Professional Documents
Culture Documents
l Study each chapter in the order given in the Booklet. Do not skip any chapter.
l Revise the key points once again by going through the chapters . Do not worry too
much about your current state of knowledge base. Learning is a continuous process
and your general knowledge will keep increasing.
Please Note:
l All the information provided in this booklet are based on data available as on
1 st August, 2008
l Keep yourself updated regarding the changes that are taking place regularly.
Warm Regards,
Product Head
Index
1. History 1
3. Geography of India 25
5. Civics 51
6. Economics 59
8. The Superlatives 77
10. Sports 89
Chapter 1
History
®
ANCIENT INDIA
History is a record of time. Ages have come and brought with them their foundations and ruins. The
study of Ancient India begins with the study of the Stone Age.
1. Stone Age
The Stone Age, or the stages of early man can be classified into:
Paleolithic Age – This period was essentially the stage of hunters and food gatherers. They
used crude tools made of flakes. They had no knowledge of cultivation and house building.
They lived on roots and fruits. By the end of the Paleolithic Age, the flint industry came up. The
important development of this age was the emergence of Homo-Sapiens.
Mesolithic Age – This age was the transition between the Paleolithic & the Neolithic Ages.
Mesolithic people lived on hunting, fishing and food gathering. At a later stage, they domesticated
animals. They used microlith - a small raw-stone tools.
Neolithic Age - These people used tools and implements of polished stone. They particularly used
stone axes. Parashurama became an important axe-wielding hero. Dwelling pits, ceramics, a variety of
stone and bone tools and a complete absence of microliths marked this age. Cattle, sheep and goat
were domesticated. Men became food producer.
2. Chalcolithic Age
Copper was the first metal used by men.
The Indus Valley Civilization existed between 2350 BC and 1750 BC. The main cities associated
with the civilization were Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and Lothal. The main feature of this
civilization was Town Planning. They had great buildings, well-planned roads, cities and drainage
4 GENERAL AWARENESS
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systems. Trade and agriculture were the main sources of livelihood for the people. The people
of Indus Valley were the first to produce cotton. Mother Goddess was the most important deity
of worship. Wheat was the main food crops. They did not know about Iron.
4. Vedic Period
This period is marked by the entry of the Aryans, who were originally inhabitants of Central Asia
around the Caspian Sea and probably came through the Hindu Kush Mountains. The period in
which they existed was between 1500-600 BC.
ii) The Upanishads: They are the foundation stones of Indian Philosophy and are 108 in numbers.
Satyameva Jayate (Truth Alone Triumphs) is taken from Mundaka Upanishad.
5. Rise of Religions
The two major religions that came into prominence after the vedic period:
i) Buddhism - Initiated by a Kshatriya prince of the Shakya clan, Siddhartha, (who later came to
be known as Buddha) around 6th century BC. Siddhartha was born in 567 BC at Lumbini in
Kapilavastu (present day Nepal). He was the son of king Shuddhodana. He went in search of truth
and attained enlightenment under a pipal tree at Bodh Gaya, and delivered his first sermons at
Sarnath in U.P. He died at Kushinagar in U.P.
GENERAL AWARENESS 5
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• action
• livelihood
• efforts
• speech
• remembrance and concentration
• belief in nirvana (freedom from the cycle of birth and death)
Ahimsa and law of karma were recorded in Triptikas, the religious book of Buddhists.
ii) Jainism - Initiated by Rishabha Dava (a Kshatriya prince), Jainism attained peak under
Vardhamana Mahavira (the 24th Tirthankara). Mahavira was born at Kundagrama in 540 BC. He
left his house at the age of 30 years and attained ‘Kaivalya’ (Perfect knowledge) at the age of 42
years. He became a ‘Jina’ (one who has conquered happiness and misery) and died at Pavapuri
(present day Bihar).
The major teachings of Jainism were based on the Tri-ratna concept and the Tri-ratna concept
was based on
a) Right knowledge,
b) Right faith
c) Right conduct.
i) Haryanka Dynasty - Bimbisara and Ajatashatru laid the foundation of this dynasty in 684 BC.
ii) Shishunaga Dynasty - This dynasty was founded by Shishunag in 413 BC after defeating the
last king of the Haryanka dynasty.
iii) Nanda Dynasty – This dynasty was founded in 382 BC by Mahapadma Nanda.
6 GENERAL AWARENESS
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9. Kushan Empire
The Kushan Empire was founded by the Kushan tribe of the Yuezhi Confederation around 1st
century BC.
• Kanishka was the most important king of the empire. He founded the Saka Era in 78 AD.
• His capital was at Pursushpura (now Peshawar).
• He was responsible for organizing the 4th Buddhist council in Kashmir.
• Both Gandhar and Mathura art forms developed during Kanishka’s reign.
i) Samudra Gupta (335-380 AD): He was known as the Napoleon of India. His coins depicted
him as playing the musical instrument Veena.
iii) Kumaragupta I of this dynasty built the Nalanda University (in present day Bihar).
GENERAL AWARENESS 7
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11. Harshvardhana
Harshvardhana was the last important king of North India.
• His capital was at Kannauj.
• Hiuen-Tsang, the Chinese pilgrime came to his court.
• Harshcharita, a book on the life of Harshvardhana was written by Banabhata, who had also
written Kadambari.
• He was defeated by Pulshekin II of the Chalukya dynasty.
Famous Important
Kingdom Capital Emblem
Port King
8 GENERAL AWARENESS
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GENERAL AWARENESS 9
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• The Cholas were famous for naval power and for their village administration.
Administrative Units of the Cholas
• Mandlam, the provinces
• Valanadusnadus, the districts
• Taniyur, the large villages
• The Village Assembly was constituted of
Urs- the assembly of common people.
Abha - the assembly of brahmins.
Nagaram - the assembly of merchants.
MEDIEVAL INDIA
It is marked by the beginning of the Sultanate of Delhi, which was established after the conquest of
Muhammad Ghori. The period of the Sultanate of Delhi ranges from AD 1206-1526. It is also considered
as the beginning of Muslim rule in India.
Important Dynasties
1. The Slave Dynasty period ranges from AD 1206-1290. It was founded by Qutab–ud-din Aibak
whose capital was at Lahore. The Qutub Minar at Delhi was also built by Qutab–ud-din Aibak.
Later Iltutmish got three more floors added to the Minar. Razia Sultana, the only woman ruler
of India, and Balban was the important ruler of the Slave Dynasty. Balban had started the Persian
Festival, “NAUROZ”.
2. T he K hi l j i D y na s t y wa s founde d b y J a l a l - ud - d i n K hi l j i a nd i t s pe r i od r a nge s
from AD 1290-1320. Ala-ud-din Khilji was one of the most prominent rulers of this dynasty.
He started branding of horses and constructed Siri Fort at Delhi and Alai Darwaza near
Qutub Minar. He was famous for market reforms.
3. The Tughlaq dynasty was founded by Ghiyath-al-din-Tughlag and the period of this dynasty ranges
from AD 1320-1414. Ibn Buttuta was an important African traveller who visited India in 1333.
Mohammed-Bin-Tughlaq introduced coins of brass and copper.
Feroz Shah Tughlaq was another important king and he constructed many towns.
4. The Lodhi dynasty was founded by Bahlol Lodhi and the period of this dynasty ranges
from AD 1451–1526. Sikandar Lodhi and Ibrahim Lodhi were the other two prominent
rulers belonging to this dynasty. Sikandar Lodhi established Agra City and transferred his
capital from Agra to Delhi.
5.1 Babur - He is credited with the foundation of the Mughal empire by defeating Ibrahim Lodhi
in the First Battle of Panipat on April 20, 1526. His tomb is built at Kabul, and his autobiography
10 GENERAL AWARENESS
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5.3 Akbar - He was the most successful Mughal emperor. An excellent leader, who separated
religion and politics, started a new religion called Din-e-Ilahi. He established Fatehpur Sikri and
Buland Darwaza near Agra. He abolished the Jazia Tax. Bairam Khan, Akbar’s General, fought the
Second Battle of Panipat in 1556 and defeated Hemu. Two important books Akbar-Nama and
Ain-e-Akbari were written during Akbar’s tenure by Abul Fazal. His tomb is built at Sikandara
near Agra.
5.4 Jehangir - The son of Akbar, who ascended the throne after Akbar’s death, known for his
administration and strict sense of justice. He was the husband of Noor Jahan Begum and had
built Shalimar and Nishant Bagh. His autobiography is Tuzk-e-Jahangiri and his tomb is
built at Lahore.
5.5 Shahjahan - Famous ruler and son of Jehangir, who built the Taj Mahal at Agra, in the
memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal. Jama Masjid and Red Fort are the other two famous
monuments that were built by him. He had transferred his capital from Agra to Delhi.
5.6 Aurangzeb - A very cruel ruler and son of Shahjahan, who demolished several religious
structures of Hindus, and ruled for about 50 years. He constructed the ‘Moti Masjid’ in the Red
Fort at Delhi and ‘Bibi ka Makbara’ at Aurangabad.
The Mughal empire started declining with the attack of Nadir Shah who took with him the famous
Kohinoor Diamond to Afghanistan and peacock throne to Iran.
GENERAL AWARENESS 11
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MODERN INDIA
12 GENERAL AWARENESS
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GENERAL AWARENESS 13
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Viceroys of India
1. Lord Canning (1858 - 1862)
Lord Canning was the first Viceroy of India. He abolished The Doctrine of Lapse and also established
three major Indian universities at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras.
2. Lord Litton (1876 - 1880)
Lord Litton introduced The Vernacular Press Act, to curb the freedom of Indian Press.
14 GENERAL AWARENESS
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GENERAL AWARENESS 15
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1875 New York (USA) Theosophical Society Madam H.P. Blavatsky and
Col. H.S. Olcott
First War of Independence 1857 Mangal Pandey was a prominent figure. He killed
two British sepoys at Barrackpore.
Government of India Act 1858 Direct governance of British Crown over India.
Formation of Indian National 1885 A. O. Hume was the founder. W.C. Banerjee was
16 GENERAL AWARENESS
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Formation of Muslim League 1906 Founded by Aga Khan and Salimuddin at Dhaka.
Morley–Minto Reforms 1909 Under these reforms, a separate electorate was made
for Muslims during the leadership of Lord Minto.
Home Rule Movement 1915-16 Annie Besant started the movement in September
1916.
Lucknow Pact 1916 Congress and Muslim League held their sessions
at Lucknow, which strengthened the Hindu–
Muslim unity.
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre 1919 Because of firing, under the orders of General
O ’ D yer, ma ny people wer e ki l le d, whil e
attending a public meeting at Jallianwala Bagh
in Amritsar.
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Dandi March (Salt Satyagraha) 1930 Gandhiji marched from his Sabarmati Ashram,
which was basically a form of protest against
t he t a x o n s a l t i mpos e d b y t he B r i t i s h
Government.
Government of India Act 1935 Passed on the basis of the Simon Commission
report, it envisa ged the structure of the
government under the direct governance of the
‘British Crown’.
Quit India Movement 1942 Mahatma Gandhi led this movement and asked the
Britishers to leave India.
Formation of the Constituent 1946 Without the Muslim league’s participation under
Assembly the Assembly predisency of Dr. Rajendra Prasad,
the Constituent Assembly was formed.
Constitution Enforcement 1950 The Constitution came into force on 26th Jan, 1950.
Major Participants
1. Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey formed a group known as the Central powers.
2 . England, France, Belgium and Serbia later joined by Russia and Italy, were known as the
Allied powers.
18 GENERAL AWARENESS
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Causes of War
The First World War was a consequence of
1. assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria,
2. initiation of war against Serbia by Austria,
3. mobilization of forces against Austria-Hungary by Russia.
Outcome
The Allied forces won the war, Treaty of Versailles was signed, which curbed the power of the
German Empire and led to the creation of many new countries in Eastern Europe.
GENERAL AWARENESS 19
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MAJOR REVOLUTIONS
I. The Russian Revolution (1917)
The main cause of the Russian Revolution was the autocratic rule of the Czars. This revolution led
to the establishment of the rule of Lenin in Russia. In this way Russia became the first communist
state of the World.
II.French Revolution (1789 - 1793)
The autocratic rule of the king of France led the country to financial bankruptcy. The philosophers
and intellectuals inspired the people of France to change the face of the society. “Liberty, Equality
and Fraternity” became the slogan of the revolution. Napoleon Bonaparte emerged as a great
military general of France.
20 GENERAL AWARENESS
In this chapter, you will learn:
l The Structure of the Earth
l The Shape and Composition of the Earth
l The Internal Structure of the Earth
l Important Geographical Terms
Chapter 2
THE EARTH
Earth is the third planet in the solar system in terms of distance from the Sun, and the fifth largest in
size. It is also the largest amongst its planetary system’s terrestrial planets, making it the largest solid
body in the solar system, and it is the only planet in the universe known to support life. The Earth was
formed around 4.57 billion years ago and its largest natural satellite, the Moon, was orbiting it shortly
thereafter, around 4.533 billion years ago.
The Earth’s shape is that of an oblate spheroid, with an average diameter of approximately 12,742 km
(~ 40,000 km /π).
The mass of the Earth is approximately 5.98 ×10 24 kg. It comprises of iron (35.1%), oxygen (28.2%),
silicon (17.2%), magnesium (15.9%), nickel (1.6%), calcium (1.6%) and aluminum (1.5%).
The interior of the Earth, like that of the other terrestrial planets, is
chemically divided into layers. The Earth has an outer silicate solid
crust, a highly viscous mantle, a liquid outer core that is much less
viscous than the mantle, and a solid inner core.
1. Earth’s Hydrosphere
The abundance of water on Earth is a unique feature that
distinguishes ‘The Blue Planet’ from the other planets in the
Solar System. Approximately, 71% of the Earth is covered by
water and only 29% is solid land.
Earth Structure
22 GENERAL AWARENESS
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KINDS OF ROCKS
Rocks are naturally occuring aggregate of minerals. The Earth’s crust and mantle are formed of
rocks. The study of rocks is called Petrology. Rocks are classified by their mineral and chemical
composition, texture of the constituent particles and the process by which they are formed.
The transformation of one rock type to another through geographical process is ca lled the
Rock Cycle.
Types of Rocks
i. Igneous Rocks – Igneous rocks are formed when the molten magma or lava slowly cools and
crystallises within the Earth’s crust. Examples of the Igneous rock are granite,basalt, etc.
ii. Sedimentary Rocks – Sedimentary rocks are formed by the deposition of organic and non-
organic matter over a period of time. The process of deposition is called sedimentation. Commonly
known sedimentary rocks are coal, limestone, sandstone etc.
iii.Metamorphic Rocks – Pressure and change in temprature under the Earth’s surface cause
Igneous and Sedimentary rocks to undergo change. This change leads to the formation of
Metamorphic Rocks.
GENERAL AWARENESS 23
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ii. International Date Line – It is the line that passes through 180º East or West meridian of
longitude which falls on the opposite side of the Greenwich meridian. One day is added when this
line is crossed East to West and a day is deducted when the line passes West to East.
iii.Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) – GMT refers to the 0º longitude that passes through Greenwich
near London.
1
iv. Indian Standard Time (IST) - IST refers to the 82 º longitude that passes through Allahabad
2
1
and is 5 hours ahead of the GMT..
2
v. Solstice - It is the date on which the Sun shines vertically over a tropic when the days and
nights are the longest and the shortest. On the 22nd of June the sun shines vertically over the
Tropic of Cancer and this date is termed as Summer Solstice for the Northern Hemisphere and
Winter Solstice for the Southern Hemisphere. Similarly, on December 22nd , the Sun shines vertically
over the Tropic of Capricorn. Hence it is Summer Solstice for Southern Hemisphere and Winter
Solstice for the Northern Hemisphere.
vi. Equinox - It means two days during the year when the day and night are almost equal throughout
the World because the Sun shines vertically over the Equator. March 21st is called the Vernal
Equinox and September 23rd is called the Autumnal Equinox.
vii. Equator - The Equator represents the imaginary line passing around the Earth midway between
the North and South poles. It divides the Earth into two equal parts.
24 GENERAL AWARENESS
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viii. Meridians - They represent the imaginary lines drawn out on the global map from pole to
pole and perpendicular to the Equator. Prime Meridian is the 0 degree meridian, which passes
through Greenwich, a place near London.
ix. Aphelion - Aphelion refers to that position of the Earth in its orbit, when it is at the greatest
distance from the Sun (about 152 million kms). The Earth reaches this position during the northern
summer. This term also refers to the position of any other planet or a comet, when it is at its
greatest distance from the Sun.
x. Perihelion - Perihelion refers to the nearest point of a heavenly body in its orbit around the
Sun. The Earth at perihelion is at a distance of about 147 million kms from the Sun.
xi. Apogee - Apogee refers to the position of the orbit of the moon when it is at its greatest
distance from Earth. This is approximately 406,000 kms for the Earth.
xii. Perigee - Perigee refers to the point of the moon when it is at its minimum distance from the
Earth. This distance is approximately 364,000 kms.
xiii. Cyclone - Any area of low pressure around which the air turns in the same direction as the
Earth is a cyclone. In the Indian Ocean, a tropical storm with masses of air turning rapidly round
a low pressure area is called a tropical cyclone.
xiv. Typhoon - It is the name given to a tropical cyclone in the Far East.
xv. Hurricane - It is a tropical storm in the Caribbean or West Pacific Ocean, with extremely
strong winds. The wind force reaches 12 on the Beaufort scale.
xvi. Tornado - It is a type of whirlwind which is formed by rising air currents associated with
large cumulonimbus clouds. It rotates in an anticlockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere
and in a clockwise direction in the Southern Hemisphere.
