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1. Introduction
Returning to Fig. 12.1 (lecture 12), we note again the existence of a zone AC
where the propellants go from a series of liquid jets issuing through a multiplicity
of small injector holes, through breakup of these jets into droplets, impingement
(in some designs) of jets or droplet streams on each other, dispersion of the
droplets into a recirculating mass of combustion products, evaporation of the
droplets, interdiffusion of the vapors and kinetically controlled combustion. These
are obviously complicated processes, and a comprehensive analysis good enough
for first principles design requires large-scale computation [18, 19, 20]. In fact,
the largest number of existing liquid rocket combustors, those dating from before
1970, were developed mainly through empirical methods, supplemented by very
extensive testing. Improved modeling and computational capabilities have more
recently permitted a more direct approach, with fewer hardware iterations, but
theory is still far from completely developed in this area, and serves at this point
mainly to ascertain trends and verify mechanisms. For an in-depth discussion of
liquid propellant combustion, see Refs. 21 and 22. Here we will only review the
fundamental concepts which underlie current spray combustion models.
Even when liquids are originally injected into the chamber, actual combustion
takes place in the gas phase, following vaporization of both, oxidizer and fuel. In
fact, vaporization is usually the rate–controlling step in the whole process,
although its rate is itself affected by the reactions occurring near each droplet. In
a few instances, both propellants enter the chamber as gases or easily vaporized
liquids, and then gas phase mixing is the limiting step. (An example is the Shuttle
SSME, where the hydrogen is vaporized in the cooling circuit, and the oxygen is
partially vaporized by the hydrogen in a co-flowing heat exchanger arrangement
ahead of the injectors, the rest being atomized and evaporated shortly after
injection).
OF − OFs OF − OFs
Yox,∞ = =
(1 + OFs ) + (OF − OFs ) 1 + OF
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
(Fuel) + I (oxidizer) → ⎜1 + ⎟ (Pr oducts ) + ⎜ − ⎟ (Fuel)
OF ⎝ OFs ⎠ ⎝ OF OFs ⎠
1 1
−
OF OFs OFs − OF
YF,∞ = =
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ( + OF ) OFs
1
⎜1 + ⎟+⎜ − ⎟
⎜ OFs ⎠ ⎝ OF OFs ⎟⎠
⎟ ⎜
⎝
which could be also formally obtained from YOX, ∞ by reversing the roles of fuel
1
and oxidizer (including OF → )
OF
dR
Γ = −4 π R 2 ρρ
dt
and the main purpose of the analysis is the calculation of Γ from given R and gas
properties. Let Yf (r ) , Ypr (r ) by the mass fractions of fuel and of combustion
products in the region R < r < rFl between the drop and the flame location (no
oxidizer is to be found there, so Yf + Ypr = 1). These two constituents are both
convected by the mean outwards flow, and diffuse according to their
concentration gradients. Since the products do not penetrate the drop surface,
the net outflow of fuel at radius r is equal to the total mass flow, and is given by
dYf
Γ Yf − 4 π r2 ρ Df =Γ
dr
where Df is the diffusivity in the products. The net flux of products remain zero in
this region (but not their concentration Ypr = 1 − Yf ). Imposing that Yf approaches
zero at the flame radius, the above equation integrates to
⎛1 1 ⎞
−λ f ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟
⎝ r rFl ⎠
Yf = 1 − e (R < r < rFl)
where
Γ
λf =
4 π ( ρ Df )
While this gives information about the composition of the gas near the
droplet, the more important results come from a similar mass balance outside the
flame radius (r > rF).
