ME16A: INTRODUCTION TO

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

COURSE
INTRODUCTION
 Details of Lecturer

 Course Lecturer: Dr. E.I. Ekwue

 Room Number: 216 Main Block,
Faculty of Engineering

 Email: ekwue@eng.uwi.tt ,
 Tel. No. : 662 2002 Extension 3171
 Office Hours: 9 a.m. to 12 Noon. (Tue,
Wed and Friday)
COURSE GOALS
       
 This course has two specific goals:
 (i)  To introduce students to concepts of
stresses and strain; shearing force and
bending; as well as torsion and deflection of
different structural elements.

 (ii) To develop theoretical and analytical

skills relevant to the areas mentioned in (i)
above.
 COURSE OUTLINE
COURSE CONTENTS

1. General Concepts – Stresses and strain, two and three-dimensional systems.

Generalized Hooke’s Law – stress-strain relationships.

2. Properties of Materials – Tension, Compression, Hardness and Impact tests.

3. Statically Determinate Stress Systems. St. Venant’s Principle. Stress Analysis of axially
loaded bars. Strains and deformations in axially loaded bars. Statically Indeterminate stress
systems

4. Shear Force and Bending Moment in Beams. Mathematical relationships between load
intensity, shearing force and bending moment. Bending stresses in beams. Beams of
two materials.

5. Analysis of Stresses in Two-Dimensions. Principal Stresses, Mohr’s Circle

6. Deflection of Beams – Simple cases. Direct integration and moment-area method.

7. Torsion of Circular Cross-Sections.

         Course Objectives
  Upon successful completion of this course,
students should be able to:

 (i)  Understand and solve simple problems

involving stresses and strain in two and three
dimensions.

 (ii) Understand the difference between statically

determinate and indeterminate problems.

 (iii) Understand and carry out simple experiments

illustrating properties of materials in tension,
compression as well as hardness and impact tests.
 COURSE OBJECTIVES CONTD.
 (iv) Analyze stresses in two dimensions and
understand the concepts of principal stresses
and the use of Mohr circles to solve two-
dimensional stress problems.

 (v) Draw shear force and bending moment

diagrams of simple beams and understand the
relationships between loading intensity,
shearing force and bending moment.
  
 (vi) Compute the bending stresses in beams
with one or two materials.
 OBJECTIVES CONCLUDED

 (vii) Calculate the deflection of beams

using the direct integration and moment-
area method.
  
 (viii)  Apply sound analytical techniques
and logical procedures in the solution of
engineering problems. 
 Teaching Strategies
 The course will be taught via
Lectures. Lectures will also
involve the solution of tutorial
questions. Tutorial questions are
designed to complement and
enhance both the lectures and the
students appreciation of the
subject.
 Course work assignments will be
reviewed with the students.
Lecture Times

 Wednesday: 2.00 to 2.50 p.m.

 Thursday: 11.10 a.m. to 12.00 noon
 Friday: 1.00 to 1.50 p.m.
 Lab Sessions: Two Labs per student on
Mondays (Details to be Announced Later)

 Attendance at the Lectures and Labs is

Compulsory.
Time-Table For Labs
MONDAY 1:00 - 4:00 P.M.

Week 1,5,9 2,6,10 3,7,11, 4,8,12

Group

- ME13A ME16A ME13A

K
(3,7)

L ME13A - ME13A ME16A

(4,8)

M ME16A ME13A - ME13A

(5,9)

N ME13A ME16A ME13A -

(6,10)
 More Course Details

 BOOK – Hearn, E.J. (1997), Mechanics of

Materials 1, Third Edition, Butterworth,
Heinemann

  COURSE WORK
 1. One Mid-Semester Test (20%);
 2. Practical report (15%) and
 3. End of Semester 1 Examination (65%). 
ME16A: CHAPTER ONE

STRESS AND STRAIN

RELATIONS
 1.1 DIRECT OR NORMAL
STRESS
 When a force is transmitted through a body, the
body tends to change its shape or deform. The
body is said to be strained.

 Direct Stress = Applied Force (F)

Cross Sectional Area (A)

 Units: Usually N/m2 (Pa), N/mm2, MN/m2, GN/m2 or

N/cm2
 Note: 1 N/mm2 = 1 MN/m2 = 1 MPa
 Direct Stress Contd.