GENERAL AWARENESS 25
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xvii. Estuary - It is the tidal mouth of a river where the salt water of the tide meets the fresh
water of the river current.
xviii. Isobars - Lines on the map denoting places experiencing equal pressure.
xx. Isobronts - Lines joining places experiencing a thunderstorm at the same time.
xxi. Isochrones - Lines joining places located at equal travel time from a common centre.
xxii. Isogonics - Lines joining places with the same magnetic declination.
26 GENERAL AWARENESS
In this chapter, you will learn:
l India at a glance
l Indian Agriculture
l Major Rivers of India
l India’s Mineral Wealth
l Major Industries and Industrial Regions
l States/Union Territories and Capital
l National Parks
l Important towns on the bank of rivers
Chapter 3
Geography of India
®
INDIA AT A GLANCE
India, the seventh largest country of the world, accounts for about 2.4% of the total world area. It is bounded
by the great Himalayas and other snowy mountains in the north. The country stretches southwards and at the
Tropic of Cancer, narrows down and ends into the Indian Ocean between the Bay of Bengal on the East and
the Arabian Sea on the West.
Location
India lies on the Northern Hemisphere between parallels of latitude 37o6’ and 8o4’ North and between the
Meridians of longitude 68o7’ E and 97o25’ East.
Dimensions
The land area covered by Indian mainland is 32, 87,780 Sq Kms. It measures about 3214 Kms from North to
South and 2933 Kms from East to West. The length of the Indian coastline is 7615 Kms. It is bounded by
Arabian Sea in the West, the Indian Ocean in the South and the Bay of Bengal in the East. The coastline of
India is not indented and the sea on the coast is not very deep. The Western coast is rocky while the Eastern
coast is shallow. Therefore, India does not have many good harbours. Only Mumbai and Goa are natural
harbours while all the other are artificial.
Population
India is the second largest country in the World in terms of population. According to the 2001 census, the
population of India was about 10287 crore (16.87% of the World population). The number of males in 2001
was 53.13 crore while the number of females was 49.57 crore. The density of population in India is about 324
persons per square km. The life expectancy is 64 years and the present literacy rate in 2005 was 65.38 percent.
Neighbours
To the North of the country lie China, Nepal, Bhutan and Afghanistan. The East of the country is surrounded
by Myanmar and Bangladesh. Towards the West of India lies Pakistan and in the South, the Indian mainland
is surrounded by Sri Lanka.
INDIAN AGRICULTURE
India primarily has an agrarian economy. About 2/3rd of the population is engaged in agricuture and it provides
livelihood to about 60% of the population. About 43% of the total land area in India is under agricultural
cultivation. It is the second largest contributor to the national income, and accounted for 16% of the national
income.
28 GENERAL AWARENESS
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i. Alluvial Soil – Alluvial soil is formed due the deposition of particles such as silt, gravel and sand by
the rivers in the plains. It is the most fertile soil form found in India and is generally found in regions of
Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Bihar, Haryana and parts of West Bengal. This soil type facilitates the cultivation
of cereals, pulses, sugarcane and wheat.
ii. Black Soil - Also known as the cotton soil, this soil type is rich in iron, lime and alluminium. It
covers 30 percent of the total area of the country. Black soil is generally found in Madhya Pradesh,
Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu and facilitates the cultivation of cotton, wheat,
oil seeds and tobacco.
iii. Red Soil – This soil is red in colour because of the presence of Iron oxides. It is mainly found in
Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Orissa and Chattisgarh and facilitates the cultivation of wheat, millets,
potato and chillies.
iv. Laterite Soil – Laterite soil is highly leached and the least fertile soil type found in India. It is mainly
found in Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu and facilitates the cultivation of tea, coffee, and cashew nut.
Crops State
Rice 1. West Bengal
2. Punjab
Wheat 1. Uttar Pradesh
2. Punjab
Maize 1. Madhya Pradesh
2. Andhra Pradesh
Total Coarse Cereals 1. Maharashtra
2. Karnataka
Total Pulses 1. Madhya Pradesh
2. Uttar Pradesh
Total Foodgrains 1. Uttar Pradesh
2. Punjab
Groundnut 1. Gujarat
2. Tamil Nadu
Rapessed & Mustard 1. Rajasthan
2. Uttar Pradesh
Soyabean 1. Madhya Pradesh
2. Maharashtra
GENERAL AWARENESS 29
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Suflower 1. Karnataka
2. Andhra Pradesh
Total Oilseeds 1. Madhya Pradesh
2. Maharashtra
Cash Crops Sugarcane 1. Uttar Pradesh
2. Maharashtra
Cotton 1. Maharashtra
2. Gujarat
Jute & Mesta 1. West Bengal
2. Bihar
Potato 1. Uttar Pradesh
2. West Bengal
Onion 1. Maharashtra
2. Gujarat
RIVERS OF INDIA
There are four major river routes found in India. These are:
1) Himalayan Rivers – The Himalayan Rivers are snow fed and have water throughout the year.
During monsoon heavy rainfall in the Himalayan region causes frequent floods in these rivers. The
major Himalayan rivers are:
• The Indus and its tributaries- Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej.
• The Ganges and its tributaries- Yamuna, Chambal, Betwa, Sone, Ghagra, Gandak, Gomti etc.
• Brahmaputra and its tributary - Tista.
2) Peninsular Rivers - The Peninsular rivers are only rain fed and fluctuate in volume and a large
number of streams dry up after monsoon. The major peninsular rivers are:
• Mahanadi
• Krishna
• Kaveri – known as the “Ganga of South India”.
• Godavari
• Narmada
• Tapi (also known as Tapti)
3) Coastal Rivers - The coastal rivers, especially on the West Coast, are short and have limited catchment
areas. Most of these are non-perennial as well. Periyar, Mithi and Mandovi are major coastal rivers of
India.
30 GENERAL AWARENESS
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4) Rivers of the inland drainage basin - The rivers on the inland drainage basin consists of those in
Western Rajasthan which are very few and short lived, like the Sambhar, which is lost in the desert
sands, and the Loni that drains into the Rann of Kutch.
India is the largest producer of mica blocks and mica splittings, ranks third in the production of coal,
fourth in iron ore, sixth in bauxite and manganese ore, tenth in aluminium and eleventh in crude steel.
1. Iron
Ranked fourth in the world in iron ore production, India has almost one-fourth of the world’s iron ore
reserves. Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa are major iron
bearing areas. Singhbhum (Jharkhand), Keonjhar, Bonai and Mayurbhanj (all Orissa) are areas with
richest iron deposits in the world. The major iron ore mines are at Chanda, Bastar and Durg districts
in Chhattisgarh.
2. Manganese
Ranked sixth in the world for production of manganese, India is a major exporter of manganese and
possesses one-third of the world’s reserves. It is an important mineral used for the production of steel.
A major portion of the deposits is found in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh and
Jammu and Kashmir.
GENERAL AWARENESS 31
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3. Mica
India’s is the world’s largest producer of Mica. The majority of this product (almost 60%) comes
from Jharkhand. Apart from Jharkhand, Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh are the major producers of
Mica in the country. Since the domestic consumption is not very large most of the Mica produce
is exported.
4. Coal
Ranked third in the production of coal, 80 per cent of the coal is extracted from the mines in West
Bengal and Jharkhand. Huge coal reserves exist in Rani Ganj (West Bengal) and Jharia (Jharkhand).
Other coal bearing areas are in Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra.
5. Bauxite
Bauxite is an aluminium ore which is mainly found in Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, Andhra
Pradesh and Gujarat. These are also the largest aluminium producing areas of the country.
INDIAN STATES
32 GENERAL AWARENESS
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GENERAL AWARENESS 33
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34 GENERAL AWARENESS
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Gulf Of Mannar Marine National Park Coral Reef, Dolphins - Tamil Nadu
Point Calimere Wild Life Sanctuary Dolphins, Turtles, Bonnet macaque Black Buck,
Flamingoes, Gulls - Tamil Nadu
GENERAL AWARENESS 35
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Ahmedabad Sabarmati
36 GENERAL AWARENESS
In this chapter, you will learn:
l Continents of the World l Countries and Parliaments
l The Largest and the Smallest l National Emblems of Countries
countries of the World l New Names of Countries, State and
l Seas and Oceans Cities
l Peaks of the World l Sobriquets
l Least and Most populous countries of l Famous International Boundaries
the World l International Days
l Countries, Capitals and Currencies
Chapter 4
Size Largest
Population Number of Tallest
Continents (Mn. Sq Major River Country (Area
(millions) Countries Mountain
km) Mn. Sq km)
Nile,
Africa 30 877.5 53 Mt. Kilimanjaro Sudan, 2.37
6825 km
Antarctica 13.2 — — Vinson Massif — —
Chang Jiang
Asia 44.5 3879 44 Mt. Everest (Yangtze), China, 9.32
6380 km
Australia / Murray,
7.7 32 14 Puncak Jaya Australia, 7.6
Oceania 3370 km
Volga,
Europe 10.1 727 46 Mt. El’brus Russia, 17.07
3690 km
North Mississippi,
24.7 501.5 23 Mt. McKinley Canada, 9.33
America 5971 km
South Amazon,
17.8 379.5 12 Mt. Aconcagua Brazil, 8.45
America 6437 km
38 GENERAL AWARENESS
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WORLD
The 10 Smallest Countries
Country Area (Sq km) Continent
Vatican City 1 Europe
Monaco 2 Europe
Nauru 21 Oceania
Tuvalu 26 Oceania
San Marino 61 Europe
Liechtenstein 160 Europe
Marshall Islands 181 Oceania
St. Kitts and Nevis 261 North America
Seychelles 270 Europe
Maldives 300 Asia
Malta 316 Europe
The world’s largest salt water lake (Inland sea), is Russia’s Caspian Sea. It has an area of 372,000 Sq. Km.
The largest fresh water lake is Lake Superior, Canada, with an area of 82,100 Sq Km.
GENERAL AWARENESS 39
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40 GENERAL AWARENESS
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Pakistan 162.4
Bangladesh 144.3
Russia 143.4
Nigeria 128.7
Japan 127.4
Smallest Countries
Country Population (Numbers)
Vatican City 920
Tuvalu 11640
Nauru 13050
Palau 20300
San Marino 28880
Monaco 32410
Liechtenstein 33720
St. Kitts 38960
Marshall Islands 59070
Antigua & Barbuda 68720
GENERAL AWARENESS 41
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* Bolivia has 2 capitals, Sucre being the main capital. LaPaz administrative capital.
42 GENERAL AWARENESS
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GENERAL AWARENESS 43
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44 GENERAL AWARENESS
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Country Emblem
Australia Kangaroo
Canada Maple Tree
GENERAL AWARENESS 45
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Denmark Beach
France Lily
Germany Corn Flower
India Lion Capital
Iran Rose
Ireland Shamrock
Italy White Lily
Japan Chrysanthemum
Pakistan Crescent
Spain Eagle
United Kingdom Rose
USA Golden Rod
46 GENERAL AWARENESS
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GENERAL AWARENESS 47
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48 GENERAL AWARENESS
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GENERAL AWARENESS 49
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SOBRIQUETS
17th parallel : Defined the boundary between North Vietnam & South Vietnam
before the two were united.
38th parallel : Boundary line between North Korea & South Korea.
50 GENERAL AWARENESS
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International Days
International Customs Days January 26
World Leprosy Day January 30
International Womens Day March 8
World Disabled day March 15
World Health Day April 7
Earth day April 22
International Labor Day May 1
Mothers Day May (2nd Sunday)
World Red Cross Day May 8
World Telecommunication Day May 17
Commonwealth Day May 24
Anti Tobacco Day May 31
World Environment Day June 5
World Diabetes Day June 27
World Population Day July 11
World Peace Day (Hiroshima day) August 6
Nagasaki Day August 9
International Literacy Day September 8
World Tourism Day September 27
World Postal Day October 9
World Food Day October 16
U.N. Day October 24
World A IDS day December 1
Human Rights Day December 10
GENERAL AWARENESS 51
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52 GENERAL AWARENESS
In this chapter, you will learn:
l The India Constitution
l Indian Legislature
l Indian Judiciary
l Indian Defence
l First in Indian Politics
Chapter 5
Civics
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Salient Features
1. The Constituent Assembly was formed by the order of The Cabinet Mission in 1946.
2. Sachida Prasad Sinha was the temporary President of the Constituent Assembly.
3. Dr. Rajendra Prasad was the permanent President of the Constituent Assembly.
4. Dr. B.R. Ambedker was the chairman of the Drafting Committee.
5. B.N. Rao was the legal advisor of the Constituent Assembly.
6. The Constituent Assembly took 2 years 11 months and 18 days to prepare the largest written
constitution in the World.
7. Rs. 64 lakhs were spent on the making of the Constitution.
8. The original Constitution consisted of 22 parts, 395 articles but at present it has 22 parts,
444 articles and 12 schedules.
9. It was adopted by the Government of India on the 26th of November, 1949.
10. It was enforced by the Government of India on the 26th of January, 1950.
Fundamental Rights
1. Part III (Articles 12 - 35) of the Constitution deals with Fundamental Rights.
2. Originally, seven Fundamental Rights were listed, but after the 44 th Amendment, only six
Fundamental Rights exist. These are
a) Right to Equality (14 - 18)
b) Right to freedom of speech (19)
c) Right against Exploitation (23-24)
d) Right to freedom of Religion (25-28)
e) Culture and Educational Right (29-30)
f) Right to Constitutional Remedies (32-33)
3. Right to Property used to be a Fundamental Right but after the 44th Amendment it became a
legal right.
Fundamental Duties
Article (51-A) included in the Constitution in the 42nd Amendment, lays down 11 Fundamental Duties
that citizens have towards the state. These are:
54 GENERAL AWARENESS
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a) To abide by the Constitution, show respect to the National Flag and the National Anthem.
b) To follow the noble ideas of the freedom struggle.
c) To protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India.
d) To defend one’s country.
e) To promote common brotherhood and establish dignity of women.
f) To preserve our heritage and culture.
g) To protect the natural environment.
h) To develop a scientific temper.
i) To safeguard public property.
j) To strive for excellence in all spheres of activity.
k) Every citizen who is a parent or guardian to provide opportunities for education to his child or
as the case may be ward between the age of 6 & 14 years.
Union Executive
• Part V (Articles 52-78) describe the functioning of the President, Vice president and the parliament.
• The president is elected by the member of an electoral college consisting of the elected members of both
House of Parliament and the elected members of the Legislative Assemblies of the States and the Union
Territory of Delhi and Puducherry.
• Article 55 describes how President is elected. The election is held in accordance with the system of
proportional representation through secret ballot.
• Every elected member of the Legislative Assembly of a State shall have as many votes as there are
multiply of 1000 in the quotient obtained by dividing the pupulation of the State by the total number of
the elected members of Assembly.
• The term of the president is 5 years (Article 56 but can serve for any number of terms).
• The qualifications of the president are laid down in Article 58. To be eligible, a person must be:
a) a citizen of India,
b) has minimum age of thirty-five years,
c) is qualified for election as a member of the Lok Sabha
• A person is not eligible for election as President if he holds any office of profit under
• central government
• state government
• any local or other authority.
• The monthly salary of the president is Rs. one lakh per month.
• There is no limit as to how many times a person can become President.
• Article 61 lays down the procedure for impeachment of the President.
• Article 63-68 lays down the procedure for the Vice-President of India. The Vice-president is ex-officio
chairman of the council of states (Rajaya Sabha) and shall not hold any other office of profit.
GENERAL AWARENESS 55
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• If the president is temporarily unable to discharge his duties, the vice-president discharge his functions.
• The procedure of election of the Vice-president is laid down in Article 66 and is similar to that of the
president. The Vice-president is elected by the members of electoral college consisting of the members
of both House of Parliament in accordance with the system of proportional representation. The basic
qualifications are the same as that of the president.
• The term of office of Vice-president is five years.
• Any disputes in connection with the election of a president or Vice-president are to be decided by the
Supreme Court. (Article 71)
• The president has a power to grant pardons, reprieves, respires of remissions of punishment of commute
the sentence of any person convicted of any offence (Article 72).
