Roots of Polynomials

Copyright © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Müller Method
• Müller’s method obtains a root estimate by
projecting a parabola to the x axis through three
function values.
Müller Method
• The method consists of deriving the
coefficients of parabola that goes through the
three points:
1. Write the equation in a convenient form:
2
f 2 ( x)  a( x  x2 )  b( x  x2 )  c
2. The parabola should intersect the three points [xo,
f(xo)], [x1, f(x1)], [x2, f(x2)]. The coefficients of the
polynomial can be estimated by substituting three
points to give
f ( xo )  a ( xo  x2 ) 2  b( xo  x2 )  c
f ( x1)  a ( x1  x2 ) 2  b( x1  x2 )  c
f ( x2 )  a ( x2  x2 ) 2  b( x2  x2 )  c
2. Three equations can be solved for three
unknowns, a, b, c. Since two of the terms in the
3rd equation are zero, it can be immediately
solved for c=f(x2).
f ( xo )  f ( x2 )  a ( xo  x2 )  b( xo  x2 ) 2
f ( x1 )  f ( x2 )  a ( x1  x2 )  b( x1  x2 ) 2
If :
h o  x1 - x o h1  x 2 - x1
f ( x1)  f ( xo ) f ( x2 )  f ( x1)
o  1 
x1  xo x2  x1
(ho  h1)b  (ho  h1) 2 a  ho o  h11

Solved for a
h1b  h 2a  h11 and b
1
1   o
a b  ah1  1 c  f ( x2 )
h1  ho
• Roots can be found by applying an alternative form of
quadratic formula:
 2c
x3  x2 
b  b  4ac 2
• The error can be calculated as
x3  x2
a  100%
x3
• ±term yields two roots, the sign is chosen to agree with b. This
will result in a largest denominator, and will give root estimate
that is closest to x2.
• Once x3 is determined, the process is
repeated using the following guidelines:
1. If only real roots are being located, choose the

two original points that are nearest the new root
estimate, x3.
2. If both real and complex roots are estimated,

employ a sequential approach just like in secant
method, x1, x2, and x3 to replace xo, x1, and x2.
EXAMPLE
Consider the function F(x)=(e^2)+1 . Clearly this has no real
roots. Suppose that we start with three initial ``guesses'' Xo=1 and
X1=0 and X2=-1, Müllers method would then lead us to find the
quadratic polynomial passing through (1,e+1),(0,2) and (-
1,1+1/e). That is P(x)=a(x+1)^2+b(x+1)+c
X3 is found as the root of P(x) that is close to X2 , that is
so
we use the positive sign in front of b the square root in the
denominator to match the sign of in order to choose the value of
X3-X2 with smallest absolute value. Of course, in this case
since the term under the square root is negative, the two roots
have the same absolute value, but, we choose this one even so,
since that is the way the algorithm is defined.
However, this raises the issue of how to pick the sign of the square
root when b may not be real. The guiding principal is to always
make the choice that picks the root of the quadratic that is closest
to our most recent estimate. At the next iteration, we get
The formula for . The two

possible values of the denominator are approximate 0,3595-
0,5040i and -0,2909+1,6167i, the larger choice is the latter thas
we use the negative sing in defining X4. This sect of checking is
exactly what is in the algorithm listed above. We could avoid yhe
comparison by the rewriting
Where b* is the complex conjugate fo b and the square root is
always chosen so the result has non-negative real part. In this
example, if we continue, the algorithm will converge to the
root x=пi. Here is a table of the next few values:
Bairstow’s Method
• Bairstow’s method is an iterative approach loosely
related to both Müller and Newton Raphson methods.
• It is based on dividing a polynomial by a factor x-t:
f n ( x )  ao  a1 x  a2 x 2    an x n
f n 1 ( x)  b1  b2 x  b3 x 2    bn x n
with a reminder R  b o , the coefficients are
calculated by recurrence relationship
bn  an
bi  a i bi 1t i  n  1 to 2
• To permit the evaluation of complex roots, Bairstow’s
method divides the polynomial by a quadratic factor
x2-rx-s:
f n  2 ( x)  b2  b3 x    bn 1 x n 3  bn x n  2
R  b1 ( x  r )  bo
Using a simple recurrence relationship
bn  an
bn-1  an-1  rbn
bi  ai  rbi 1  sbi  2 i  n-2 to 0
• For the remainder to be zero, bo and b1 must be
zero. However, it is unlikely that our initial
guesses at the values of r and s will lead to this
result, a systematic approach can be used to
modify our guesses so that bo and b1 approach
to zero.
• Using a similar approach to Newton Raphson

method, both bo and b1 can be expanded as
function of both r and s in Taylor series.
b1 b
b1 (r  r , s  s)  b1  r  1 s
r s
b b
bo (r  r , s  s )  bo  o r  o s
r s
assuming that the initial guesses are adequately

close to the values of r and s at roots. The changes
in s and r needed to improve our guesses will be
estimated as
b1 b1
r  s  b1
r s
bo bo
r  s  bo
r s
• If partial derivatives of the b’s can be determined,
then the two equations can be solved simultaneously
for the two unknowns r and b.
• Partial derivatives can be obtained by a synthetic
division of the b’s in a similar fashion the b’s
themselves are derived:
cn  bn
cn 1  bn 1  rc n
ci  bi  rc i 1  sci  2 i  n  2 to 2
where
bo bo b1 b1
 c1   c2  c3
r s r s
• Then
c2r  c3s  b1 Solved for r and s, in
turn are employed to
c1r  c2s  bo improve the initial guesses.
• At each step the error can be estimated as

r
 a ,r  100%
r
r
 a,s  100%
r
• The values of the roots are determined by
r  r 2  4s
x
2
• At this point three possibilities exist:
1. The quotient is a third-order polynomial or greater. The
previous values of r and s serve as initial guesses and
Bairstow’s method is applied to the quotient to evaluate
new r and s values.
2. The quotient is quadratic. The remaining two roots are
evaluated directly, using the above eqn.
3. The quotient is a 1st order polynomial. The remaining
single root can be evaluated simply as x=-s/r.
EXAMPLE
Find all the roots of the polynomial
By Bairstow method. With the initial values
SOLUTION
Set iteration=1
Using some relations we get:
The simultaneous equations for ∆r and ∆s are:
On solving we get ∆r=1.1180371, and ∆s= 0.296419084
And
Set iteration=2
Now we have to solve
On solving we get ∆r2.27996969, ∆s=0,324931115
Now proceeding in the above manner in about ten iteration we get

r=3, s=2 with
Now on using
We get
So at this point is a Quotient is a quadratic equation
Roots of F2(x) are = 1-i, 1+i
Roots F4(x) are = 1-i, 1+i, 1, 2

Roots of Polynomials

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Copyright © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

1. Write the equation in a convenient form:

(ho  h1)b  (ho  h1) 2 a  ho o  h11

• The error can be calculated as

1. If only real roots are being located, choose the

2. If both real and complex roots are estimated,

The formula for . The two

• Using a similar approach to Newton Raphson

assuming that the initial guesses are adequately

• At each step the error can be estimated as

By Bairstow method. With the initial values

Using some relations we get:

The simultaneous equations for ∆r and ∆s are:

On solving we get ∆r2.27996969, ∆s=0,324931115

Now proceeding in the above manner in about ten iteration we get

So at this point is a Quotient is a quadratic equation

Roots F4(x) are = 1-i, 1+i, 1, 2

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