 Direct stress may be tensile,  t or

compressive, c and result from forces
acting perpendicular to the plane of the
cross-section

Tension

Compression
1.2 Direct or Normal Strain

 When loads are applied to a body,

some deformation will occur resulting to
a change in dimension.
 Consider a bar, subjected to axial
tensile loading force, F. If the bar
extension is dl and its original length
(before loading) is L, then tensile strain
is:
 Direct or Normal Strain Contd.

F F
L dl

 Direct Strain ( ) = Change in Length

Original Length
i.e.  = dl/L
 Direct or Normal Strain Contd.
 As strain is a ratio of lengths, it is
dimensionless.
 Similarly, for compression by amount,
dl: Compressive strain = - dl/L
 Note: Strain is positive for an increase
in dimension and negative for a
reduction in dimension.
1.3 Shear Stress and Shear Strain
 Shear stresses are produced by
equal and opposite parallel forces
not in line.
 The forces tend to make one part
of the material slide over the other
part.
 Shear stress is tangential to the
area over which it acts.
 Shear Stress and Shear Strain
Contd.

C x C’ D D’
F

L P Q

 S R

A B
Shear strain is the distortion produced by shear stress on
an element or rectangular block as above. The shear
strain,  (gamma) is given as:
 = x/L = tan 
Shear Stress and Shear Strain
Concluded
 For small  ,  

 Shear strain then becomes the change

in the right angle.
 It is dimensionless and is measured in
radians.
 1.3 Complementary Shear Stress

P 1
Q
2

2 S R
1
Consider a small element, PQRS of the material in the
last diagram. Let the shear stress created on faces PQ
and RS be  1
Complimentary Shear Stress
Contd.
 The element is therefore subjected to a
couple and for equilibrium, a balancing
couple must be brought into action.
 This will only arise from the shear stress on
faces QR and PS.

 Let the shear stresses on these faces be

. 2
Complimentary Shear Stress
Contd.
 Let t be the thickness of the material at
right angles to the paper and lengths of
sides of element be a and b as shown.
 For equilibrium, clockwise couple =
anticlockwise couple
 i.e. Force on PQ (or RS) x a = Force
on QR (or PS) x b
 1 x b t x a  2 x at x b
i. e.  1  2
Complimentary Shear Stress
Concluded

 Thus: Whenever a shear stress occurs on

a plane within a material, it is automatically
accompanied by an equal shear stress on
the perpendicular plane.
 The direction of the complementary shear
stress is such that their couple opposes that
of the original shear stresses.
1.4 Volumetric Strain
 Hydrostatic stress refers to tensile or
compressive stress in all dimensions
within or external to a body.
 Hydrostatic stress results in change in
volume of the material.
 Consider a cube with sides x, y, z. Let
dx, dy, and dz represent increase in
length in all directions.
 i.e. new volume = (x + dx) (y + dy) (z +
dz)
 Volumetric Strain Contd.

 Neglecting products of small quantities:

 New volume = x y z + z y dx + x z dy + x y dz
 Original volume = x y z
 V = z y dx + x z dy + x y dz
 Volumetric strain,  v = z y dx + x z dy + x y dz

v xyz
 = dx/x + dy/y + dz/z
v  x  y  z
Strains Contd.

 Note: By similar reasoning, on area x y

 a  x  y

 Also: (i) The strain on the diameter of a circle

is equal to the strain on the circumference.
 (ii) The strain on the area of a circle, is equal
to twice the strain on its diameter.
 (iii) Strain on volume of a sphere, is equal to
three times the strain on its diameter.
 Strains Contd.

(iv ) Given  D and  L as strains on the diameter

and length of a cylinder ,

Strain on the volume is

v  2 D   L

These can be proved using the theorem

of small errors
 Examples

 (i) Diameter, D = 2 x radius, r i.e. D = 2 r

 Taking logs: log D = log 2 + log r
 Taking differentials: dD/D = dr/r
 Also: Circumference, C = 2 r
 i.e. log C = Log2 + log r
 dC/C = dr/r = dD/D
 c
i.e. the strain on the circumference,
= strain on the diameter, D
 Strains Contd.
(iv) Volume of a cylinder, V =  r2 L where L is the length
 Taking logs: log V = log + 2 log r + log L
Taking differentials: dV/V = 2 dr/r + dL/L
i.e. v  2  D   L

v  2  D   L

 Required: Prove the other two

statements.
1.5 Elasticity and Hooke’s Law

 All solid materials deform when they are

stressed, and as stress is increased,
deformation also increases.
 If a material returns to its original size and
shape on removal of load causing
deformation, it is said to be elastic.
 If the stress is steadily increased, a point is
reached when, after the removal of load, not
all the induced strain is removed.
 This is called the elastic limit.
Hooke’s Law