• Under Article 74, the Council of ministers with the prime minister as the head, is to aid and advice the
president who shall, in the exercise of his functions, act in accordance with such advice.
• Article 76 - the appointment of Attorney General of India, who gives advice to the government of India
upon legal matters.
• Article 77 says that all executives action of the government of India is to be taken in the name of the
president. In this regard, it is the duty of the prime minister to inform the president about the decision
of the Council of Ministers (Article 78), and to furnish information relating of the Union as the president
may call for.
Kinds of Bills
i. Ordinary Bill - An ordinary bill can be introduced in either of the Houses and can be passed by
a simple majority in both the Houses. In case of a deadlock a joint sitting of both the houses is
possible.
ii. Money Bill (Article 110) – A money bill is concerned with taxation and government spending.
It can be introduced only in the Lok Sabha after prior recommendation of the President. Speaker
of the Lok Sabha is the deciding authority whether the introduced bill is a Money bill or not.
iii. Financial Bill - A bill which is related with revenue and expenditure of the government is a
financial bill.
iv. Constitutional Amendment Bill (Article 368) - This bill can be introduced in either of the
Houses of the Parliament. It can be passed only by a special majority.
INDIAN LEGISLATURE
India is the second largest democracy in the world. The Indian legislature is bicameral i.e. the Indian Parliament
is made up of the Lower House – Lok Sabha, and the Upper House – Rajya Sabha and President.
56 GENERAL AWARENESS
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INDIAN JUDICIARY
Salient Features
1. The Constitution contains provisions related to the Union Judiciary in Articles 124–127.
2. Supreme Court is the apex court of India. Supreme Court has 26 judges including the Chief
Justice. The salary of the Chief Justice is Rs.33000 per month and each judge gets Rs. 30000 per
month. The retirement age of the judges of the Supreme Court is 65 years.
3. High Courts are at the top of hiearchy in the State Judicial System. Presently there are 21 High
Courts in the country. The retirement age of the judges of a High Court is 62 years.
GENERAL AWARENESS 57
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• There is a Council of Ministers with the Chief Minister as the head to aid and advice the Governor
in the exercise of his functions.
• The Legislative Assembly of each state shall consist of not more than five hundred, and not less
than sixty members chosen by direct election. (except Sikkim)
• The Central government distributes taxes and grants-in-aid to States through the decision of the
Finance Commission, stipulated in Article 275. The president constitutes the Finance Commission
at the expiry of 5 years.
• The central Government also distributes grants to States through the development plans prepared
by the Planning Commission.
• Union Territories are administered by the President through the administrator who is appointed by President.
President may appoint the Goveror of a state as the administrator of an adjoining Union Territory.
CAG
• The powers and duties of the Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG) are described in
Articles 149 and 150. He has three main functions: (1) to audit government’s expenditure; (2) to
see that the financial rules are obeyed; and (3) to see the sanction of expenditure.
• Under Article 151, reports of the CAG relating to the Union are submitted to the President, those
relating to the states are submitted to the Governor. These are to be a placed before Parliament and
State Legislature respectively.
Elections
• Under Article 327, Parliament is vested with the Supreme power to legislate on all matters relating
to elections, including election State legislatures. The States have also been vested with certain
limited powers of legislation with respect to elections, Under Article 328. But such legislation
should not be in conflict with any parlimentary.
• One of the outstanding features of the Consitution is adult suffrage. Every person who is not less than 18
years of the age has the right to vote in the election to the House of the People and the State Legislative
Party. The only grounds for disqualifications are: () non residence (ii) unsoundness of mind, (iii) crime,
and (iv) corrupt or illegal practice, Article 325 says that no person will be ineligible for inclusion in, or to
claim to be included in special, electoral roll on grounds of religion, race, caste or sex.
• Article 324 provides that the superintendence, direction and control of election in India to be
vested in and Election Commission. According to the 19th Amendment, the provisions of
constituting election tribunals have been abolished. Election petitions are now heard by the High
Court in appeals. Article 339, however, bars interference by courts in electoral matters. State
election commission conducts election of corporations, municipalities and other local bodies.
58 GENERAL AWARENESS
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The Constitution of India has vested in the Election Commission of India the superintendence, direction
and control of the entire process for the conduct of elections for the Parliament and the Legislature of
every State and for the offices of the President and the Vice-President of India.The law which governs
all the elections in India as mentioned above is the Representation of People Act, 1950.
The Commission presently consists of a Chief Election Commissioner and two Election Commissioners.
Originally, however, the Commission had just one Chief Commissioner. Two Commissioners were
appointed for the first time on October 16, 1989 but their tenure lasted only till January 1, 1990.
On October 1, 1993, two additional Election Commissioners were appointed. The commission has
followed the multi-member structure since then, with decisions taken by a majority vote.
The Election Commission has a Secretariat at New Delhi consisting of about 300 officials.
INDIAN DEFENCE
The President of India is the Supreme Commander of the armed forces. It is on his behalf that the
Defence Minister looks after all the matters concerning the Defence Services. The Defence Minister is
responsible to the Parliament for all matters concerning the Defence. However, the responsibility of
national defence rests with the Cabinet of Ministers. The three services of Defence i.e. Army, Navy and
Air Force, function under their respective Chief of Staff.
Army
Indian Army is responsible for the defence and security of India’s territorial area. The Army is
organised into five operational commmands – Northern, Eastern, Western, Central and Southern and
one Training Command – each headed by a Commander-in-Chief of the rank of Lieutenant General.
The Army, with its headquarter at New Delhi, consists of a number of services such as armoured
corps, regiment of artillery, engineer corps, infantry, army services corps, army medical corps,
intelligence corps, etc. The Chief of the Army is of the designation Major General and is answerable
to the Defence Minister.
Navy
The Indian Navy is responsible for the defence and security of the Indian water. The Navy is organised
into three operational commands – Western, Eastern, and Southern – headquartered at Mumbai,
Vishakhapatnam, and Cochin respectively. The Western and the Eastern commands have under them
operational fleets like warships, submarines, aircrafts and other support ships. The Southern Naval
Command is responsible for all the training activities of the Navy. The designation of The Chief of the
Navy is Admiral and he is answerable to the Defence Minister.
GENERAL AWARENESS 59
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Air Force
The Indian Air Force is responsible for the defence and security of the Indian airspace. The fourth
largest Air Force in the World, it is organised into five operational commands – Western Command,
South-Western Command, Central Air Command, Eastern Air Command, and Southern Air Command
and two functional commands - a Maintainance and a Training command. It is headquartered at New
Delhi. The designation of The Chief of the Air Force is Air Chief Marshall and he is answerable to the
Defence Minister
60 GENERAL AWARENESS
In this chapter, you will learn:
l The Planning Commission
l The Monetary Policy
l The Fiscal Policy
l The Major Public Sector Financial Institutions
l Economic Liberalisation
l Important Sectors in Indian Economy
l Important Industries of India
l Insurance, Stock Exchange
l Census - 2001
Chapter 6
Economics
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The Cabinet Ministers with certain important portfolios act as part-time members of the Commission,
while the full-time members are experts from various fields like Economics, Industry, Science and
General Administration.
The majority of experts in the commission are economists, making the commission the biggest employer
of the Indian Economic Services.
• Second Five Year Plan (1956-61) – The second plan aimed at a pattern of development leading
to a ‘socialist society’ framework for the economy.
• Third Five Year Plan (1961-66) – The third plan aimed at achieving the goals enlisted in the
first two plans and also aimed at achieving self-sufficiency in foodgrains, increase employment
oppurtunities and expand basic and heavy industries.
• Three Annual Plans (1966-69)
• Fourth Five Year Plan (1969-74) – The objectives of the fourth plan were to achieve self-
reliance, and give priority to agriculture, promote industrial production and exports.
• Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-79) – The fifth five year plan aimed at removal of poverty, attaining
economic self reliance and increasing employment oppurtunities in the country.
62 GENERAL AWARENESS
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• Sixth Year Plan (1979-85) – The sixth plan aimed at achieving a annual growth rate of 5.2 per
cent and raising the per capita income by 3.3 per cent.
• Seventh Five Year Plan (1985-90) – The plan focussed on policies and programmes to
increase domestic industria l productivity, employment oppurtunities, and agriculture
productivity by increasing the basic framework and by adopting modern technologies.
• Annual Plans 1990-92
• Eighth Five Year Plan (1992-97) – The plan aimed at achieving a higher outlay of public
sector enterprises to meet the demands of various central and state sectors.
• Ninth Five Year Plan (1997-02) – The plan aimed to achieve an anual growth rate of 6.5 per
cent. The total public sector outlay was Rs. 859000 crore.
• Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-07) – This plan has adopted an aggressive approach. This plan
aims at achieving 8 per cent GDP growth, reduce the poverty ratio to 20 per cent, increase the
literacy rate to 72 per cent, reduce the infant mortality rate to 45 per 1000 births and clean all
major polluted rivers till the end of the plan in 2007.
• Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007-12) – This plan aims to accelerate GDP growth from 8% to 10%
and then maintain at 10% in the 12th Plan in order to double per capita income by 2016-17,increase
literacy rate for persons of age 7 years or more to 85%, reduce infant mortality rate to 28 and maternal
mortality ratio to 1 per 1000 live births and ensure electricity connection to all villages and BPL households
by 2009 and round-the-clock power.
The Monetary Policy thus helps the government to exercise control over the money supply in the
economy.
GENERAL AWARENESS 63
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The pressure on the money supply leads to an increase of prices i.e. an inflationary situation. So the
government, through a proper fiscal policy tries to maximize revenue sources (taxes) and reduce
expenditure, thereby reducing fiscal deficits.
The business domain of SIDBI consists of small scale industrial units, which contribute significantly to
the national economy in terms of production, employment and exports. Small scale industries are the
industrial units in which the investment in plant and machinery does not exceed Rs.10 million. About
3.1 million such units, employing 17.2 million persons account for a share of 36 per cent of India’s
exports and 40 per cent of industrial manufacture. In addition, SIDBI’s assistance flows to the transport,
health care and tourism sectors and also to the professional and self-employed persons setting up
small-sized professional ventures. Mr. Rajendra Mohan Malla is the present chairman and managing
director of the SIDBI.
64 GENERAL AWARENESS
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To meet the emerging challenges and to keep up with reforms in the financial sector, IDBI converted
into a banking company in 2004, to undertake an entire gamut of banking activities. Mr. Yogesh Agarwal
is the present Chairman and Managing Director of the IDBI bank.
ii. Takes measures towards institution building for improving absorptive capacity of the credit
delivery system, including monitoring, formulation of rehabilitation schemes, restructuring of
credit institutions, training of personnel, etc.
iii. Co-ordinates the rural financing activities of all institutions engaged in developmental work at
the field level and maintains liaison with the Government of India, State Governments, the Reserve
Bank of India (RBI) and other national level institutions concerned with policy formulation.
GENERAL AWARENESS 65
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faced by the country. The new economic framework adopted by the government did away with the
Licence Raj (investment, industrial and import licensing) system and ended many public monopolies.
The policy aimed at allowing foreign direct investment (FDI) in many sectors of the economy. Even
though the foreign direct investment ceiling was removed by the government in 1991, it was only in
1996 that foreign investors started showing confidence in the Indian economy and large sectors saw
the inflow of foreign capital.
Since then, the overall direction of liberalisation has remained the same, irrespective of the ruling party,
although no party has yet tried to take on powerful lobbies such as the trade unions and farmers, or
contentious issues such as reforming labour laws and reducing agricultural subsidies.
Green Revolution
Indian Green Revolution is associated with the use of HYVS (High Yielding Variety Seeds). Chemical
fertilizers and new technology led to a sharp rise in agricultural production during the middle of
1960.
The term Green Revolution was given by Americal Scientist, Dr. William Gande.
During the middle of sixties, Indian agriculture scientists developed a number of new high yielding
varieties of wheat by processing wheat seeds imported from Mexico. A similar improvement in
variety of rice was also observed.
The credit of this goes not only to Nobel Laureate Dr. Norman Borlaug. But also to Dr. M.S.
Swaminathan. Dr. M.S. Swaminathan is also known as the father of the Green Revolution in
India.
66 GENERAL AWARENESS
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Other Revolutions
Revolution Area
Yellow Revolution Oil Seeds
White Revolution Milk
Blue Revolution Fish
Pink Revolution Shrimp
Grey Revolution Egg
Golden Revolution Horticulture
GENERAL AWARENESS 67
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68 GENERAL AWARENESS
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v) Fertilizer Industry:
India is the third largest producer of nitrogeneous fertilizers in the world.
There are at present, 57 fertilizer units manufacturing a wide range of nitrogeneous and complex fertilizers,
including 29 units producing urea and 9 units producing ammonium sulphate as a by-product.
NAVRATNAS
In 1997, the Government identified nine leading, well performing and high profit making public enterprises
as Navratnas (Nine Precious Jewels). Later, on the same year, two more were added to the list.
They have been given special powers including freedom to form new joint ventures, make new
investments and authorized to raise money.
GENERAL AWARENESS 69
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INSURANCE
Insurance has been an important part of the Indian financial system. Until recently, insurance services
were provided by the public sector, i.e. life insurance by the Life Insurance Corporation of India and
general insurance by the General Insurance Corporation and its four Subsidaries. This insurance industry
was opened to the Private sector in August 2000. After the opening, 12 new companies have entered
life segment and 9 companies in the non life segment.
1. Life Insurance Corporation (LIC)
Established : Sept, 1956
Head Office : Mumbai
Zonal Offices : 8 (Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi, Chennai, Kanpur, Hyderabad, Bhopal, Patna)
70 GENERAL AWARENESS
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STOCK EXCHANGES
Stock exchange or share market plays a dominant role in mobilizing resources for corporate sector. It
is a market for dealing in shares, debentures and financial securities. In the stock exchange, shares and
debentures are bought and sold for investment as well as for speculative purposes. There are 24 stock
exchanges in the country.
CENSUS-2001
Total Population : 1,02,70,15,247
Males : 531,277,078
Females : 495,738,169
Population Growth : 21.34%
Males : 20.93%
Females : 21.70%
Average Yearly Growth Rate : 1.93%
Density of population : 324
Sex Ratio : 933
Literacy Rate : 65.38
Males : 75.85
Females : 54.16
Life Expectancy : 62 years
Child Population : 15.42%
MAXIMUM POPULATION
Uttar Pradesh : 16.6 crore
Maharashtra : 9.7 crore
Bihar : 8.3 crore
West Bengal : 8.0 crore
Andhra Pradesh : 7.6 crore
MINIMUM POPULATION
Sikkim : 5.4 lakh
Mizoram : 8.9 lakh
Arunachal Pradesh : 10.9 lakh
Goa : 13.4 lakh
Nagaland : 19.8 lakh
GENERAL AWARENESS 71
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72 GENERAL AWARENESS
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TOTAL POPULATION
Delhi : 1.3 crore
Pondicherry : 9.7 lakh
Chandigarh : 9.0 lakh
Andaman and Nicobar : 3.5 lakh
Dadra and Nagar Haveli : 2.2 lakh
Lakshadweep : 0.6 lakh
GENERAL AWARENESS 73
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POPULATION DENSITY
Delhi : 9294
Chandigarh : 7903
Pondicherry : 2029
Lakshadwep : 1894
Daman and Diu : 1411
Dadar and Nagar Haveli : 449
Andaman and Nicobar : 43
SEX RATIO
Pondicherry : 1001
Daman and Diu : 989
Lakshadweep : 947
Andaman and Nicobar : 846
Delhi : 821
Dadar and Nagar Haveli : 811
Chandigarh : 773
LITERACY RATE
Lakshadweep : 87.52
Delhi : 81.82
Chandigarh : 81.76
Pondicherry : 81.49
Andaman and Nicobar : 81.18
Daman and Diu : 81.09
Dadar and Nagar Haveli : 60.03
74 GENERAL AWARENESS
In this chapter, you will learn:
l The United Nations Organisation (UNO)
l Important International Agencies and their Headquaters
Chapter 7
At present, there are 192 members 8 the UNO. Taiwan and Vatican City are not members. Vatican City
is the permanent observer for the UN.
76 GENERAL AWARENESS
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UN Secretary Generals
1. Trygve Lie (Norway) 1946-53
2. Dag Hammarskjold (Sweden) 1953-61
3. U Thant (Burma) 1961-71
4. Kurt Waldheim (Austria) 1972-81
5. Javier Perez De Gueller (Peru) 1982-91
6. Boutros Boutros Ghali (Egypt) 1992-96
7. Kofi Annan (Ghana) 1997-2007
8. Ban Ki Moon (South Korea) 2007- till date
1. The United Nations Development Program (UNDP) - UNDP is the UN‘s global development
network advocating change and connecting countries to share knowledge and resources which
helps build a better life in countries across the globe. Presently it has offices in 166 member
countries. UNDP is headquartered at New York, US.
