3, this ODE belongs to the equi-dimensional
type and the solution is of the form r b . Substituting this assumed form
into the ODE we find that b = n. Thus the solution is
Rn (r) = n r n + n r n
In order that Rn (r) be finite at r = 0, we set n = 0 for n > 0 and set
n = 0 for n < 0. Also to satisfy the BC at r = a, we want Rn (a) = cn .
Thus
Rn (r) = cn (r/a)|n| , n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
12.6. EXAMPLE, LAPLACES EQUATION IN A CIRCULAR DISK 165

Finally the solution to the PDE, satisfying all BCs, is:
u(r, ) =
cn (r/a)|n| ein
n=
where
1
cn =
2
f ()ein d.
166
Chapter 13
Fourier Series, Fourier

Transform and Laplace
Transform
13.1
Introduction
In the previous chapter, we discussed the Fourier series

f (x) =
cn einx/L , L < x < L,
(13.1)
n=
for f (x) in the interval L < x < L where

cn =
1
2L
f (x)einx/L dx.
(13.2)
Previously, when sine and cosine series were discussed, we alluded to Dirichlets Theorem, which tells us conditions under which Fourier series is a satisfactory representation of the original function f (x). The full Dirichlets
Theorem is stated below.
13.2
Dirichlet Theorem
If f (x) is a bounded and piecewise continuous function in L < x < L, its

Fourier series representation converges to f (x) at each point x in the interval
where f (x) is continuous, and to the average of the left- and right-hand limits
167
168CHAPTER 13. FOURIER SERIES, FOURIER TRANSFORM AND LAPLACE TRANSFOR

of f (x) at those points where f (x) is discontinuous. If f (x) is periodic with
period 2L, the above statement applies throughout < x < .
This theorem is easy to understand. The Fourier series, consisting of
sines and cosines of period 2L, has period 2L. If f (x) itself is also has the
same period, then the Fourier series can be a good representation of f (x)
over the whole real axis < x < . If on the other hand, f (x) is either
not periodic, or not defined beyond the interval L < x < L, the Fourier
series gives a good representation of f (x) only in the stated interval. Beyond
L < x < L, the Fourier series is periodic and so simply repeats itself, but
f (x) may or may not be so. The above statements apply where f (x) is
continuous. When f (x) takes a jump at a point, say x0 , the value of f (x) at
x0 is not defined. The value which the Fourier seris of f (x) converges to is
the average of the value immediately to the left of x0 and to the right of x0 ,
i.e. to lim0 21 (f (x0 ) + 12 f (x0 + )). We have already demonstrated this
with the Fourier sine series. The same behavior applies to the full Fourier
series.
13.3
Fourier integrals
Unless f (x) is periodic, the Fourier series representation of f (x) is an appropriate representation of f (x) only over the interval L < x < L. Question:
Can we take L , so as to obtain a good representation of f (x) over
the whole interval < x < ? The positive answer leads to the Fourier
integral, and hence the Fourier transform, provided f (x) is integrable over
the whole domain.
We first rewrite (13.1) as a Riemann sum by letting
= /L and n = n/L.
Thus, (13.1) becomes
1 X
f (x) =
Fn ein x ,
2 n=
(13.3)
where
Z
Fn (2Lcn ) =
f (x0 )ein x dx0 .
(13.4)
[We have changed the dummy variable in (13.4) from x to x0 , to avoid

confusion later.]
13.4. FOURIER TRANSFORM AND INVERSE TRANSFORM
169
In the limit L , n becomes , which takes on continuous values in

< < . So Fn F (), where
Z
f (x0 )eix dx0 ,
F () =
(13.5)
and (13.3) becomes the integral:

Z
1
f (x) =
2
F ()eix d.
(13.6)
Substituting (13.5) into (13.6) leads to the Fourier integral formula:

1
f (x) =
2
Z
ix0
f (x )e
dx eix d .
(13.7)
The validity of the formula (13.7) is subject to the integrability of the function f (x) in (13.5). Furthermore, the left-hand side of (13.7) must be modified at points of discontinuity of f (x) to be the average of the left- and righthand limits at the discontinuity, because the Fourier series, upon which the
(13.7) is based, has this property.
The formula shows that the operation of integrating f (x)eix over all x
is reversible, by multiplying it by eix and integrating over all . (13.7)
allows us to define Fourier transforms and inverse transforms.
13.4
Fourier transform and inverse transform
Let the Fourier transform of f (x) be denoted by F[f (x)]. We should use
(13.5) for a definition of such an operation:
Z
F () = F[f (x)]
f (x)eix dx .
(13.8)
Let F 1 be the inverse Fourier transform, which recovers the original function f (x) from F (). (13.6) tells us that the inverse transform is given
by
f (x) = F
1
[F ()]
2
F ()eix d .
(13.9)