 States that providing the limit of proportionality

of a material is not exceeded, the stress is
directly proportional to the strain produced.
 If a graph of stress and strain is plotted as
load is gradually applied, the first portion of the
graph will be a straight line.
 The slope of this line is the constant of
proportionality called modulus of Elasticity, E
or Young’s Modulus.
 It is a measure of the stiffness of a material.
 Hooke’s Law

Direct stress 
Modulusof Elasticity, E= 
Direct strain 

Shearstress 
Also: For Shear stress: Modulusof rigidityor shear modulus, G= 
Shearstrain 

Also: Volumetric strain, isv proportional to hydrostatic stress,

 the elastic range
within

i.e. :  / v  K called bulk

modulus.
Stress-Strain Relations of Mild
Steel
 Equation For Extension

F
romth
eab
ovee
qua
tio
ns:
 FA/ FL
E  
 dl/L Ad
l
FL
l
d
AE

This equation for extension is

very important
 Extension For Bar of Varying Cross
Section

F o r a b a r o f v a r y in g c r o s s s e c t io n :

P
A1 A2 A3 P

L1 L2 L3

dl 
F LML1

L2 L3

OP
E NA1 A2 A3 Q
Factor of Safety

 The load which any member of a machine

carries is called working load, and stress
produced by this load is the working stress.
 Obviously, the working stress must be less
than the yield stress, tensile strength or the
ultimate stress.
 This working stress is also called the
permissible stress or the allowable stress or
the design stress.
Factor of Safety Contd.
 Some reasons for factor of safety
include the inexactness or inaccuracies
in the estimation of stresses and the
non-uniformity of some materials.

U
lt
ima
teo
ryi
elds
tr
ess
F
ac
toro
fsa
fe
ty=
D
es
ign
orwor
kin
gst
res
s

Note: Ultimate stress is used for materials e.g.

concrete which do not have a well-defined yield point,
or brittle materials which behave in a linear manner
up to failure. Yield stress is used for other materials
e.g. steel with well defined yield stress.
1.7 Practical Class Details
 Each Student will have two practical
classes: one on :
 Stress/strain characteristics and
 Hardness and impact tests.
 (i) The stress/strain characteristics
practical will involve the measurement
of the characteristics for four metals,
copper, aluminium, steel and brass
using a tensometer.
Practical Class Details Contd.
 The test will be done up to fracture of the
metals.
 This test will also involve the accurate
measurement of the modulus of elasticity for
one metal.
 There is the incorporation of an
extensometer for accurate measurement of
very small extensions to produce an
accurate stress-strain graphs.
 The test will be done up to elastic limit.
 Practical Class Details Contd.

 (ii) The hardness test will be

done using the same four metals
and the Rockwell Hardness test.

 The impact test with the four

metals will be carried out using the
Izod test.
1.8 MATERIALS TESTING

 1.8.1. Tensile Test: This is the most

common test carried out on a material.
 It is performed on a machine capable of
applying a true axial load to the test
specimen. The machine must have:
 (i) A means of measuring the applied
load and
 (ii) An extensometer is attached to the test
specimen to determine its extension.
Tensile Test Contd.
 Notes: 1. For iron or steel, the limit of
proportionality and the elastic limit are virtually
same but for other materials like non-ferrous
materials, they are different.
 2. Up to maximum or ultimate stress, there is
no visible reduction in diameter of specimen
but after this stress, a local reduction in
diameter called necking occurs and this is
more well defined as the load falls off up to
fracture point.
 Original area of specimen is used for analysis.
 Results From a Tensile Test

Stress up to lim it of proportionality

(a) Modulus of Elasticity, E
Strain
(b) Yield Stress or Proof Stress (See below)
Increase in gauge length
(c) Percentage elongation = x 100
Original gauge length
O riginal area  area at fracture
(d) P ercentage reduction in area = x 100
O riginal area
M axim um load
(e) Tensile S trength =
O riginal cross sec tional area
Th e percentage of elongation and percenta ge redu ction in a rea give an in dication of th e
ductility o f the m aterial i.e. its ability to w ith sta nd stra in w ithout fra cture o ccurring.
Proof Stress

 High carbon steels, cast iron and most of the

non-ferrous alloys do not exhibit a well
defined yield as is the case with mild steel.
 For these materials, a limiting stress called
proof stress is specified, corresponding to a
non-proportional extension.
 The non-proportional extension is a specified
percentage of the original length e.g. 0.05,
0.10, 0.20 or 0.50%.
 Determination of Proof Stress