2. The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) – UNICEF was initially set up in 1946 as an
emergency fund to provide post-war relief to children in different countries. Today, as a children’s
fund, UNICEF concentrates its activities on providing assistance to children and mothers in
developing countries, aiming at improving their quality of life. UNICEF is headquartered at New
York, US.
3. The United Nations Educational and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) – UNESCO was founded
on 16 November 1945 to assist developing countries in their educational projects, to help the
countries in scientific development and to build cultural understanding between the nations.
UNESCO is headquartered at Paris, France.
4. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) – IMF is an international organisation having 184
member countries. It was established in 1945 to promote international monetary co-operation and
exchange stability between nations which in turn would promote economic growth and increase
employment opportunities. IMF also provides temporary financial assistance to its member countries
to ease their balance of payment. IMF is headquartered at Washington DC, US.
5. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD, commonly known as
the World Bank) – The ‘World Bank’ was formed after the Bretton Woods conference in 1944,
but begun operations in 1946. It aims at providing financial and technical assistance to developing
countries around the World. Presently World Bank has 184 member countries and is headquartered
at Washinton DC, US.
6. The World Trade Organisation (WTO) – WTO was formed as an international trade body to
replace General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT) in 1995. WTO is the only international
body dealing with rules of trade between the countries to help producers of goods and services,
GENERAL AWARENESS 77
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78 GENERAL AWARENESS
In this chapter, you will learn:
l The Highest, Longest, Largest, Biggest etc. in the World
Chapter 8
The Superlatives
®
THE SUPERLATIVES
80 GENERAL AWARENESS
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GENERAL AWARENESS 81
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82 GENERAL AWARENESS
In this chapter, you will learn:
l Names of Books and Authors
Chapter 9
Autobiographies
Babur–Nama Babur
Made in Japan Akio Morita
Mein Kamph Adolf Hitler
Moon Walk Michael Jackson
Sunny Days Sunil Gavaskar
Wings of Fire APJ Abdul Kalam
Biographies
Ain-I-Akbari Abul Fazal
Akbarnama Abul Fazal
Idols Sunil Gavaskar
Shahnama Firdausi
Classic
All’s Well that Ends well William Shakespeare
A Tale of Two Cities Charles Dickens
Anna Karenina Leo Tolstoy
Antony and Cleopatra William Shakespeare
As You like it William Shakespeare
Abhijnanshakuntalam Kalidas
Babbit Sinclair Lewis
Ceaser and Cleopatra George Bernard Shaw
The Comedy of Errors Shakespeare
David Copperfield Charles Dickens
Devdas Sharat Chandra Chatterjee
Doctor Zhivago Boris Pasternak
Don Quixote Miguel de Cervantes
Fountain Head Ayn Rand
Gone with the Wind Margaret Mitchell
Gulliver’s Travels Jonathan Swift
84 GENERAL AWARENESS
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GENERAL AWARENESS 85
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Descriptive
Area of Darkness V. S. Naipaul
Freedom from Fear Aung San Su Kyi
Long Walk to Freedom Nelson Mandela
Maneaters of Kumaon Jim Corbett
Origin of Species Charles Darwin
Sadar-I-Riyasat Karan Singh
Starry Nights Shobha De
Economics
New Dimensions of
India’s Foreign Policy A B Vajpayee
Wealth of Nations Adam Smith
Fantasy
Adventures of Tom Sawyer Mark Twain
The Class Eric Segal
Dr. JekyII and Mr. Hyde Robert Louis Stevenson
One Hundred Years of Solitude Gabrial Garcla Marquez
Other Side of Midnight, The Sidney Sheldon
Swami and Friends R.K. Narayan
86 GENERAL AWARENESS
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Fiction
Adventures of Sherlock Holmes Sir Arthur Conan Doyle
Adventure of Robinson Crusoe Daniel Defoe
Adventures of Tom Sawyer Mark Twain
Alice in Wonderland Lewis Carrol
A Bend In the River V S Naipaul
A Suitable Boy Vikram Seth
An Equal Music Vikram Seth
Arabian Nights Richard Burton
Being Digital Nicholas Negroponte
Catcher in the Rye J D Sallinger
Canterbury Tales Geoffrey Chaucer
Chitra Rabindranath Tagore
City of Joy Domonique Lapiere
Coolie Mulk Raj Anand
East West Salman Rushdie
Fury Salman Rushdie
Future Shock Alvin Toffler
Godfather Mario Puzo
Godan Munshi Prem Chand
The Guide R.K. Narayan
Gulliver’s Travels Jonathan Swift
Half a Life V S Naipaul
Harsha Charita Bana Bhatt
Inscrutable Americans Anurag Mathur
Interpreter of Maladies Jhumpa Lahiri
Iron in the soul Jean Paul Sartre
Ivanhoe Walter Scott
The Judgement Kuldip Nayar
Jungle Book Rudyard Kipling
Kim Rudyard Kipling
Life Divine Aurobindo Ghosh
Lajja Tasleema Nasreen
GENERAL AWARENESS 87
®
Lolita V. Nabakov
Love Story Eric Segal
Malgudi Days R K Narayan
Midnight’s children Salman Rushdie
Moor’s Last Sigh Salman Rushdie
Mother Moxim Gorky
Nice Guys Finish Second B K Nehru
Panchatantra Vishnu Sharma
Post Office Rabindranath Tagore
The Satanic Verses Salman Rushdie
Shape of Things to Come H. G. Wells
Shame Salman Rushdie
The Last Don Mario Puzo
The Tin Drum Guenter Grass
Treasure Island R L Stevenson
Two Leaves and a Bud Mulk Raj Anand
Unofficial Guide to Ethical Hacking Ankit Fadia
Vish Vriksha Bankim Chandra Chatterjee
War and Peace Leo Tolstoy
History Books
Arthashastra Kautilya
August 1914 (H) Alexander Solzhenitsyn
Ben Hur Lewis Wallace
Communist Manifesto Karl Marx
Discovery of India Jawahar Lal Nehru
Hindu View of Life D. S. Radhakrishnan
India-A Wounded Civilisation V S Naipaul
India Divided Rajendra Prasad
India Wins Freedom Maulana Abul Kalam Azad
Indian Home Rule M. K. Gandhi
Indian Philosophy D. S. Radhakrishnan
Man and Superman George Bernard Shaw
A Passage to India E. M. Forster
Wake up India Annie Besant
The Wonder that Was India A.L. Basham
88 GENERAL AWARENESS
®
Poetry
Bharat Bharati Maithili Sharan Gupt
Geet Govinda Jaya Dev
Gitanjali Rabindranath Tagore
Rubaiyat Omar Khayyam
Philosophy
Atlas Shrugged Ayn Rand
Geet govinda Jaya Dev
Voice of Conscience V. V. Giri
Psychology
Crime and Punishment Fyodor Dostoevsky
Games People Play Eric Berne
Man of Destiny George Bernard Shaw
Satyartha Prakash Swami Dayanand
Sociology
Das Kapital Karl Marx
Diplomacy Henry Kissinger
Gita Rahasya Bal Gangadhar Tilak
Grammer of Politics Harold Laski
Politics Aristotle
Republic Plato
Sub Regionalism in Asia Abul Kalam Azad
Surviving Men Khushwant Singh
The Degeneration of India T. N. Seshan
Untouchable Mulk Raj Anand
Utopia Thomas Moore
Miscellaneous
Area of Darkness V. S. Naipaul
Between the lines Kuldip Nayar
Brave New world Aldous Huxley
Broken wing Sarojini Naidu
GENERAL AWARENESS 89
®
90 GENERAL AWARENESS
In this chapter, you will learn:
l Common Terminologies
l Important Cups and Trophies
l Major Sporting Events
Chapter 10
Sports
®
Basketball Basket, blocking, dribbling, free throw, held ball, holding, jump ball, pivot
Billiards Bauik line, bolting, cannon, cue hazard, long jenny, scratch, screwback, short
jenny, spot stroke
Boxing Babit punch, break, cut, defence, hook, jab lying on, knock, slam, upper cut,
weight in, knockout
Bridge Chicane, dealer, dummy, finesse, grand slam, little slam, no trump, revoke,
rubber, suit, tricks, vulnerable
Chess Bishop, castle, checkmate, gambit, king, knight, pawn, queen, rook, stalemate
Cricket Ashes, boundary, bowling, caught, chinaman, cover drive, crease, duck, follow
on, googly, gully, hat trick, hit wicket, LBW, leg break, leg bye, maiden over,
no ball, off break, on drive, over pitch, popping crease, rubber, run out, sixer,
silly point, square leg, straight drive, stumped, wicket
Football Corner kick, dribble, free kick, goal kick, hat-trick, off side, penalty kick,
throw in, tripping
Golf Best ball, bogey, bunker, caddie, dormy, fairway, fourball, greed holes, links,
niblic, par, put, rough, stymied, tee
Hockey Bully, corner, dribble, hat-trick, offside, roll-in, scoop, short corner, stick,
striking circle, tie break
Tennis Backhand stroke, crosscourt, deuce, double fault, fault, forehand, ground stroke,
half volley, let, smash, slice, volley
92 GENERAL AWARENESS
®
ii. Cricket – Ashes, Champions Trophy, C.K.Naidu Trophy, County Championships, Duleep
Trophy, Gavaskar-Border Trophy, ICC World Cup, Irani Trophy, Ranji Trophy, and Sheffield
Shield Cup.
iii. Football – African Nations Cup, Asia Cup, Confederations Cup, Durand Cup, English Premier
League, Federation Cup, FIFA World Cup, German Bundeslga, Italian Serie A, Merdeka Cup, NFL
Cup, Santosh Trophy, Spanish LA Liga, and UEFA Cup.
iv. Golf – British Open, Ryder Cup, US Open, and Walker Cup.
v. Hockey – Agha Khan Cup, Champions Trophy, Dhyan Chand Trophy, Sultan Azlan Shah
Trophy, and World Cup.
vi. Tennis – ATP Masters, Australian Open Championships, Champions Cup, Davis Cup, Federation
Cup, French Open Championships, US Open Championships, and Wimbeldon Championships.
Olympic Symbol (five rings) – The Olympic Symbol comprises of five rings linked together to
represent sporting friendship amongst countries. The rings represent the five continents – Europe,
Africa, America, Asia and Australia.
Olympic Games are held every four years. The table below gives the details of Olympic Games
held till date. No games were held in 1916, 1940 and 1944.
GENERAL AWARENESS 93
®
Year Place
1896 Athens
1900 Paris
1904 St. Louis
1908 London
1912 Stockholm
1920 Antwerp
1924 Paris
1928 Amsterdam
1932 Los Angeles
1936 Berlin
1948 London
1952 Helsinki
1956 Melbourne
1960 Rome
1964 Tokyo
1968 Mexico City
1972 Munich
1976 Montreal
1980 Moscow
1984 Los Angeles
1988 Seoul
1992 Barcelona
1996 Atlanta
2000 Sydney
2004 Athens
2008 Beijing
2012 London (scheduled)
94 GENERAL AWARENESS
®
2. Commonwealth Games – The Commonwealth Games are the second largest sporting event
in the World after Olympics. These games are held every four years between the years of the
Olympic Games. The games involve atheletes from Commonwealth Nations (majority erstwhile
colonies of the British). Started in 1930, the games were originally called the British Empire
Games. It was in 1978 that the present name of the Commonwelth Games was adopted. The
table below gives the details of the Commonwealth Games till date. The games were not held
from 1939 till 1949.
Year Venue
1930 Hamilton
1934 London
1938 Sydney
1950 Auckland
1954 Vancouver
1958 Cardiff
1962 Perth
1966 Jamaica
1970 Edinburgh
1974 Christchurch
1978 Edmonton
1982 Brisbane
1986 Edinburgh
1990 Auckland
1994 Victoria
2002 Manchester
2006 Melbourne
GENERAL AWARENESS 95
®
3. Asian Games – The Asian Games, also called the Asiad, is a sporting event on the lines of the
Olympic Games held every four years among atheletes from all over Asia. India played a leading
role in starting an event for the Asian nations. The motto of the Asian Games is ‘Ever Onward’.
The table below gives the details of Asian Games till date.
Year Venue
1951 New Delhi
1954 Manila
1958 Tokyo
1962 Jakarta
1966 Bangkok
1970 Bangkok (originally had to be hosted by Seoul)
1974 Tehran
1986 Seoul
1990 Beijing
1994 Hiroshima
1998 Bangkok
2002 Busan
2006 Doha
2010 Guangzhou (scheduled)
4. Cricket World Cup – The Cricket World Cup is a premier international championship for one
day cricket in the world. The event is organised once every four years by the sport’s governing
body, The International Cricket Council (ICC) and is contested by all Test playing nations (presently
10) plus the qualifying teams. The table below gives the details of the World Cups held till date.
96 GENERAL AWARENESS
®
Australia &
1992 Pakistan England
New Zealand
South Africa,
2003 Australia India
Zimbabwe & Kenya
5. Hockey World Cup – The Hockey World Cup is a premier international field hockey competition
organised by the International Hockey Federation (FIH) once every four years. The tournament
was started in 1971. The table below gives the details of each World Cup held till date.
Amstelveen,
1973 Netherlands India
The Netherlands
Monchengladbach,
2006 Germany Australia
Germany
GENERAL AWARENESS 97
®
6. Football World Cup - The Football/Soccer World Cup is an international football competition
contested by the national teams of the member nations of Federation Internationale de Football
Association (FIFA). The tournament started in 1930 and is held every four years, but could not
be held in 1942 and 1946 due to World War II. The table below gives details of the last ten
World Cups.
West
1974 West Germany Netherlands
Germany
West
1990 Italy Argentina
Germany
98 GENERAL AWARENESS
®
Australian open
Maria
Novak Djokovic Jo-Wilfried Ana Ivanovic
2008 Sharapova
(Serbia)) Tsonga (France) (Serbia)
(Russia)
Fernando
Roger Federer Serena Williams Maria Sharapova
2007 Gonzalez
(Switzerland) (USA) (Russia)
(Chile)
French Open
GENERAL AWARENESS 99
®
Wembledon
Wembledon
2008 Scheduled
Justine Svetlona
Roger Federer Novak Djokovic
2007 Henin-Hardene Kuznetsova
(Switzerland) (Serbia))
(Belgium) (Russia)
Justine
Roger Federer Andy Roddick Maria
2006 Henin-Hardene
(Switzerland) (USA) Sharapova (Russia)
(Belgium)
Justine
Andy Roddick Juan Carlos Kim Clijsters
2003 Henin-Hardene
(USA) Ferrero (Spain) (Belgium)
(Belgium)
Chapter 11
Popular Awards
®
INTERNATIONAL AWARDS
1. Nobel Prizes
The Nobel Prizes are awarded annually to people (and, in the case of the Peace Prize, sometimes
to organisations) who have completed outstanding research, invented ground-breaking techniques
or equipment, or made an outstanding contribution to society in physics, chemistry, literature,
peace, medicine or physiology and economics. They are widely regarded as the supreme com-
mendation in their respective subject areas. Those honoured are known as Nobel Laureates.
The Prizes were instituted by the Swedish scientist Alfred Nobel through his will. They were first
awarded in 1901, five years after Nobel’s death. The prize in economics, instituted by the Bank of
Sweden, has been awarded since 1969.
As of September 2007, a total of 799 Nobel Prizes have been awarded, 777 to individuals (33 of
these to women), 20 to organizations and 2 were awarded in different categories.
Prize Categories
The Man Booker Prize for Fiction, also known as the Booker Prize, is one of the world’s
most prestigious literary prizes, awarded each year for the best original full-length novel
written by a citizen of the Commonwealth or the Republic of Ireland in the English lan-
guage. The Booker prize was started by Booker McConnel, a multinational conglomerate
company in 1969. This award is administered by Book Trust in the United Kingdom. For the
year 2007, the prize has been awarded to Ireland novelist Anne Enright for ‘ The Gathering’.
Ramon Magsaysay Award or the Magsaysay Award is the Asian equivalent of the Nobel Prize. The
Ramon Magsaysay Award was established in April 1957 by the trustees of the Rockefeller Broth-
ers Fund (RBF) based in New York City. With the concurrence of the Philippine government, the
prize was created to commemorate Ramon Magsaysay, the late President of the Philippines, and
to perpetuate his example of integrity in government, courageous service to the people, and prag-
matic idealism within a democratic society.
Every year the Ramon Magsaysay Award Foundation gives away prizes to Asian individuals
and organizations for achieving excellence in their respective fields. The awards are given in
six categories:
• Government Service
• Public Service
• Community Leadership
• Journalism, Literature and Creative Communication Arts
• Peace and International Understanding
• Emergent Leadership
INDIAN AWARDS
1. Civilian Awards
Bharat Ratna – The title ‘Bharat Ratna’ translates literally to ‘the Gem of India’. It is the highest
civilian award in India given for exceptional contribution to the field of Art, Literature, Science
and Public Service. The award was instituted by Dr. Rajendra Prasad, the first president of India
in 1954. The award initially carried a gold medal 35mm in diameter having ‘Sun’ on one side and
state ‘National Emblem’ on the other. The design of the medal was altered a year later in 1955.