Equations (13.8) and (13.9) form the transform pair. Not too many integrals
can be reversed. Take for example
Z
f (x)dx.
Once integrated, the information about f (x) is lost and cannot be recovered.
Therefore the relationships such as (13.8) and (13.9) are rather special and
have wide application in solving PDEs.
Note that our definition of the Fourier transform and inverse transform
1
is not unique. One could, as in some textbooks, put the factor 2
in (13.8)
1
1
instead of in (13.9), or split it as 2 in (13.8) and 2 in (13.9). The
only thing that matters is that in the Fourier integral formula there is the
1
factor 2
when the two integrals are both carried out. Also, in (13.7), we
can change to without changing the form of (13.7). So, the Fourier
transform in (13.8) can alternatively be defined with a negative sign in front
of in the exponent, and the inverse transform in (13.9) with a positive
sign in front of in the exponent. It does not matter to the final result as
long as the transform and inverse transform have opposite signs in front of
in their exponents.
13.5
Laplace transform and inverse transform
The Laplace transform is often used to transform a function of time, f (t)

for t > 0. It is defined as
Z
L[f (t)] =
f (t)est dt f(s) .
(13.10)
Mathematically, it does not matter whether we denote our independent variable by the symbol t or x; nor does it matter whether we call t time and
x space or vice versa. What does matter for Laplace transforms is the integration ranges only over a semi-infinite interval, 0 < t < . We do not
consider what happens before t = 0. In fact, as we will see, we need to take
f (t) = 0 for t < 0.
Functions which are zero for t < 0 are called one-sided functions. For
one-sided f (t), we see that the Laplace transform (13.10) is the same as the
Fourier transform (13.8) if we replace x by t and by is. That is, from
13.5. LAPLACE TRANSFORM AND INVERSE TRANSFORM
171
(13.8)
Z
F (is) =
st
f (t)e
dt =
f (t)est dt
f(s).
(13.11)
Since the Laplace transform is essentially the same as the Fourier transform,
we can use the Fourier inverse transform (13.9) to recover f (t) from its
Laplace transform f(s). Let
f (t) = L1 [f(s)].
Then the operation L1 , giving the inverse Laplace transform, must be
defined by
1
f (t) =
2i
f(s)est ds.
(13.12)
This is because
Z
1
f (t) = F [F ()] =
F ()eit d
2
Z i
1
=
f(s)est ds
2i i
1
through the change from to is. Since the inverse Laplace transform involves an integration in the complex plane, it is usually not discussed in
elementary mathematics courses which deal with real integrals. Tables of
Laplace transforms and inverse transforms are used instead. Our purpose
here is simply to point out the connection between Fourier and Laplace
transform, and the origin of both in Fourier series.
Note: The inverse Laplace transform formula in (13.12) was obtained
from the Fourier integral formula, which applies only to integrable functions.
For nonintegrable, but one-sided f (t), (13.12) should be modified, with
the limits of integration changed to i and + i, where is some
positive real constant bounding the exponential growth of f allowed.
To show this, suppose f (t) is not integrable because it grows as t .
Suppose that for some positive the product
g(t) f (t)et 0 as t

and is thus integrable. We proceed to find the Laplace transform of g(t):
Z
g (s) L[g(t)] =
e
f (t)et est d
0
Z
=
f (t)e(+s)t dt.
0
Thus if
fe(s) = L[f (t)] =
f (t)est dt,
then
g(s) = fe( + s).

e
The inverse of ge(s) is

Z i
1
g(t) = L [e
g(s)] =
ge(s)est ds
2i i
Z i
1
=
fe( + s)est ds
2i i
Z +i
1
0
=
fe(s0 )et es t ds0
2i i
1
where we have made the substitution s0 = + s. Since g(t) f (t)et , we

obtain, on cancelling out the et factor:
Z +i
1
0
f (t) =
fe(s0 )es t ds0 .
2i i
This is a modified, and more general, formula for Laplace transform of a
one-sided function f (t), whether or not it decays as t , as long as
f (t)et is integrable.
Z
fe(s) = L[f (t)] =
f (t)est dt, Re s
0
Z +i
1
1 e
f (t) = L [f (s)] =
fe(s)est ds.
2i i

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Tung K.K. Partial Differential Equations and Fourier Analysis, A Short Introduction

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Tung K.K. Partial Differential Equations and Fourier Analysis, A Short Introduction

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Partial Di erential Equations

and Fourier Analysis | A

Professor of Applied Mathematics

2 Physical Origins of Some PDEs

3 Method of Similarity Variables (Optional)

4 Simple Plane-Wave Solutions

7 Fourier Sine Series

8 Fourier Cosine Series

13 Fourier Series, Fourier Transform and Laplace

14 Fourier Transform and Its Application to Partial Differential

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2 Physical Origins of Some PDEs

3 Method of Similarity Variables (Optional)

4 Simple Plane-Wave Solutions

7 Fourier Sine Series

8 Fourier Cosine Series

13 Fourier Series, Fourier Transform and Laplace

14 Fourier Transform and Its Application to Partial Differential

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