dYox
Γ Yox = 4 π r 2 ρ D = -i Γ (1)
dr
or
dYox Γ iΓ
+ Yox = − (2)
d (1 r ) 4 π ρ D 4 π ρD
Γ Γ Cp
Define λ= (3)
4 π ρD 4 πk
λ
Yo x = (i + Yox, ∞ ) e
−
r
−i (5)
λ ⎛ Y ⎞
= ln ⎜ 1 + ox,∞ ⎟ (6)
rF ⎝ i ⎠
The distribution of both, mass fluxes and mass fractions are displayed below:
We now need the heat flux balance, both inside and outside the flame:
R < r <rF - Taking T = Tv as the (temporary) enthalpy zero, the convected heat
flow inside the flame, where only fuel vapor moves, is Γ cp ( T − Tv ) . The conductive
dT
flow is −4 π r 2 k , The total, flowing inward (negative) is used at r = R to vaporize
dr
liquid, at L (latent heat) per unit mass:
dT
Γ cp ( T − Tr ) − 4 π r 2 k = −Γ L (7)
dr
dT Γ Cp ΓL
+ ( T − Tv ) = − (8)
d (1 r ) 4 π k 4 πk
λ again
L ⎡ λ ⎛⎜ R1 − 1r ⎞⎟ ⎤
T - Tv= ⎢e ⎝ ⎠
− 1⎥ (9)
cp ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
and, in particular, at r = rF
L ⎡ λ ⎛⎜⎜ 1 − 1 ⎞⎟⎟ ⎤
TF - Tv = ⎢e ⎝ R rf ⎠ − 1⎥ (10)
cp ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
which also relates Γ (in λ) to rF, but also introduces TF , the flame temperature,
as a third unknown. We will need the heat flux balance for r > rF to complete the
formulation. For this purpose, we now move the enthalpy zero to T=TF, the flame
temperature. The total heat flow (convection plus diffusive) is now
dT
Γ cp ( T − TF ) − 4 π r2 k
dr
and this must be the heat released at the flame front, minus the heat sent
inwards from the flame to the liquid. The former is Γ Q (Q= heat of combustion
per unit fuel mass). The latter would be Γ L , except for the extra Γ cp ( TF − Tv )
due to the change of enthalpy references. Altogether,
dT
Γ cp ( T − TF ) − 4 π r 2 k = Γ ⎡⎣Q − L − cp ( TF − Tv ) ⎤⎦ (11)
dr
dT Γ cp Γ
or + ( T − TF ) = ⎡Q − L − cp ( TF − Tv ) ⎤⎦ (12)
d (1 r ) 4 π k 4 πk ⎣
Q − L − cp ( TF − Tv ) ⎛ − ⎞
λ
−
λ
T − TF = ⎜1 − e r ⎟ + ( T∞ − TF ) e r (13)
cp ⎝ ⎠
λ
Eqs. (10) and (14) can be simplified if is substituted from (6):
rF
⎛ λ
⎞
L ⎜ eR ⎟
TF − Tv = ⎜ − 1⎟ (10’)
cp ⎜ Yox,∞ ⎟
⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ i ⎠
Q − L − cp ( TF − Tv ) Yox,∞
TF − T∞ = (14’)
cp i
⎛ ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ ⎞⎤
L ⎜ eR
λ
⎟ ⎢Q − L L ⎜ eR
λ
⎟⎥ Y
Tv + ⎜ − 1 ⎟ − T∞ = ⎢ − ⎜ − 1 ⎟ ⎥ ox,∞
cp ⎜ Yox,∞ ⎟ ⎢ cp cp ⎜ Yox,∞ ⎟⎥ i
⎜1 + ⎟ ⎢ ⎜1 + ⎟⎥
⎝ i ⎠ ⎣ ⎝ i ⎠⎦
λ
L e R ⎛ Yox,∞ ⎞ Q Yox,∞ L
⎜1 + ⎟ = + + T∞ − Tv (15)
cp Yox,∞ ⎝ i ⎠ cp i cp
1+
i
λ Γ cp
Solve for , and use λ = :
R 4 πk
4 πk ⎡ Q Yox,∞ i + cp (T∞ − Tv ) ⎤
Γ= R ln ⎢1 + ⎥ (16)
cp ⎣ L ⎦
4 πk
Γ= R ln ⎡⎣1 + B⎤⎦ (17)
cp
Q Yox,∞ i + cp ( T∞ − Tv )
with B ≡ (18)
L
We have solved for Γ , and can go back to (6) to get the flame radius
ln (1 + B )
rF = R (19)
⎛ Y ⎞
ln ⎜1 + ox,∞ ⎟
⎝ i ⎠
and to (10’) to get TF. From (15), (18), lλ R = 1 + B , and then, from (10’),