The first Bharat Ratna was awarded to Dr. Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan in 1954. The last awardees
were Lata Mangeshkar and late Ustad Bismillah Khan in 2001.
iii. Dada Saheb Phalke Award – The Dada Saheb Phalke Award is the highest honour pre-
sented by the Indian government to an artist who over the years has, made a significant
contribution to the field of cinema. The award was instituted in 1969, the birth centenary
year of Dada Saheb Phalke, the father of Indian cinema. The first winner of the award was
actress Devika Rani. Shyam Bengal was the recipient of the award for 2005.
Chapter 12
Abbreviations
®
ABBREVIATIONS
AAA : Asian Atheletics Association
AAFI : Amateur Atheletics Federation of India
ABC : Atomic Biological and Chemical (warfare)
ABLE : Association of Biotechnology led Enterprises
AC : Ante Christum
AD : Anno Domini
ADB : Asian Development Bank
ADBS : Advanced Data Broadcast System
AFI : Atheletics Federation of India
AFMS : Armed Forces Medical College
AFP : Agence France Presse
AG : Accountant General
AI : Artificial Intelligence
AIDS : Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome
AIG : American International Group
AINEC : All India Newspaper Editors’ Conference
ALGOL : Algebraic Oriented Language
AMIE : Associate Member of the Institute of Engineers
ANC : African National Congress
ANERT : Agency for Non-conventional Energy and Rural Technology
ANN : Artificial Neural Network
AOC : Air Officer Commanding
APCTT : Asian and Pacific Centre for Transfer of Technology
AQA : Assessment and Qualification Alliance
APEC : Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation
APM : Administered Price Mechanism
ARPANET : Advanced Research Project Agency Network
ART : Assisted Reproductive Technologies
ASCII : American Standard Code for Information Interchange
ASEAN : Association of South East Asian Nations
ASEM : Asia-Europe Meeting
ASLV : Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle
ASPO : Asoociation for the Study of Peak Oil and Gas
ASP : Application Service Provider
ATC : Air Traffic Control
ATM : Automated Teller Machine
ESCAP : Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific
ESMA : Essential Services Maintenance Act
ESR : Electron Spin Resonance
ETT : Embryo Transfer Technology
EVA : Economic Value Added
EVE : Economic Valuation of the Environment
FAO : Food and Agriculture Organisation
FBI : Federal Bureau of investigation
FBT : Fringe Benefit Tax
FBTR : Fast Breeder Test Reactor
FCI : Food Corporation of India
FCRA : Foreign Contribution Regulation Act
FEMA : Foreign Exchange Management Act
FIFA : Federation Internationale de Football Association
FIR : First Information Report
FIRE : Fully integrated robotised engine
FLAG : Fibre optic Link Around the Globe
FOSDIC : Film Optical Sensing Device for Input to Computers
FPD : Flat panel display
FTII : Films and Television Institute of India
GAAP : Generally Accepted Accounting Practices
GAIN : Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition
GATS : General Agreement on Trade and Services
GDP : Gross Domestic Product
GDR : Global Depository Receipt
GLS : Geographical Information System
GMO : Genetically Modified Organisms
GPS : Global Positioning System
GSI : Geological Survey of India
GSLV : Geo-Synchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle
GSM : Global System for Mobile Communications
HAL : Hindustan Aeronautics Limited.
HFD : High Frequency
HIV : Human Immunodeficiency Virus
HTML : Hyper Text Markup Language
HTR : High Temperature Reactor
Http : Hypertext Transfer Protocol
HUDCO : Housing and Urban Development Corp.
IA : Indian Airlines
Chapter 13
Science
®
The human body is composed of billions of cells to perform various functions. The cells are organised to
from tissues, tissues are organised to from organs, and organs together form organ system and so on.
Human body consists of many specialised organ systems such as skeletal system, muscular system, nervous
system, digestive system, respiratory system, circulatory system, etc.
1. Skeletal system: It is made up of all the bones of the body and tissues such as tendons, ligaments
and cartilage that connects them. In humans, the skeletal system is made up of 206 bones and few
cartilages.
Functions:
Its 206 bones form a rigid framework to which the softer tissues and organs of the body are
attached.
Vital organs are protected by the skeletal system. The brain is protected by the surrounding skull
and the heart and lungs are encased by the sternum and rib cage.
The movement in the body is carried out by the interaction of skeletal and muscular system.
Bone marrow is the site of production of red blood cells. An average of 2.6 million red blood cells
is produced each second by the bone marrow to replace those worn out and destroyed by the liver.
Bones serve as a storage area for minerals such as calcium and phosphorus. When an excess is
present in the blood, buildup will occur within the bones. When the supply of these minerals within
the blood is low, it will be withdrawn from the bones to replenish the supply.
2. Muscular system: There are several types of muscles such as cardiac, smooth and skeletal
muscles that form a part of muscular system. The muscular system is composed of over 600
muscles. Differences between each muscle are recognized by location, function, structure, and the
way they are contracted.
Functions:
The main function of muscular system is movement. Muscles in coordination with bones, joints,
and some other tissues provide movement to the body.
The integrated action of joints, bones, and skeletal muscles produces obvious movements such as
walking and running.
Skeletal muscles also produce more subtle movements that result in various facial expressions, eye
movements, and respiration.
In addition to movement, muscle contraction also fulfills some other important functions in the
body, such as posture, joint stability, and heat production. Posture, such as sitting and standing, is
maintained as a result of muscle.
3. Digestive system: The digestive system includes the digestive tract and its accessory organs,
which process food into molecules that can be absorbed and utilized by the cells of the body. The
digestive tract, also called the alimentary canal or gastrointestinal (GI) tract, consists of a long
continuous tube that extends from the mouth to the anus. It includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus,
stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. The tongue and teeth are accessory structures located
in the mouth. The salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas are major accessory organs that
have a role in digestion. These organs secrete fluids into the digestive tract.
Functions:
The main function of digestive system is to break down the food particles into smaller and smaller
particles so that they get absorbed in the blood.
4. Respiratory system: Respiration is the sequence of events that results in the exchange of oxygen
and carbon dioxide between the atmosphere and the body cells.
We generally associate breathing to be the only function of the Respiratory system, breathing is
only one of the activities of the respiratory system. The body cells need a continuous supply of
oxygen for the metabolic processes that are necessary to maintain life. The respiratory system
works with the circulatory system to provide this oxygen and to remove the waste products of
metabolism. It also helps to regulate pH of the blood.
The process of breathing, which involves inhalation and exhalation moves air into and out of the
lungs.
After this, there is an exchange of gases between the lungs and the blood. This is called external
respiration. The blood transports the gases to and from the tissue cells. The exchange of gases
between the blood and tissue cells is internal respiration. Finally, the cells utilize the oxygen for their
specific activities. This is cellular metabolism, or cellular respiration. Together these activities constitute
respiration.
5. Circulatory system: This system is also known as cardio-vascular system. It consists of the
heart, a muscular pumping device, and a closed system of vessels called arteries, veins, and capillaries.
The blood is pumped by the heart around a close circuit of vessels. The vital role of the cardiovascular
system in maintaining homeostasis depends on the continuous and controlled movement of blood
through the thousands of miles of capillaries that permeate every tissue and reach every cell in the
body.
It is in the microscopic capillaries that blood performs its ultimate transport function. Nutrients and other
essential materials pass from capillary blood into fluids surrounding the cells as waste products are removed.
7. Urinary system: The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra.
The kidneys form the urine and account for the other functions.
The urinary system maintains an appropriate fluid volume by regulating the amount of water that is
excreted in the urine. Other aspects of its function include regulating the concentrations of various
electrolytes in the body fluids and maintaining normal pH of the blood. Although the urinary system
has a major role in excretion, other organs contribute to the excretory function. The lungs in the
respiratory system excrete some waste products, such as carbon dioxide and water. The skin is
another excretory organ that rids the body of wastes through the sweat glands. The liver and intestines
excrete bile pigments that result from the destruction of hemoglobin. The major task of excretion still
belongs to the urinary system. If it fails the other organs cannot take over and compensate adequately.
8. Nervous system: The nervous system is composed of organs, principally the brain, spinal cord,
nerves. These, in turn, consist of various tissues, including nerve, blood, and connective tissue.
Together these carry out the complex activities of the nervous system. The nervous system is the
major controlling, regulatory, and communicating system in the body. It is the center of all mental
activity including thought, learning, and memory.
9. Endocrine system: The endocrine system, along with the nervous system, functions in the regulation
of body activities. The endocrine system acts through chemical messengers called hormones that
influence growth, development, and metabolic activities.
There are basically two types of glands— endocrine and exocrine gland. The endocrine glands are
also known as ductless glands. The secretory products of endocrine glands are called hormones
and are secreted directly into the blood and then carried throughout the body where they influence
only those cells that have receptor sites for that hormone. There are eight major endocrine glands
scattered throughout the body. These are Pituitary and pineal gland; thyroid and parathyroid gland;
adrenal gland; pancreas; gonads(testes and ovaries), etc.
Some glands also have non-endocrine regions that have functions other than hormone secretion.
For example, the pancreas has a major exocrine portion that secretes digestive enzymes and an
endocrine portion that secretes hormones. The ovaries and testes secrete hormones and also produce
the ova and sperm.
The word cell is derived from a Latin word ‘cellula’, which means ‘a little room’.
Robert Hooke was the scientist who coined the term cell. He observed the cells while examining a
thin slice of cork. The human body, which is made up of numerous cells, begins as a single, newly
fertilized cell.
Cells constitute various components of plants and animals. A cell is the smallest unit of life and is
capable of all living functions. Cells are the building blocks of life. This is the reason why cells are
referred to as the basic structural and functional units of life.
The cell theory that all plants and animals are composed of cells and that cell is the basic unit of life
was presented by two biologist, Schleiden (1838) and Schwann (1839).
The cell theory was further expanded by Rudolf Virchow in 1855. He suggested that all cells arise
from pre-existing cells.
There are many different types, sizes, and shapes of cells in the body. For descriptive purposes, the
concept of a “generalized cell” is introduced. It includes features from all cell types. A cell consists
of three parts: the cell membrane, the nucleus, and between the two, the cytoplasm. Within the
cytoplasm lie intricate arrangements of fine fibers and hundreds or even thousands of miniscule but
distinct structures called organelles.
Cell membrane is an extremely delicate, thin, elastic, and living membrane of the cell. It surrounds the
cytoplasm of the cell and regulates the movement of substances in and out of the cell. This means that the
cell membrane allows the entry of only some substances and prevents the movement of some other materials.
Therefore, the cell membrane is known as selectively permeable membrane.
Cytoplasm:
It is the fluid that fills the cell and occurs between the plasma membrane and the nuclear membrane. The cell
organelles are suspended in the cytoplasm.
Functions:
1. Cytoplasm helps in the exchange of material between the cell organelles.
2. It acts as a storage organelle of vital chemicals, such as amino acids, glucose, vitamins, ions etc.
3. It is the site of certain metabolic pathways, such as glycolysis, synthesis of fatty acids, nucleotides,
and some amino acids.
Nucleus:
The nucleus is round in shape and is the largest organelle of the cell. It is generally present in the centre of
the cell, except in plant cells where the nucleus is pushed towards the periphery of the cell because of the
central vacuole. The nucleus is composed of the following components: nuclear membrane, nucleoplasm,
and nucleolus.
Functions of nucleus:
1. The nucleus controls all metabolic activities of the cell.
2. It regulates the cell cycle.
3. It is concerned with the transmission of hereditary traits from the parent to the offspring.
4. It plays an important role in cellular reproduction, the process by which a single cell divides or
forms two new cells.
Cell organelles
Endoplasmic Reticulum:
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a large network of membrane-bound tubes and sheets. It looks like long
tubules or round or oblong bags (vesicles). The ER functions as a packaging system. However, it does not
work alone; it works closely with Golgi apparatus and ribosomes.
There are two types of ER—rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER).
RER looks rough under a microscope because it has particles called ribosomes attached to its surface. The
ribosomes, which are present in all active cells, are the sites of protein manufacturing.
Functions:-
1. ER serves as a channel for the transport of materials (especially proteins) between various regions
of the cytoplasm or between the cytoplasm and the nucleus.
2. ER also functions as a cytoplasmic framework providing a surface for some of the biochemical
activities of the cell.
Ribosomes:
These are very small, round structures found either in free state suspended in the cytoplasm or attached to
the surface of the endoplasmic reticulum. They are composed of ribonucleic acids and proteins.
The main function of ribosomes is to act as a site of protein synthesis.
Golgi Apparatus:
The Golgi apparatus is another packaging organelle like the endoplasmic reticulum. It was named after
Camillo Golgi, an Italian biologist. It consists of a system of membrane bound vesicles arranged approximately
parallel to each other in stacks called cisterns.
Functions:
1. The material synthesised near the ER is packaged and dispatched to various targets inside and
outside the cell through the Golgi apparatus.
2. It helps in the storage, modification and packaging of products in vesicles.
3. The Golgi apparatus is also involved in the formation of lysosomes and peroxisomes.
Lysosomes:
Lysosomes are found in almost all animal-like eukaryotic cells. It is a membrane-bound vesicular structure
that holds variety of other enzymes. The purpose of lysosome is to digest worn out cells. Lysosomes are
involved in intracellular digestion of foreign food particles or microbes and are called digestive bags.
Sometimes, this organelle is also involved in the self-digestion of cells after their death, also known as autolysis.
Hence they are also called as ‘suicidal bags’. Lysosomes are a kind of waste disposal system of a cell.
Mitochondria:
Mitochondria create energy for the cell and this process of creating energy for the cell is known as cellular
respiration. Most of the chemical reactions involved in cellular respiration occur in mitochondria. (though
cellular respiration also occur in cytoplasm but very little energy is produced) The energy required for
various chemical activities needed for life is released by mitochondria in the form of ATP (Adenosine
triphosphate) molecules. This is why, mitochondria are known as the powerhouses of the cell.
Functions of Mitochondria:
1. Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration.
2. They provide energy (in the form of ATP) for vital activities of the living cells.
3. Mitochondria are able to make some of their own proteins, so they are regarded as semiautonomous
organelles.
Plastids:
Plastids are the organelles that are present only in plant cells. These are double membrane organelles which
are usually spherical or discoidal in shape.
There are two types of plastids – chromoplasts (coloured plastids) and leucoplasts (white or colourless
plastids). Chromoplasts containing the pigment chlorophyll are known as chloroplasts. Chloroplasts are
important for photosynthesis in plants. Chloroplasts also contain various yellow or orange pigments in
addition to chlorophyll. Leucoplasts are primarily organelles in which materials such as starch, oils and
protein granules are stored.
Vacuoles:
Vacuoles are storage sacs (for solid or liquid contents) found in the cells. These are found in both plant and
animal cells but are much larger in plant cells. The central vacuole of some plant cells may occupy 50-90%
of the cell volume.
In plant cells, vacuoles are full of cell sap and provide turgidity and rigidity to the cell. Vacuoles store food and
nutrients that a cell needs to survive. These include amino acids, sugars, various organic acids and some proteins.
II Blood
Blood is a highly specialised connective tissue present in human body. It is a vascular tissue that
contains cells, separated by a non-living, liquid material. This liquid material or fluid is known as
plasma.
Red blood cells (RBC), white blood cells (WBC), and platelets are suspended in plasma.
The blood is the medium through which the entire body is nourished and supported carrying nutrient
molecules from digested foods, as well as carrying away harmful waste products such as carbon
dioxide. It circulates the needed oxygen from the lungs. It also picks up hormones and uses custom
distribution to deliver chemical messages to the organs it comes into contact with. As other organs
interact with the blood it is in a constant flux of updating and extending its chemical composition.
Functions of blood:
• It transports hormones, nutrients, waste material to different parts of the body.
• Red blood cells transport respiratory gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide.
• White blood cells fight diseases by producing antibodies.
The nervous system is divided into the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous
system (PNS). The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord, while the PNS consists of nerves
that connect the central nervous system to different parts of the body.
The central nervous system receives information from all parts of the body and also sends information
to the muscles. The communication between the CNS and the body parts is facilitated by the nerves
of the PNS.
The brain is divisible into three main regions—forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.
Forebrain: It consists of the cerebrum, thalamus, and hypothalamus. It is the main thinking part of
the brain. Cerebrum is the largest part of the brain and constitutes four-fifth of its weight. The
forebrain has sensory regions that receive sensory impulses from various receptors, as well as
motor regions that control the movement of various muscles such as, the leg muscles. There are
separate areas in the forebrain that are specialized for hearing, smelling, sight, and general sensations
such as pain, touch, taste, etc. A certain part of the cerebrum primarily controls intelligence,
learning, memory, thinking, and speech. The forebrain is also known as the main thinking part of
the brain.