Stress
Proof Stress P

A Strain

The proof stress is obtained by drawing AP parallel to the initial

slope of the stress/strain graph, the distance, OA being the strain
corresponding to the required non-proportional extension e.g. for
0.05% proof stress, the strain is 0.0005.
 1.8.2 Hardness Test

 The hardness of a material is determined by its

ability to withstand indentation. There are four
major hardness tests.
 (i) Rockwell Hardness Test: This uses an
indentor with a 120o conical diamond with a
rounded apex for hard materials, or steel ball for
softer materials.
 A minor load, F is applied to cause a small
indentation as indicated in Fig. (a) below.
 The major load, Fm is then applied and removed
after a specified time to leave load F still acting.
The two stages are shown as (b) and (c).
Rockwell Hardness Test
Hardness Test Contd.

 Thus the permanent increase in the

depth of penetration caused by the
major load is d mm. The Rockwell
hardness number, HR is:
 HR = K - 500 d
 Where: K is a constant with value of
100 for the diamond indentor and 130
for the steel indentor.
1.8.3 Impact Testing

 The toughness of a material is defined

as its ability to withstand a shock
loading without fracture. Two principal
impact tests are the:
 Izod and the
 Charpy tests.
 A test specimen is rigidly supported
and is impacted by a striker attached to
a pendulum.
Impact Test Concluded

 The difference in height from which a

pendulum is released and the height to
which it rises after impact gives a
measure of the energy absorbed by the
specimen and this is recorded on a dial
mounted on a tester.
Example on Elongation

 A flat plate of steel, 1 cm thick,

and of trapezoidal form tapers
from 5 cm width to 10 cm width
in a length of 40 cm.
Determine the elongation under
an axial force of 50 kN. E = 2 x
107 N/cm2.
 Diagram of a Trapezoidal Steel Plate

dx
P B1 P
B2

L
 Solution

Consider a length, dx at a distance, x from width, B1,

Width at that section
B2  B1
 B1  x  B1  Kx
L
B2  B1
where K 
L
Area (Ax) of chosen c/section = ( B1 + K x ) t. If the length ‘dx’
elongates an amount du under load, its strain is:
du P 1
 .
dx A E
 Solution Contd.

Total extension of bar, u

u z0
L P
Ax E
dx  z L

0
P
(B1 Kx) t E
dx

u
P
tE zdx
L

0 B kx
1

P
KtE
ln B1 Kx
L
0
P B1 KL
u ln
Kt E B1
 Solution Contd.

S u b s t it u t in g b a c k f o r K ,
P B1  B2  B
u  ln 1
B  B1 B1
( 2 ) t E
L
P B
u  ln 2
B  B1 B
( 2 ) t E 1
L
2
In p r o b le m , t = 1 c m , B 1 = 5 c m , B 2 = 1 0 c m , L = 4 0 c m , P = 5 0 , 0 0 0 N , E = 2 x 1 0 7 N / c m

5 0 ,0 0 0 N 10
u  ln  0 .0 1 3 8 6 c m
10  5 7 5
( ) x 1 cm x 2 x10
40
 Solution Concluded
S u b s t it u t in g b a c k f o r K ,
P B1  B 2  B
u  ln 1
B 2  B1 B1
( ) t E
L
P B
u  ln 2
B 2  B1 B
( ) t E 1
L
In p r o b le m , t = 1 c m , B 1 = 5 cm , B 2 = 10 cm , L = 40 cm ,
2
P = 5 0 ,0 0 0 N , E = 2 x 1 0 7 N /c m

5 0 ,0 0 0 N 10
u  ln  0 .0 1 3 8 6 c m
10  5 7 5
( ) x 1 cm x 2 x10
40
1.9 Lateral Strain and Poisson’s Ratio
 

 Under the action of a longitudinal

stress, a body will extend in the
direction of the stress and contract in
the transverse or lateral direction
 (see Fig. below).
 The reverse occurs under a
compressive load.
 Stress Effects

P P

Longitudinal Tensile Stress Effect

P P

Longitudinal Compressive Stress Effect

 Poisson’s Ratio

L
at
era
ls
t
rain
is
pro
po
rt
ion
alt
o t
helo
ng
it
udin
als
t
rain
,
w
it
h t
hec
on
st
anto
fp
ro
po
rt
ion
alit
y c
alle
d‘P
ois
so
n’s
rat
io’w
it
h s
ymb
ol,
.

