Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Mechanics of Materials and Composite - UTP
Mechanics of Materials and Composite - UTP
where
the point P.
centered on
Units of traction and stress are in force/area. In cgs, the units of stress
are dyne/cm2. In SI, the units of stress are 1 Newton/m2 = 1 Pascal (1 Pascal =
10 dyne/cm2). Other units are
1 bar = 106 dyne/cm2 = 105 Pascals
1 bar = 1.0133 Atmospheres
1 kilobar = 15,000 lb/in2
, results in tractions
on the ends.
Now, cut the bar and apply forces on the two sides of the cut so that the
shape of either section of bar remains unchanged. Equilibrium requires
that
at a point P. Let
on
be the force
Again,
Thus, as in the case for the bar, the tractions on either side of the cut are of the
same magnitude, but opposite in sign.
If we made cuts in other directions, say with normals and , we
would obtain different values for the internal traction at P. Note that for a
fluid, the pressure is related to the traction by
for any . But in a
solid, the magnitude and direction of the traction depends on the orientation of
the surface element
.
Ex) Consider the walls of a house.
. But, at point
Stress Tensor
The idea is instead of defining tractions on arbitrarily oriented planes
at point P, we define tractions on the coordinate planes
where
where and
are unit vectors in the x1 and x2 directions. The vectors are
oriented in the conventional positive directions. Thus,
would be
positive if they stretch the material. Also, on the opposite faces
in which
Cauchy showed that the stresses on any plane through an internal point
P can be written as a linear combination of the elements of the stress
tensor. This is a fundamental theorem of solid mechanics. Consider the
triangle in 2D (tetrahedron in 3-D)
is
.
Now we must find the condition of equilibrium of the
triangle. Balancing forces in the x1 and x2 directions gives
In the x1 direction:
In the x2 direction:
or
From geometry
We then find
In order to prevent the body from spinning, we also require that the net
torque be zero. Evaluating the torque for a reference point at the center of the
square, we get
where
is a force and
with
,
, and
. Thus, only six numbers are
needed to completely describe the state of stress of an internal point P in a
body.
It is important to separate between the isotropic and deviatoric part of
the stress tensor . We define
or in index notation
where
as
above, in two
where the components of are the direction cosines between the old and new
coordinate axes. The rotation matrix is,
As an example, if
Let
, then
, then
and
can be written
or
Thus,
with
. This general relationship has the same form in any rotated
coordinate system with the coefficients depending on the orientation of the
coordinate system.
Now, consider the traction vector on an internal plane with normal
Since
where
axes. Then,
or for each
can be written as
, then
, the determinant
to solve for . Next solve for the eigenvectors and make sure to adjust
to unit length. Standard computer software, such as Matlab, can be used to
find the principle stresses
(i = 1,3).
Let
and
where
. Then,
as
If we let
to be
Since
If
, then,
stress. Thus,
, we find that
on planes with normal 45o from the maximum compressive stress direction.
This gives rise to the simplest theory of faulting where shear failure
occurs on planes of maximum shear stress with normals at 45 o from the axis
of maximum compressional stress.
If rocks possess a cohesive strength and internal friction, the angle will
generally be different from 45o. In 3D, different regimes of faulting can be
inferred depending on the orientations of the principle stress directions
For example, normal faulting, thrust faulting, and strike-slip faulting
result when the principle stress directions are oriented as below.
then,
Thus,
Then
and
These must then be normalized to unit length to get
formulas
and
The stress components on each side is a function of the position since we have a non
uniform but continuous stress field. For example on side 4 the normal stress
is
. On the opposite side 2 the normal stress
is
. By taking under consideration Taylors theorem we may write:
(1)
The higher order terms have been neglected because they are relatively small. We
follow the same procedure for all the components as shown if Fig. 1.
Equilibrium of the body demand that the resultant forces must vanish. By summing up
the forces with direction parallel to axis
we get:
(2)
where
,
and
are the dimensions of the parallelepiped and
component of the body force parallel to . By dividing with
we get:
is the
(3)
Similarly we can obtain the equations for the other two directions. The final set of
equilibrium equations is:
(4)
By using index notation we may write the three equilibrium equations in compact form:
(5)
The resultant moment on each axis must also vanish. By taking under consideration all
the forces that contribute to moment about axis
we may write:
(6)
by dividing with
derive:
and
we
(7)
Following the same procedure for the other two axes lead to the conclusion that the
stress tensor is symmetric:
(8)
It should be noted that the above symmetry holds true only if no external body
moments proportional to volume exist. Else, the stress tensor should be considered
asymmetric. However, for the majority of Rock Mechanics problems the stress tensor is
symmetric.
For the case of two dimensional problems, equilibrium equations simplify as follows:
(9)
Example
Consider a solid body which is subject to the following stresses:
(10)
Calculate the body forces in order to achieve static equilibrium.
Solution
The resultant force on each axis must vanish. By using equations (4) we get:
(11)
(12)
(13)
Suggested Bibliography
Y.C. Fung. A First Course in Continuum Mechanics. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey, 3rd ed., 1994.
L.E. Malvern. Introduction to the Mechanics of a Continuous Medium. Prentice Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1969.
J.N. Reddy. An Introduction to Continuum Mechanics. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, 2008.