The hypothalamus contains many areas that control things such as body temperature, urge for
eating and drinking, etc. Some regions of the cerebrum, along with the hypothalamus, are involved
in the regulation of sexual behaviour and expression of emotional reactions such as, excitement,
pleasure, fear, etc.
Midbrain: It has regions that are concerned with the sense of sight and hearing. Some regions of
the midbrain transmit motor impulses to the limbs.
Hindbrain: Most involuntary actions such as heartbeat, blood pressure, movement of food in the
alimentary canal, salivation, etc., are controlled by the midbrain and hindbrain. All these involuntary
actions are controlled by the medulla of the hindbrain.
The cerebellum, which is a part of the hindbrain, is responsible for maintaining posture and equilibrium
of the body. It also coordinates the contraction of voluntary muscles according to the directions of
the cerebrum.
The brain, as you have learnt, is an important organ for the maintenance of a variety of activities. As
an important organ, it needs protection. Hence, it is enclosed by a bony box called the cranium. The
spinal cord is protected by a bony, curved, vertical rod called the vertebrae or vertebral column.
EYE
Our paired eyes are located in sockets of the skull called orbits. A brief account of structure and functions
of the human eye is given in the following sections.
Parts of an eye
The adult human eye ball is nearly a spherical structure. The wall of the
eye ball is composed of three layers.
• The external layer is composed of a dense connective tissue and is called the sclera. The anterior
portion of this layer is called the cornea.
• The middle layer, choroid, contains many blood vessels and looks bluish in colour.
• The choroid layer is thin over the posterior two-thirds of the eye ball, but it becomes thick in the
anterior part to form the ciliary body.
• The ciliary body itself continues forward to form a pigmented and opaque structure called the iris
which is the visible coloured portion of the eye.
• The eye ball contains a transparent crystalline lens which is held in place by ligaments attached to
the ciliary body.
• In front of the lens, the aperture surrounded by the iris is called the pupil. The diameter of the pupil
is regulated by the muscle fibres of iris.
• The inner layer is the retina and it contains three layers of cells – from inside to outside – ganglion
cells, bipolar cells and photoreceptor cells.
DEFECTS OF VISION
Myopia
Myopia is also known as near-sightedness. A person with myopia can see nearby objects clearly but cannot
see distant objects distinctly.
Hypermetropia
Hypermetropia is also known as far-sightedness. A person with hypermetropia can see distant objects clearly
but cannot see nearby objects distinctly.
This defect arises either because (i) the focal length of the eye lens is too long, or (ii) the eyeball has become
too small. This defect can be corrected by using a convex lens of appropriate power.
Presbyopia
The power of accommodation of the eye usually decreases with ageing. For most people, the near point
gradually recedes away. They find it difficult to see nearby objects comfortable and distinctly without
corrective eye-glasses. This defect is called Presbyopia.
EAR
The ears perform two sensory functions, hearing and maintenance of body balance. Anatomically, the ear
can be divided into three major sections called the outer ear, the middle ear and the inner ear.
• The outer ear consists of the pinna and external auditory meatus (canal). The pinna collects the
vibrations in the air which produce sound.
• The external auditory meatus leads inwards and extends up to the tympanic membrane (the ear drum).
• There are very fine hairs and wax- secreting sebaceous glands in the skin of the pinna and the
meatus. The tympanic membrane is composed of connective tissues covered with skin outside and
with mucus membrane inside.
• The middle ear contains three ossicles called malleus, incus and stapes which are attached to one
another in a chain-like fashion.
• The malleus is attached to the tympanic membrane and the stapes is attached to the oval window of
the cochlea. The ear ossicles increase the efficiency of transmission of sound waves to the inner
ear.
• An Eustachian tube connects the middle ear cavity with the pharynx. The Eustachian tube helps in
equalising the pressures on either sides of the ear drum.
All the varied sources of energy, that any living organism consumes, are always broken down or built up
into a uniform source of energy that can be used for sustaining various life processes.
There are seven major classes of nutrients that the body needs: carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins,
minerals, fibers and water
Carbohydrates:
These are the body’s main source of energy. The three different kinds of carbohydrates are starch, sugar
and fibers. Plant foods like cereals, bread, rice, pasta, potatoes, plantains and corn are good sources of
starch. They give us the energy we need to do daily activities. These starchy foods give us important
vitamins and minerals, too.
Fats:
Fat is a nutrient that is an important source of calories. One gram of fat supplies 9 calories - more than twice
the amount we get from carbohydrates or protein. Fat also is needed to carry and store essential fat-soluble
vitamins, like vitamins A and D. There are two basic types of fat. They are grouped by their chemical
structure. Each type of fat is used differently in our bodies and has a different effect on our health.
Fat is found in many foods. Some of the fat that we eat comes from the fat we add in cooking or spread
on breads, vegetables or other foods. A lot of fat is hidden in foods that we eat as snacks, pastries or
prepared meals.
Proteins
These are necessary for the growth of the cells. It also repairs or replaces healthy cells and tissues.
Protein is made of chains of amino acids. Amino acids are the building blocks of protein. Our bodies can
make most of the amino acids. Most foods that are obtained from animals, such as fish, chicken, beef, pork,
eggs, milk, cheese, and yogurt contain all of the essential amino acids. They are known as “complete”
proteins. Plant foods, such as rice, dried beans, peas, lentils, nuts, seeds, wheat, oats, corn, may be low or
lacking in one or more of the amino acids. They are considered to be incomplete proteins.
Vitamins
These are the organic compounds obtained from the food in minute quantity. They must be supplied from
external sources and perform specific functions. On the basis of their solubility, vitamins are divided into
two categories:
• Fat soluble vitamins – Vitamin A, D, E, and K
• Water soluble vitamins – Vitamin B complex, and C
Vitamin A: It is also known as retinol. It is manly found in animal sources such as cod-liver oil, milk,
butter, ghee, egg, fish, etc. In plant sources, vitamin A is mainly found in carrot, tomatoes, leafy vegetable,
papaya, etc.
Functions
Vitamin A is essential for growth.
It is main component of rhodopsin, hence it is essential for night vision.
It controls the action of bone cells.
Vitamin D: It is also known as calciferol. It is mainly found in animal sources such as cod liver oil, butter,
milk, ghee, egg, etc.
Functions
It promotes calcium absorption from the intestine.
It helps in the development of new born.
Vitamin E: It is also known as tocopherol. The main animal source of this vitamin is egg, fish, meat, etc.
The plant sources include vegetable seed oils sucha s wheat, soyabean, corn, etc.
Functions
It has antioxidative properties. It mainly prevents unwanted oxidation the body.
It is required for normal functioning of muscles.
Vitamin K: It is also known as phylloquinone. The main plant sources of this vitamin are cabbage, spinach,
tomatoes, etc.
Functions
It helps in the maintenance of normal prothrombin and factor VII in the blood. Thus it takes active part in
normal coagulation.
The main source of this vitamin are cereals, pulses, nuts, and green vegetables.
Functions:
It is essential for normal growth
It is essential basic reactions of metabolism
It helps in the formation of fat from carbohydrates.
Vitamin C: It is also known as ascorbic acid. It is mainly found in citrus fruits such as amla, tomato,
papaya, etc. It is also found in fresh vegetables such as cabbage, spinach, cauliflower, beans. Etc.
Functions:
It is essential for proper functioning of the formative cells of various tissues
It plays a key role in wound repair.
Human diseases
1. Infectious diseases
A disease caused due to microorganisms is known as an infectious disease.
Infectious agents: They are the disease-causing microorganisms which belong to different categories
such as:
Viruses
Some bacteria
Infectious agents Some fungi
Some unicellular animals
Some multicellular animals
• Viruses → They are very tiny organisms which are visible only with the help of electron microscope.
They cannot grow, multiply, or reproduce on their own. They need to infect a host cell to get the
required machinery to perform these functions. Influenza, cold (Rhinovirus), dengue, AIDS, etc.,
are certain human diseases caused by viruses.
• Bacteria → Bacteria are unicellular organisms that are larger than viruses. There are only some
bacteria that cause diseases while some other bacteria are useful in nature.
Whooping cough, typhoid, cholera, anthrax, etc., are certain human diseases caused by bacteria.
• Fungi → They are plant-like organisms, which are heterotrophic, i.e., they lack chlorophyll. Their
cells have cell walls.
Athlete’s foot, candidiasis, ringworms, etc., are some human diseases caused by fungi.
• Protozoa → They are simple, primitive unicellular organisms which include Amoeba, Trypanosoma,
and Leishmania. They are often found in water as they need moisture for survival. Hence, they
cause diseases through contaminated water.
Amoebiasis, kala azar, malaria, African sleeping sickness, etc., are some of the diseases caused by
protozoans.
• Multicellular animals like worms → Worms are the parasites that infect intestines of human
beings and other animals. It includes round worms, pinworms, hookworm, tapeworm etc.
Diarrhoea, anaemia, liver rot, etc., are caused by these worms.
2. Deficiency diseases: These diseases are caused by the deficiency of one or the other nutrient in
the diet. For example,
(i) Deficiency of protein may cause Kwashiorkar and marasmus
(ii) Deficiency of iron causes anaemia
(iii) Deficiency of iodine causes goitre
(iv) Deficiency of vitamin A causes night blindness
(v) Deficiency of vitamin B1 causes beri-beri
BRANCHES OF SCIENCES
Acoustics : The study of sound and sound waves
Aerodynamics : The study of forces acting upon bodies in motion in the air (e.g., aircraft,
missiles, etc.)
Aeronautics : The study of all activities pertaining to aerial locomotion (art of flying)
Anatomy : The science of the structure of th e animal/human body learnt by dissection.
Anaesthesiology : A branch of medicine concerned with administration of anaesthetics and the
condition of the patient while under anaesthesia.
Anthropology : The study of the origin and physical and cultural development of mankind.
Archaeology : A scientific study of the material remains of the past as evidence of man’s life,
culture and history.
Astrophysics : A branch of astronomy dealing with the physical nature of heavenly bodies.
Astronomy : The science of heavenly bodies (planets)
Bacteriology : A branch of microbiology dealing with bacteria
Biology : The science of living organisms; subdivided into Botany and Zoology
Biophysics : The physics of the vital processes of living organisms
Botany : The science of the plant kingdom
Cardiology : A branch of medicine dealing with the heart
Ceramics : The art of making objects from clay
Chemistry : The study of elements, their behaviour and laws of their combination, etc.
Cosmetology : The study of cosmetics and their use
Cosmology : The study of the universe—its origin, nature, structure and evolution
Cytopathology : The study of diseased cells
Dermatology : A branch of medicine dealing with skin
Dietetics : The science of diet and nutrition
Entomology : Deals with study of insects
Endocrinology : The study of glands
Genetics : A branch of biology dealing with heredity and the laws that govern it
Geology : A study of the chemical composition of the earth’s crust
Gerontology : A branch medicine studying the ageing process, problems and diseases
Gynaecology : A branch of medicine dealing with female diseases of the reproduction system
Haematology : A branch of medicine studying blood and its disorders
Hepatology : A branch of medicine dealing with liver
Horticulture : A branch of agricultural science dealing with flowers, fruits, vegetables, etc.
Hydrology : The science of water with reference to its occurrence and properties in the
hydrosphere and atmosphere
Hygiene : A branch of medicine dealing with health and its presevation
Immunology : A branch of medicine dealing with the immune system of the body
Neuropathology : A branch of medicine dealing with changes produced by diseases in the nervous
system
Obstetrics : A branch of medicine dealing with pregnancy, labour and child birth
Oncology : A branch of medicine dealing with tumours
Ophthalmology : A branch of medicine dealing with eyes and related problems
Ornithology : The science of birds
Orthopaedics : A branch of medicine dealing with diagnosis and treatment of diseases of the
skeletal system (bones)
Paediatrics : A branch of medicine dealing with child diseases (infants)
Pathology : A branch of medicine that deals with etiologies, mechanisms and manifestation
of diseases
Physiology : A study of the life processes of various organs of living organisms
Psychiatry : The study and treatment of mental and emotional disorders
Radiology : A branch of medical science dealing with the use of x-rays for diagnosis and treatment
Zoology : A branch of biology that deals with animal life
SCIENTIFIC INVENTIONS
Adding Machine
Blaise Pascal France 1642
(Pascaline)
A.L. and
Cinema France 1895
J.L. Lumiere
Alexander Graham
Microphone US 1876
Bell
J. Harrison and A.
Refrigerator Britain 1850
Catlin
Steam Engine
Thomas Newcombe Britain 1712
(piston)
Alexander Graham
Telephone US 1876
Bell
SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS
Instrument Name Uses
Ammeter Instrument used for measuring electric current
Barometer Instrument used for measuring atmospheric pressure
LegalAwareness
Legal Awareness
®
Ÿ Our draft Constitution of India when presented to the President of the constituent assembly. It contained
315 Articles and 8 Schedules.
Ÿ The date of commencement of the Constitution was 26th January, 1950. It contained 395 Articles and
8 Schedules.
Ÿ The State Emblem which has three lions, a horse a bull and a charka was taken from Ashoka’s Pillar in
Sarnath, it was adopted on 26th January, 1950 and has the words Satyameva Jayayte (let Truth alone
prevail).
Ÿ The National Anthem composed by Rabindranath Tagore was adopted on 24th January, 1950.
Ÿ India as Part of the Commonwealth:-India did not sever all ties with the British Commonwealth. India
joined the Commonwealth without any allegiance to the British crown.
Ÿ It was this decision of India to join the Commonwealth, that the association of these independent
nations it was called the ‘Commonwealth of Nations’.
WRITTEN CONSTITUTION
Ÿ The Constitutional laws of the country contain the legal and the non legal norms. Legal norms are those
which are enforceable in the courts of law and non legal norms are generally practices and conventions
of the Constitution which are not enforceable.
Ÿ Ours being a written Constitution is in the form of a Constitutional document whereas England does
not have a written Constitution. The Sovereignty of the Parliament is based upon traditions.
Ÿ A written Constitution contains the supreme law of the land on the source of the Constitutional law in
the country. Every organ in the country must adhere to it otherwise it will be declared unconstitutional.
Ÿ Though we have often heard that the Indian Parliament is Sovereign, it is sovereign to the extent that
India is a sovereign nation and not under any external influence. Therefore the Parliament which
functions under the written Constitution has to adhere to the rules stated under it and cannot have
unbridled powers.
Ÿ Our Constitution being a federal Constitution has a few characteristics attached to it, they are:-
i) Distribution of powers
ii) Supremacy of the Constitution
iii) Written Constitution
iv) Rigidity
v) Authority of the Courts
PREAMBLE
Ÿ The Preamble literally means preface, preliminary statement or intorduction states that India is a
Sovereign, Socialist, Democratic Republic.
Ÿ ‘Sovereign’ denotes that our country is not subject to any external authority.
Ÿ ‘Socialist’ herein does not mean that it adheres to any ideas of Socialism but means that it will have
Private enterprise as well as State ownership. What we were trying was a mixed economy.
Ÿ ‘Secular, means that the Constitution ensures equal freedom for all religions.
Ÿ ‘Democratic’ signifies that India has a Parliamentary form of government wherein the government is
responsible to an elected legislature.
Ÿ ‘Republic’ means where the Head of the State is an elected functionary.
Ÿ According to the Preamble it is the people who have imposed this Constitution upon themselves and
will conduct their government through elected representatives.
Ÿ The terms ‘Socialist’ And ‘Secular’ were added by the 42nd Amendment.
Ÿ The Preamble envisages being a Social Welfare State as stated by the Directive Principles of State Policy.
Ÿ In Aruna Roy v. Union of India 2002 SC, it was held that the Preamble was part of the basic structure
of the Constitution. The essence of ‘secularism ‘is non discrimination of people by the State on the
basis of religious differences.
THE JUDICIARY
Ÿ It is very important to have an independent and impartial Judiciary. Our Constitution has done everything
to make the Supreme Courts and the various High Courts independent of the Executive.
Ÿ The High Court is a Court Of Appeal and can also enforce the Fundamental Rights. The Supreme
Court, the High Court and the lower courts constitute a single judiciary having jurisdiction over all
cases arising under any law whether enacted by the Parliament or the State Legislature.
Ÿ The judiciary scrutinizes Governmental action in order to assess whether it confirms with the Constitution
or not. It also scrutinizes the administrative action.
Ÿ Judicial review is based on the assumption that the Constitution is the supreme law of the land and that
all government organs and governmental actions must confirm with the Constitution.
Ÿ The State shall not make any law that takes away the Fundamental Rights of the people.
CITIZENSHIP
Ÿ A person who is born in the territory of India Citizenship Act – 1955; either whose parents are born in
India; or who has been ordinarily a resident in the territory of India for not less than five years immediately
preceding such commencement, shall be a citizen of India.