L B − Yox ,∞ i
TF = Tv + (20)
cp 1 + Yox ,∞ i
Yox,∞ 0.15
= = 0.0625
i 2.4
⎛ Yox,∞ ⎞ Yox,∞
In view of these numbers, ln ⎜1 + ⎟ 1 , but B 1 , so (19) and (20)
⎝ i ⎠ i
can simplify further to
i
rF R ln (1 + B ) (19’)
Yox,∞
L Q Yox, ∞ i
TF Tv + B = T∞ + (20’)
cp cp
Vaporization time - The droplet is actually being consumed, so its radius varies
(on a slower time than the gas transit time), according to
dR
ρl 4 π R 2 = −Γ (21)
dt
dR k
ρe 4 π R 2 = −4π R ln (1 + B )
dt cp
R 02 − R 2 k 2 k ln (1 + B )
ρl = ln (1 + B ) t R = R0 1 − t
2 cp ρl cp R 20
( )
2
800 × 2000 × 5 × 10−5
Γv = = 6.0 × 10−3 s = 6 ms.
2 × 0.1 × ln (1 + 26.8 )
L
T∞ − Tv = ⎡eλ R − 1⎤⎦
cp ⎣
λ ⎛ cp ( T∞ − Tv ) ⎞
= ln ⎜ 1 + ⎟⎟
R ⎜ L
⎝ ⎠
4 πk
or Γ= R ln (1 + B ) (as in (17)),
cp
with
cp (T∞ − Tv )
B= (F / F Case) (23)
L
Finally, for an oxidizer drop in a fuel-rich background, we return to the first case
(fuel drop in oxidizing gas), and switch the roles of fuel and oxidizer throughout.
For, example, Q must be the heat of reaction per unit oxidizer mass, Yox,∞ must
be replaced by Yf,∞ , i = (O / F)st. becomes 1 i , and (Tv , L) refer to the oxidizing
liquid.
ρl cp R 20
The drop vaporization time Tv = depend on B. For a fuel-rich
2 k ln (1 + B )
background, as normally seen in rocket, we have two types of droplets:
cp ( T∞ − Tv,f )
Fuel drop in fuel-rich medium: BF,F = (23)
Lf
Q Yf,∞ + cp ( T∞ − Tv,ox )
Oxidizer drop in fuel-rich medium: BO,F = (24)
L ox
(notice Q is still the heat of reaction per unit fuel mass). In many cases L ox < L f
(especially for Lox), and also Q is a large quantity appearing in BO,F , but not in
BF,F . So, BO,F BF,F , meaning the oxidizer drops are likely to evaporate much
earlier than the fuel drops. For chamber length calculations, then, we focus on
the fuel drops mostly.
Assume fuel drops are injected into the chamber at a velocity uDo. Oxidizer
drops are assumed to vaporize very fast (or to be fully evaporated at injection, as
when Lox is used). At any section prior to fuel vaporization, the fuel liquid
fraction (by flux) is
4 A
γ= π R 3ρl nD uD • (25)
3
mF
The number-flux of drops nDuD A is conserved, so γ ∼ R3 and from (22), since the
initial γ is unity,
32
⎛ t ⎞
γ = ⎜1 − ⎟ ( τv = fuel drop vap. time) (26)
⎝ τv ⎠
• •
ug =
(1 − γ ) mF + mox
(27)
ρg A
If the molecular mass difference between fuel and oxidizer fuel and oxidizer
vapors is ignored (consistent with earlier approximations), and ρg , Tg are nearly
uniform, then we treat ρg as a constant, and so
• •
ug mF mox 1 − γ + O /F
•
(1 − γ) + •
= (29)
u2 1 + O /F
m m
u2 ⎡ ⎛ t ⎞ ⎤
32
or ug ⎢1 + O / F − ⎜1 − ⎟ ⎥ (30)
1 + O /F ⎢
⎣ ⎝ τv ⎠ ⎥⎦
O /F
Notice that (29) implies an initial gas mean velocity ug ( 0 ) u2 , which is
1 + O /F
due to the vaporized oxidizer flow.