Ÿ Articles 5 to 11 of the Constitution lay down as to who are citizens of India at the commencement of
the Constitution.
Ÿ Article 5 deals with the Domicile of a person. But however the term ‘domicile’ has not been defined in
the Constitution. ‘Domicile’ means permanent home.
Ÿ The Article draws a difference between ‘Domicile’ and ‘Residence’. Its domicile and not residence
that makes a person an Indian citizen. ‘Domicile’ and five years ‘Residence’ is sufficient to make a
person a citizen of India.
Ÿ India has neither State citizenship, nor dual citizenship. There is single citizenship in India.(2003–
Citizenship Ammendant Act that further ammends the Citizenship Act, 155, 2 provides for overseas
Indian citizenship or Dual citizenship)
iii) Article14 does not allow classification of persons into groups that are treated differently but
does not forbid differentiation on the grounds of reasonable classification.
iv) According to the new approach of Article14; Article 14 strikes at the arbitrariness of the state
action and ensures fairness and equality of State action. The principle of reasonableness is an
essential element of equality. Any arbitrary or those actions which are unreasonable are as
such discriminatory.
v) In Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan, A.I.R. 1997 Article14 was invoked to prohibit sexual harassment
of women in their workplace on grounds of violation of the right to gender equality.
Ÿ Probation of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste sex or place of birth-Article15
i) The State may provide special provisions in favour of women and children.
ii) Indra Swahney v. Union of India the court held that other that in extraordinary cases reservation
should not exceed 50%. Caste should not be the yardstick for social or economic
backwardness (SEBC. Socially and educationally backward classes) within the SEBC further
classification between backward and more backward is however permissible.
Ÿ Equal opportunity in matters of Employment-Article 16
i) Right to Equality is guaranteed by Article14, Article 16 gives Equality of Opportunity in
matters relating to appointment or employment in offices under the State.
Ÿ Abolition of titles-Article 18
i) Untouchability is abolished and its practice in any form is punishable by law.
Ÿ Abolition of titles-Article 18
i) No titles other than military and academic shall be conferred by the state. Conferring honors on the
people, like Bharat Ratna, Padma Vibhushan, and Padma Bhushan are not to be treated as a title.
Ÿ Some of the areas which shows the widening horizon of Article21 are:-
i) Bandua Mukti Morcha v. Union of India A.I.R.1984 the court held that the bonded laborers
were to be released and rehabilitated as it was against the principles enunciated by Article21
and also the Directive Principles of State Policy.
ii) In Hussain v. State of Kerala 2000 SC and Rudal Shah v. State of Bihar recognised the Right
to Compensation for the violation of Article21.
iv) Cannot be detained for a period exceeding 24 hours without the authority of the court.
Ÿ All these are instances of punitive detention where in a person is detained for the wrong caused by him.
Ÿ In case of preventive detention the object of this is to curtail a person’s liberty so that h is prevented
from doing anything injurious.
Ÿ Preventive detention is used for the purposes like defence, foreign affairs, or the security of India.
• The main function of this writ is to keep the public authorities within their limits of jurisdiction
while carrying out their public functions. This writ can be issued to administrative bodies,
legislative, judicial as well as quasi judicial bodies.
• A discriminatory administrative decision can be squashed by a writ of mandamus
iii) Certiorari: - the function of certiorari is to squash a decision already made by the lower subordinate court or a
tribunal. And so it is issued when the body in question has deposed off the matter and rendered the
decision.
• The function of certiorari is supervisory. This writ is issued when the authority is acting
under an invalid law.
iv) Quo warranto: - This writ is used to control executive action in the areas of making appointments
to public offices under relevant statutory provisions judicially.
• This writ protects the citizens from the holder of a public office when he is not entitled to it.
This writ requires the holder of a particular public office to show under what authority he is
holding that particular office. If it is found that he is not entitled to that office then the court
will restrain him from holding that office and declare that office vacant.
v) Prohibition: - both prohibition and certiorari are remedies for the judicial control of quasi judicial
bodies and administrative decisions affecting the rights.
• Prohibition is issued when the matter has not been disposed of but being considered by the
body concerned. The function of prohibition is to prohibit the body concerned from proceeding
with the matter further.
RES JUDICATA
Ÿ Wherein a matter has been resolved under Article 32 between two parties the same matter between
the same parties cannot come up under the same Article.
Ÿ This principle will be applicable even when the High Court has been moved under Article226 and
a fresh petition has been filed under Article 32.
Ÿ The writ of Habeas corpus is an exception to this rule. Res judicata is not applicable for this writ. A
writ of Habeas Corpus has been rejected by the High Court a petition can be filed under Article 32
under the same writ.
Ÿ Then why have them? It was more to have an awakened public opinion.
Ÿ When directive principles override the fundamental rights, the courts have held that it is the fundamental
rights that will prevail. The fundamental rights are justiciable wherein the directive principles are not.
The laws made to implement directive principles cannot take away the fundamental rights.
Ÿ If the Parliament in its capacity of an amending body amends the Constitution, by which a fundamental
right is taken away or is abridged the court cannot declare the Constitutional amendment as wrong.
Ÿ Both the directive principles and the fundamental rights have to coexist harmoniously. There has to be
a harmonious construction between the directive principles and the fundamental rights.
iii) To direct its policy towards controlling material resources Article39 (b) and concentration of
wealth in the hands of few Article39(c).this affects the entire economic system of our
nation.
iv) To enable the citizens to have village panchayats Article40.
v) Welfare of the workers .and to promote cottage industries on individual or cooperative basis in
rural areas Article42, 43.
vi) To strive for a uniform civil code Article44
vii) Educational and economic interests for the weaker sections of the people Article46.
viii) To regard as its primary duty to improve public health and raise nutritional levels and standard of
living Article47. To organize agriculture and animal husbandry Article48.
ix) To protect and improve environment safeguard wildlife and forests of the country Article48A.
x) Places of historical interest to be protected Article49.
xi) Independence of judiciary Article50 this Article is directory and not mandatory.
xii) To promote international peace and security and harmonious relations between countries. To
abide by treaties and international law Article51.
Ÿ The rights that the directive principles give its citizens. Though these are non-justiciable rights there
are statutes which implement these provisions.
i) Right to means of livelihood Article39(a)
ii) Equal work for men and women Article39(d)
Ÿ RAJYA SABHA
i) The Council of States is a permanent body.
ii) The Vice-President is the ex-officio chair man of the Rajya Sabha.
iii) The representatives of the State in the Rajya sabha are elected by the elected members of the
State Legislative Assembly.
iv) There are some members who are elected and some who are nominated.
v) There is no difference between them except that the nominated members of the Rajya sabha
do not participate in the election of the President of India.
Ÿ Membership
i) The maximum strength of the Rajya sabha has been fixed at 250 members.
ii) 238 members are elected representatives of the States and Union Territories.
iii) 12 members are nominated by the President, who have special or practical knowledge of subjects
like literature, science, art, social sciences.
Ÿ Duration
i) 1/3rd of the members retire at the end of the second year.
ii) The Rajya sabha is not subjected to dissolution as it is a continuing body.
iii) The members continue for a duration of 6 years.
Ÿ Qualification
i) Should be a citizen of India.
ii) Should not be less than 30 years of age
iii) Should possess other qualifications that Parliament may by law prescribe.
Ÿ Disqualification
i) Corrupt practices during elections
ii) Conviction for an offence leading to imprisonment for more than two or more years.
iii) Should not hold office of profit under the government.
iv) A person cannot be a member for both the houses of the Parliament.
Ÿ LOK SABHA
i) The members of the Lok sabha are directly elected by the people.
ii) The Speaker is the Chief Officer of the Lok sabha.
iii) The Speaker and the Deputy Speaker are chosen by the house amongst the members itself.
Ÿ Membership
i) Not more than 530 members are representatives of the state.
ii) Not more than 20 representatives of the union territories.
iii) Not more than 2 members belonging to the Anglo-Indian community.
Ÿ Duration
i) The Lok sabha is not a continuing body.
ii) Elections may be held to constitute new Lok sabha before that is done the existing Lok sabha is
dissolved.
iii) The house shall continue for a period of 5 years.
iv) It can be dissolved earlier by the President. The life of the Lok sabha can be extended when there
is a proclaimed emergency.
Ÿ Qualification
i) A citizen of India
ii) Not less than 25 years of age.
Ÿ Disqualification
i) Must not be of unsound mind.
ii) Should not be discharged or insolvent.
iii) Voluntarily acquired the citizenship or acknowledges the allegiance to another country.
iv) If should not hold an office of profit.
PRESIDENT
Ÿ Qualifications For Election As The President-Article58
i) Should be a citizen of India
ii) Should have completed 35 years of age
iii) Should be qualified for election as a member of the House Of The People
iv) Should not hold any office of profit under the Central Government or any of the State Governments.
VICE-PRESIDENT
Ÿ The Vice-President is the ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha.
Ÿ If the office of the President falls vacant In the event of death, resignation or removal of the
President the Vice-President shall act as the President until a new President is elected.
Ÿ Elected:-
i) The Vice- President acts as the president when the president is unable to carry out his duties
due to illness or absence.
ii) Vice-President is elected by an electoral college which consists of the elected members of
both the Houses Parliament; Election is done in accordance with the system of proportional
representation by means of a single transferable vote by secret ballot.
Ÿ Qualification:-
i) A citizen of India.
ii) 35 years of age.
iii) Cannot be a member of the Parliament and the State Legislature.
iv) Should be qualified to be elected as a member of the Rajya Sabha.
Ÿ Tenure:-
i) 5 years from the date he enters upon his office.
ii) He may resign his office by writing to the President.
iii) He may also be removed by a resolution by members of the Rajya Sabha and agreed to by the Lok sabha.
PRIME MINISTER
Ÿ Since it is a parliamentary form of government the Prime minister have a very important role to play.
Ÿ He is the leader of the majority party in the Lok Sabha and also of the Council Of Ministers.
Ÿ The Prime Minister is the link between the President and the Ministers. He appoints a minister and can
also compel the resignation of the minister.
Ÿ The entire functioning of the parliament depends upon the Prime Minister.
Ÿ The President may be the Head of State but practically it seems that the Prime Minister is the Head of
State.
Ÿ When ever the Prime Minister resigns the entire council of ministers also resign.
Ÿ The Constitution states that the Prime Minister is the head of the Council of Ministers.
COUNCIL OF MINISTERS
Ÿ The total number of the ministers including the Prime Minister in the Council of Ministers should not
exceed 15% of the total number of members in the House of People. The ministers hold office at the
pleasure of the President.
Ÿ The Council of Ministers has ‘collective responsibility’ towards the house of people. Where in the
whole ministry will be treated like a single entity on matters relating to policies as far as being answerable
to the parliament. The President shall act in accordance to the aid and advice given by the council of
ministers but the President can always ask the Council of Ministers to reconsider such advice.
Ÿ If a minister within the period of 6 months is not a member of either house of the Parliament ceases to
be a minister.
SUPREME COURT
It is the protector of fundamental rights of the people in exercise of its original as well as appellate jurisdiction
It is the ultimate authority to interpret the provisions of the Constitution.
It is the final court of appeal in all matters, constitutional, civil, criminal, etc
It is the sole tribunal to decide matters regarding Centre State relationship and inter -State disputes.
COMPOSITION
Ÿ Number of Judges:-
i) Article124 of the Constitution of India provides for the Chief Justice of India.
ii) The total number of judges 25. The age of retirement is 65.
iii) In S.C. Advocates on Board v. Union of India, A.I.R. 1994 SC The court held that the number of
judges should commensurate to the amount of work otherwise the judiciary cannot perform its
Constitutional obligations.
Ÿ Appointment of Judges:-
i) The Judge of the Supreme Court is appointed by the President of India.
ii) The judges of the Supreme Court hold office at the pleasure of the President.
iii) The President should consult the Chief Justice of India in the appointment of a Judge other than
the Chief Justice of India.
iv) The Constitution does not give any procedure for the appointment of the Chief Justice.
v) It is the senior most Judge of the Supreme Court who is appointed as the Chief Justice. On two
occasions this rule was flouted, first when Justice A. N. Ray was appointed and when he retired
Justice Khanna was superceded and Justice Beg was appointed.
vi) The Supreme Court has since held that as a matter of rule only the senior most Judge shall be
appointed as the Chief Justice of India.
vii) Hon’ble Mr. Justice Hiralal J. Kania was the first Chief Justice of India from 26th Jan., 1950 - 6th
Nov.,1951
viii) The present Chief Justice is Konakuppakatil Gopinathan Balakrishnan
Ÿ Qualification of a Supreme Court Judge Article124(3)
i) Must be a citizen of India
ii) Five years as the Judge of the High court in India
iii) Advocate of ten years standing
iv) Or in the opinion of the President an eminent jurist
Ÿ Removal
i) A Judge of the Supreme Court can be removed by an order of the President
ii) The Presidents power to remove is exercisable only after an address to each House of Parliament.
iii) The removal is a Parliamentary procedure and no subject to judicial intervention unless it has
resulted in removal of the Judge wherein the finding has to be supported by the Inquiry Committee
and also subject to the judicial review.
iv) The process of removal of a Judge under Article124 (4) was invoked only once against Justice
Ramaswamy in 1991 but turned out in favour of the judge despite support for removal by the
committee and the media bar, and the Parliamentarians.
Ÿ Salary
i) The salary of the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court Rs 33,000 and other Judges of the Supreme
Court Rs 30,000
JURISDICTION OF POWERS
Ÿ The Constitution of India grants the Supreme Court three types of Jurisdiction. They are Original
Appellate and Advisory Jurisdiction.
Ÿ Original Jurisdiction
i) Under Article131 the original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court extends to any dispute between
the Centre and the State.
ii) The Supreme Court is not a court of original jurisdiction in all matters between parties.
iii) The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction under Article32 regarding the enforcement of
Fundamentals Rights, it is empowered to issue directions, orders or writs.
Ÿ Appellate jurisdiction
i) Articles 132 to 136 deal with Appellate Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court in Constitutional, Civil
and Criminal cases.
ii) It deals with appeals involving interpretation of the statutes and also regarding civil matters
iii) Article134 empowers the Supreme Court to hear appeals from any judgment, final order or
sentence in a criminal proceeding. It is a court of criminal appeal over the High Courts and
creates a right of second appeal.
Ÿ Advisory jurisdiction
i) The Supreme Court has advisory jurisdiction in matters which may specifically be referred to it
by the President of India under Article143 of the Constitution.
POWER TO REVIEW
Ÿ Under Article137 the Supreme Court can review its own judgments, subject to the provisions of any
law made by Parliament or any rules made by the Supreme Court under Article145.
HIGH COURTS
COMPOSITION OF HIGH COURT
Ÿ The High Courts
i) The High Court is the Head of the State’s judicial administration.
ii) There are eighteen High Courts in the country and three of these High Courts have jurisdiction for
more than one State. Like the Bombay High Court, the Gauhati High Court, and Calcutta High
Court.
iii) Among the Union Territories only Delhi has a High Court .The others come under the different
State High Courts.
iv) The Ranchi High Court (Jharkand), the Nanital High Court (Uttaranchal) and the Bilaspur High
Court (Chattisgrah) are High Courts which were establishd in 2000.
Ÿ The Chief Justice And The Judges
i) Each High Court comprises of a Chief Justice and other judges as the President may appoint.
ii) The Chief Justice of the High Court is appointed by the President in consultation with the Chief
Justice of India and the Governor of the State.
iii) THE FIRST WOMAN CHIEF JUSTICE OF A HIGH COURT LEILA SETH (1991)
iv) The Chief Justice can also be from another State.
v) They hold office until the age of 62 years and are removable in the same manner as the Supreme
Court Judge
vi) To be legible for appointment as judge one must be a citizen of India and have held judicial office in
India for ten years or must have practiced as an Advocate of a High Court for a similar period.
vii) The salary of the Chief Justice of the High Court is Rs 30,000 and the Judges it is Rs 26,000
JURISDICTION
Ÿ The High Courts have Appellate Jurisdiction and is empower to supervise all courts under its appellate
jurisdiction.
Ÿ The High Courts of Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras and Andhra Pradesh continue to have admiralty
jurisdiction.
WRIT JURISDICTION
Ÿ Article226 confers upon the High Courts of India to issue to any person or authority orders or writs for
the enforcement of the Fundamental Rights. Or any other legal right it can be exercised even against
the Legislature.
STATE GOVERNMENT
Ÿ CONSTITUTION
i) The State legislature shall consist of the Governor,
ii) In the States of Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Maharastra, Karnataka and Uttar Pradesh the legislature
is bicarmel, where in the States have two houses. The Legislative Council (Vidhan Parishad) and
the Legislative Assembly (vidhan sabha).
iii) In all the other States there is only one House which is the Legislative Assembly,
iv) The creation of, or the abolition of the Legislative Council shall not be considered the Amendment
of the Constitution.
Ÿ COMPOSITION
i) Legislative Council
• The total number of members in the Legislative Council of a State shall not exceed 1/3 of the
total number of members in the Legislative Assembly of the State. But the total number of
members shall not be less than 40.
• The membership of the Legislative Council is not from territorial constituencies as in the
Legislative Assemblies but by nomination.
ii) Legislative Assembly
• The members are elected directly by the people in the State.
• They are elected once in every five years.
• The minimum number members in the Legislative Assembly should be 60 and the maximum
should be 500.
• No member shall be the member of the Council and the Assembly at the same time and no
member can be the member of the Assembly and the Parliament.
Ÿ FUNCTION
i) Legislative Council and Legislative Assembly
• When there are two Houses then the Bill has to be passed by both the Houses.
• When the assembly is dissolved and the Bill pending in the Legislative Council which has not
been passed by the Legislative Assembly does not lapse.
• But if passed by the Assembly and not by the Council then it lapses.
• A non- money Bill may become an act without the consent of the Legislative Council if the
Legislative Assembly passes the Bill and the Council fails to pass it within three months from
the date the Bill was laid before the Council, or if the Council makes certain amendments to
which the Assembly does not agree to.
• A Money Bill shall not be introduced in the Legislative Council.
• Whether the Assembly accepts or does not accept the recommendations of the Council, the
Money Bill shall be deemed to have been passed by both the Houses.
• Like the Parliament both the Houses perform the function of discussing and debating public
issues, controlling the State Government, looking into policies.
IT Awareness
®
There are three basic main steps to carry out any particular computation:
§ INPUT- The user feeds in, or inputs, his program and data (the data is the information which the
program will process to produce the desired results of the computations.)
§ Comparison operations (determining whether a given value is greater than, equal to, or less than
another value)
§ Storage and retrieval operations (saving a program on any of the disks for further use)
HARDWARE
The hardware consists of the actual physical components of a computer. The three basic components of a
computer system, which are essentially the same regardless of the type of system, are: a central processing
unit, a primary storage unit and peripheral devices.
The Central Processing Unit (CPU), rightly called the “brain” of the computer is composed of: the control
unit and arithmetic/logic unit. The control unit controls the activities of the CPU. It does not process or
store the data, but instructs the various parts of the computer in performing these tasks. This unit interprets
the instructions given by the user and sends out signals to circuits within the CPU to execute these instructions.
The control unit also keeps track of all the programs that have already been executed and the ones which
remain to be executed. Finally it collects the output and sends it to the output device, like monitor screen or
a printer.
The arithmetic/logic unit performs only the mathematical computations like addition, subtraction, multiplication
or division and logical operations. A logical operation is performed by instructing the computer to make a
comparison and then to take an action based on the result of that comparison.
Based on the different needs, the memory in computers is classified into two types:
Primary Memory (also referred to as main memory, primary storage or internal storage) The Primary
memory is very important to the immediate processing needs of the computer, which means that when the
computer is first switched on, there is an immediate requirement of memory, which is supplied by the
primary memory. This unit temporarily holds program instruction, data and the intermediate and final results
of processing. It consists of various storage locations, each having a unique address and holding a small
amount of information. The address allocated to each storage locations allows the computer to locate items
that have been stored in the computer’s memory. This type of memory is of two types:
RAM- This is the additional memory which is inside the CPU. RAM is called the Temporary Memory of the
computer because the data, information or program that is present in the memory either gets overwritten by
new data or information gets erased when the computer is switched off.
ROM- The ROM contains programs that are permanently coded by the CPU. The ROM is called so, i.e read
only because it cannot be written on by the CPU. Unlike RAM, ROM does not allow anything to be written
on it.
Secondary Memory (also called external storage/external memory/storage device/magnetic storage device)
is so called because it is found outside the CPU box. The common examples of secondary storage devices
are floppy disks, compact disk and hard disk.
These devices are input devices, output devices, and secondary storage devices. The programs and data
that are entered into a computer to be processed are called input. The word data refers to unorganized facts.
When this data is processed to some meaningful form, it is called information.
Input devices
These devices are used to enter data into the computer so that it can be processed. Some examples of input
devices are a terminal keyboard, a mouse, a graphics tablet, and a light pen.
Output Devices
The device that gives the processed data or information to us is called the output device. Depending on the
requirement of the user, the result is displayed on the monitor or a printer.
§ Monitor: All the data entered from the keyboard, first appears on the small TV called monitor. It is
called so because it allows the user of the computer to keep a check on the things that are being
typed. Another very important use of this monitor is that after the processing has been completed
by the computer the result is obtained and is flashed on the monitor, allowing the user to see the
information. Monitors can be Monochrome (having a dark background) or Coloured (can display
text and pictures in all colours)
§ Printers: The data that has been processed in the computer can be printed on the paper by means
of a printer. They are classified on the basis of how they work. If the printer creates an impression
of the typed letter on the paper, it is called an impact printer, otherwise it is known as non-impact
printer.
Displaying output on the screen gives the user the result in a convenient readable form; this output is
referred to as soft copy. Printing the results on paper is a way of permanently saving the information which
can even be used at a later time. This output is called hard copy.
The Secondary storage devices allow programs, data and processing results to be saved on a storage media
(such as magnetic tape, floppy diskettes). If it is required to process these items, they can be transferred
back into the primary storage unit of the computer. Although it takes more time to access items in secondary
storage devices than in main memory, but the main advantage of secondary storage devices over primary
ones is that they are less expensive and can store enormous quantities of data.
SOFTWARE
The computer needs written instructions to solve a problem, these instructions must be written in a
programming language. These programs and series of programs are referred to as software. These programs
are of two types- system programs and application programs. The system programs direct the computer in
its own internal operations while the application programs are written to solve user’s problems.
OPERATING SYSTEMS
Operating System is a set of software modules (Program) within a computer system that governs the
control of equipment resources such as processors, main memory, secondary memory, I/O devices and
files.
TYPES OF COMPUTERS
The automatic, digital computer was invented in 1833 by Charles Babbage (known as the ‘Father of
Computers’) A digital computer is so called because it uses a series of digits to represent all types of
information. The digits used are called binary digit (0 and 1) also balled bits. In contrast to digital computers,
analogue computers use the values of continuously varying physical quantities to represent information. The
desirable features of analog and digital machines can be combined to create a Hybrid computing system,
which is partly digital and partly analog.
PROGRAMS
Refers to the set of instructions that have to be written for the computer so that it is able to process the data
to give the desired information. These programs are written by only those Computer Professionals called
programmers. These programmers have the required knowledge of how to communicate with the computer.
The tool that is used for writing the set of instructions is called a computer language. Working a program is
called executing or running the program.
TYPES OF PROGRAMS
1. Supervisor Program: (also called the monitor or executive) is the major component of the operating
system. It coordinates the activities of all other parts of the operating system. This program schedules
the order of input and output operations. It also sends messages to the computer operator if an error
occurs or if the computer requires additional direction.
2. Job Control Program: A job is a unit of work to be processed by the CPU. Job control commands are
used to identify the beginning of a job, the specific program to be executed, the work to be done, and
the input/output devices required. The job control program translates the job control commands written
by a programmmer into machine language.
4. Language Translation Programs: A computer can only execute instructions that are in machine
language, which consists of 0s and 1s. In order for the computer to use English-like programs such as
those written in Pascal, it must use a language translation program. This program translates the
English-like program into machine language. There are two types of language translation programs:
interpreters and compilers. Compiler, on the other hand, is a program that translates high-level language
into absolute code, or sometimes into assembly language. The input to the compiler is a description of
an algorithm or program in a problem-oriented language; its output (the object code) is an equivalent
description of the algorithm in a machine-oriented language (the source code).
6. Utility Programs: Utility programs perform specialized functions. Utility programs or routines are
pre-written programs to provide procedures commonly required by virtually all applications. For example,
a utility program can transfer data from a tape to a disk, to another tape, or to a printer.
Computer Languages
The languages that are used to communicate with the computer are called computer languages. These
computer languages have developed a great deal since they were first used. Their evolution spans about four
stages which are referred to as generations.
Each generation has it’s own individual characteristic language.
§ First Generation Language: This language used for computers consisted of zeroes and ones. All
instructions that had to be given consisted of zeroes and ones. This language was also called
machine language (also called binary representation). This was used on computers of the first
generation, which used vacuum tubes. Data represented in binary form is stored in the computer as
a series of “on” and “off” states of electronic devices representing binary digits (or bits)
§ Second Generation Language: The chief characteristic of second generation language was assembly
language (also referred to as low-level language). In this type of language the programmer uses
symbolic names to specify various machine operations; these symbolic names are called mnemonics.
Mnemonics are nothing but easy to remember short-cuts to certain complex instructions. The use
of these mnemonics makes assembly language programming easier than machine language
programming. Another important improvement of Assemble language over machine language is the
use of names to represent storage locations, so that the programmer no longer has to know the
address of the location in which a particular value is kept.
§ Third Generation Language: The languages used in the third generation were very easy to learn
and use on the computers. These language do not require the programmer to understand the technical
details of internal computer operations. As they were very close to the English languages so they
were called high level languages. Example of such languages are Pascal, BASIC, COBOL,
FORTRAN, C, C++, etc.
§ Fourth Generation Language: These languages are used even today with most computers available.
They are popular because they allow a lot of data to be collected, stored and used for extracting
various types of information. Such huge collections of data is called a database. Examples of these
type of language are dBASE, FoxPro, Oracle and Ingres.
VIRUS
The term ‘virus’ is used to describe virtually any type of destructive software. Viruses do not affect the
hardware of the computer. The viruses can and ‘do’ corrupt data and programs. Computer Viruses are
executable computer programs. Like biological viruses, they find and attach themselves to a host. Most
viruses stay active in memory until the system is switched off. When we turn off the computer we remove
the virus from memory, but not from the file, files or disk it has affected. So, next time we use our
computer, the virus program is activated again and attaches itself to more programs.
TYPES OF VIRUS
Mainly, there are two main types of virus - Program Virus & Boot Virus
Program Virus must be written for a specific operating system. Boot Virus exploit the inherent features of
the computer (rather than operating system) to spread and activate.
Definitions
Virus: A virus is a type of program that can replicate itself by making (possibly modified) copies of itself.
The main criterion for classifying a piece of executable code as a virus is that it spreads itself by means of
‘hosts’. A virus can only spread from one computer to another when its host is taken to the uninfected
computer, for instance by a user sending it over a network or carrying it on a removable medium. Additionally,
viruses can spread to other computers by infecting files on a network file system or a file system that is
accessed by another computer. Viruses are sometimes confused with worms.
Worm: A worm, however, can spread itself to other computers without needing to be transferred as part of
a host. Many personal computers are now connected to the Internet and to local-area networks, facilitating
their spread. Today’s viruses may also take advantage of network services such as the World Wide Web, e-
mail, and file sharing systems to spread, blurring the line between viruses and worms.
Viruses can infect different types of hosts. The most common targets are executable files that contain
application software or parts of the operating system. Viruses have also infected the executable boot sectors
of floppy disks, script files of application programs, and documents that can contain macro scripts. Additionally,
viruses can infect files in other ways than simply inserting a copy of their code into the code of the host
program. For example, a virus can overwrite its host with the virus code, or it can use a trick to ensure that
the virus program is executed when the user wants to execute the (unmodified) host program. Viruses have
existed for many different operating systems, including MSDOS, Amiga OS, Linux and even Mac OS;
however, the vast majority of viruses affect Microsoft Windows.
Spyware: In the field of computing, the term spyware refers to a broad category of malicious software
designed to intercept or take partial control of a computer’s operation without the informed consent of that
machine’s owner or legitimate user. While the term taken literally suggests software that surreptitiously
monitors the user, it has come to refer more broadly to software that subverts the computer’s operation for
the benefit of a third party.
Spyware differs from viruses and worms in that it does not usually self-replicate. Like many recent viruses,
however, spyware – by design – exploits infected computers for commercial gain. Typical tactics furthering
this goal include delivery of unsolicited pop-up advertisements; theft of personal information (including
financial information such as credit card numbers); monitoring of Web-browsing activity for marketing
purposes; or routing of HTTP requests to advertising sites.
Adware: Adware or advertising-supported software is any software package which automatically plays,
displays, or downloads advertising material to a computer after the software is installed on it or while the
application is being used.
COMPUTER NETWORKING
Computer networking is the scientific and engineering discipline concerned with communication between
computer systems. Such networks involve at least two computers seperated by a few inches (e.g. via
Bluetooth) or thousands of miles (e.g. via the Internet). Computer networking is sometimes considered a
sub-discipline of telecommunications.
History
Carrying instructions between calculation machines and early computers was done by human users. In
September, 1940 George Stibitz used a teletype machine to send instructions for a problem set from his
Model K at Dartmouth College in New Hampshire to his Complex Number Calculator in New York and
received results back by the same means. Linking output systems like teletypes to computers was an
interest at the Advanced Research Projects Agency ARPA when, in 1962, J.C.R. Licklider was hired and
developed a working group he called the “Intergalactic Network”, a precursor to the ARPANet. In 1964,
researchers at Dartmouth developed a time sharing system for distributed users of large computer systems.
The same year, at MIT, a research group supported by General Electric and Bell Labs used a computer
(DEC’s PDP-8) to route and manage telephone connections. In 1968 Paul Baran proposed a network system
consisting of datagrams or packets that could be used in a packet switching network between computer
systems. In 1969 the University of California at Los Angeles, SRI (in Stanford), University of California at
Santa Barbara, and the University of Utah were connected as the beginning of the ARPANet network using
50 kbit/s circuits.
Categorizing
organization’s LAN to the Internet. WANs are most often built using leased lines. At each end of the leased
line, a router connects to the LAN on one side and a hub within the WAN on the other.
Network protocols including TCP/IP deliver transport and addressing functions. Protocols including Packet
over SONET/SDH, MPLS, ATM and Frame relay are often used by service providers to deliver the links that
are used in WANs. X.25 was an important early WAN protocol, and is often considered to be the “grandfather”
of Frame Relay as many of the underlying protocols and functions of X.25 are still in use today (with
upgrades) by Frame Relay.
BENEFITS OF NETWORKS
§ Exchanging Data
§ Sharing system resources
§ Creation of workgroups
§ Centralized Management
§ Security
§ Access to more than one operating system
§ Enhancement of the corporate structure
COMPONENTS OF NETWORKS
§ Server- A server runs the network operating system and offers network services to users at their
individual workstations. It offers services such as file, storage, security, resource management,
user management.
THE INTERNET
The Internet, or simply the Net, is the publicly accessible worldwide system of interconnected computer
networks that transmit data by packet switching using a standardized Internet Protocol (IP). It is made up
of thousands of smaller commercial, academic, domestic, and government networks. It carries various
information and services, such as electronic mail, online chat, and the interlinked Web pages and other
documents of the World Wide Web.
Contrary to some common usage, the Internet and the World Wide Web are not synonymous: the Internet is
a collection of interconnected computer networks, linked by copper wires, fiber-optic cables, wireless
connections etc.; the Web is a collection of interconnected documents, linked by hyperlinks and URLs, and
is accessible using the Internet.
network, as well as the non-proprietary open nature of the Internet protocols, which encourages vendor
interoperability and prevents any one company from exerting too much control over the network.
Today’s Internet
Apart from the complex physical connections that make up its infrastructure, the Internet is held together by
bi- or multi-lateral commercial contracts (for example peering agreements) and by technical specifications
or protocols that describe how to exchange data over the network. Indeed, the Internet is essentially defined
by its interconnections and routing policies.
Internet protocols
Unlike older communications systems, the Internet protocol suite was deliberately designed to be independent
of the underlying physical medium. Any communications network, wired or wireless, that can carry two-
way digital data can carry Internet traffic. Thus, Internet packets flow through wired networks like copper
wire, coaxial cable, and fibre optic; and through wireless networks like Wi-Fi.
Together, all these networks, sharing the same high-level protocols, form the Internet.
The Internet protocols originate from discussions within the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and its
working groups, which are open to public participation and review. These committees produce documents
that are known as Request for Comments documents (RFCs). Some RFCs are raised to the status of
Internet Standard by the IETF process.
Some of the popular services on the Internet that make use of these protocols are e-mail, Usenet newsgroups,
file sharing, Instant Messenger, the World Wide Web, Gopher, session access, WAIS, finger, IRC, MUDs,
and MUSHs. Of these, e-mail and the World Wide Web are clearly the most used, and many other services
are built upon them, such as mailing lists and blogs. The Internet makes it possible to provide real-time
services such as Internet radio and webcasts that can be accessed from anywhere in the world.
The World Wide Web (“WWW” or simply the “‘Web”) is a global information space which people can
read-from and write-to via a large number of different Internet-connected devices. For example, computers,
Personal Digital Assistants, cellular phones, telephone kiosks, etc. The World Wide Web is also available
(sometimes only partially) through digital television services, exposing content onto television screens.