4 duD
π R 3 ρl = 6 π R µ g (ug − uD ) (31)
3 dt
2 R 20 ρl
τRe l = (32)
9 µg
2
⎛ R ⎞ duD
τRe l ⎜ ⎟ = ug − uD (33)
⎝ R 0 ⎠ dt
τv t uD
=b ; 1− =θ ; =υ (34)
τRu τv u2
⎡u 2b ⎤ b 2b 32
ν = 1 + ⎢ Do − 1 − ⎥ θ + (3 − 2b)(1 + O / F) θ (36)
⎣ 2 (3 − 2b)(1 + O / F) ⎦
τv 1
L = ∫ u dt = u τ ∫ υ ( θ ) dθ
0
D 2 v
0
(37)
L 1 ⎡ uDo ⎛ 25 ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢ + ⎜1 − b⎥ (38)
u2 τv 1 + b ⎣ u2 ⎝ 1 + O / F ⎟⎠ ⎦
Notice that, from (22) and (32), the parameter b can be written as
τv ρl cp R 20 1 9 ( µgcp / k )
b= = =
τRe l 2 k ln (1 + B ) 2 ρl R 20 4 ln (1 + B )
9 µg
9 Pr
or b= (39)
4 ln(1 + B)
As an example, for the middle graph χ0 = 0.5 , so using O/F = 0 in Eq. (38)
L 1
we calculate ξ2 = = (0.5 × 0.6 × 0.5) or ξ2 = 0.267 . This coincides
2 u2 τv 2 × 1.5
with the result in the figure.
Notice how the droplets are initially slowed down by gas drag, but later, as
the gas evolves and accelerate, they are pulled along. Near the end of
vaporization, the rates accelerate, because the droplets are so light.
Evolution of evaporating droplet size and velocity. Here the reference vref for
velocity is that of the gas after complete evaporation, and for length, lref = 2 vref τv
18. R.D. Sutton, W.S. Hines and L.P. Combs, “Development and Application of a
Comprehensive Analysis of Liquid Rocket Combustion”, AIAA JI., Vol. 10, no.
2, Feb. 1972, pp. 194–203.
19. P-Y Liang, S. Fisher and Y.M. Chang, “Comprhensive Modelling of Liquid
Rocket Combustion Chamber”. J. of Propulsion, Vol. 2, no.2, March-April
1986, pp 97-104.
22. W.A. Sirignano, “Fuel Droplet Vaporization and Spray Combustion Theory”,
Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, Vol. 9, 1983, pp.291-322.
23. D.B. Spaulding, Aero. Quarterly, 10, 1. (1959). See also Ref. 21, Sec. 11.15.
24. H.H. Chiu, H.Y. Kim and E.J. Croke,”Internal Group Combustion of liquid
Droplets”, Proc. 19th International Symposium on Combustion, 1983.
25. P.Y. Liang, R.J. Jensen and Y.M. Chang, “Numerical Analysis of SSME
Preburner Injector Atomization and Combustion Process”. J. of Propulsion,
Vol. 3, No. , Nov-Dec.1987, pp. 508-514.
26. D.T. Harrje and F.H. Reardon (Editors). Liquid Propellant Rocket Combustion
Instability, NASA SP-194, 1972.
29. R.J. Priem and D.C. Guentert, “Combustion Instability Limits Determined by a
Non linear Theory and a One-dimensional Model”. NASA TND-1409, Oct.
1962.
32. NASA SP-8113, Liquid Rocket Combustion Stabilization Devices, Nov. 1974.