Lat
era
lst
rai
n
M
a
th
ema
t
ica
lly
, 

D
i
rec
torl
ong
it
udin
als
tr
ai
n

F
orm
os
tme
t
als
,t
her
ang
eofis
0.
28t
o 0
.
33.
 1.10 Thermal Strain

M
os
tstru
ctu
ralm
ate
ria
lse
xpa
ndw
henh
eate
d,
ina
cco
rda
ncetoth
ela
w: T
w
hereislin
ears
tra
ina
nd
isth
eco
effic
ien
toflin
eare
xpa
nsio
n;
Tisth
eris
einte
mpe
ratu
re.
T
hatisfo
raro
dofL
eng
th,L
;
ifitste
mpe
ratu
rein
cre
ase
dbyt, th
eex
ten
sio
n,
l=LT
d .
Thermal Strain Contd.

Asinthecaseof lateral strains, thermal strains

donot inducestressesunlesstheyareconstrained.
Thetotal straininabodyexperiencingthermal stress
maybedividedintotwocomponents:
Strainduetostress,  and

That duetotemperature, T .

Thus:  =  + T

= T
E
1.11. Principle of Superposition

 It states that the effects of several actions

taking place simultaneously can be
reproduced exactly by adding the effect of
each action separately.
 The principle is general and has wide
applications and holds true if:
 (i) The structure is elastic
 (ii) The stress-strain relationship is linear
 (iii) The deformations are small.
1.12 General Stress-Strain
Relationships
 1.12 General Stress-Strain
Relationships
F o r t h e e le m e n t o f m a t e r ia l a s in F ig u r e a b o v e
s u b je c t e d t o u n ia x ia l s t r e s s ,  x , t h e e n s u in g s t r a in
is a s s h o w n in ( b ) .

S t r a in in x d ir e c t io n ,  x  x
E
S t r a in s in y a n d z d ir e c t io n s a s a
r e s u lt o f s t r a in in x – d ir e c t io n

=   x and    x   x
each
E
N o t e : T h e n e g a t iv e s ig n in d ic a t e s c o n t r a c tio n .
 General Stress-Strain Relationships
Contd.

F o r a n e le m e n t s u b je c t e d t o t r ia x ia l s t r e s s e s ,
 x,  y and  z , t h e t o t a l s t r a in in x d ir e c t io n w ill b e

d u e to  x a n d la te r a l s t r a in s d u e t o  y and  z.
U s in g t h e p r in c ip le o f s u p e r p o s it io n , t h e r e s u lt a n t s t r a in in x - d ir e c t io n is :
  y 
 x  x
  z
E E E

1
i.e.  x  { x   ( y   z )}
E
1
 y  { y   ( x   z )} G e n e r a lis e d H o o k e ’s L a w in t h r e e d im e n s io n s
E
1
z  { z   ( x   y )}
E
General Stress-Strain Relationships
Contd.

 Note: In the case of shear

strain, there is no lateral strain,
hence the shear stress/shear
strain relationship is the same
for both uniaxial and complex
strain systems.
Plain Stress and Plain Strain

 A plain stress condition is said to exist when

stress in the z direction is zero.
 The above equations may be applied for
but strain in the z direction is not zero.
 Also plain strain condition exists when the
strain in z direction is zero.
 Using strain in Z direction as zero in this
case does not mean that stress in the z
direction is zero.
 Strain Caused by Stress and
Temperature
In a d d it io n t o s t r a in c a u s e d b y s t r e s s , t h e r e m a y a ls o b e t h e r m a l s t r a in
d u e t o c h a n g e in t e m p e r a t u r e . T h e g e n e r a l f o r m o f th e s tr e s s /s t r a in
r e la t io n s is :

1
 x  { x   ( y   z )}   t
E
1
 y  { y   ( x   z)}   t
E
1
 z  { z   ( x   y )}   t
E
 xy  yz 
 xy  ;  yz  ;  zx  zx
G G G
Try On Your Own

12
Showthat : v  (x y z )
E
 Example
E x a m p le : A p la t e o f u n if o r m t h ic k n e s s 1 c m a n d d im e n s io n 3 x 2 c m is a c t e d u p o n b y
t h e lo a d s s h o w n . T a k in g E = 2 x 1 0 7 N / c m 2 , d e t e r m in e  x a n d  y . P o is s o n ’s r a t io is
0 .3 . 42 kN

y
18 kN 2 cm 18 kN
x

42 kN
3cm
 Solution
18000 N
 x   9000 N / cm 2

2 cm x 1cm

42000 N
 y   14000 N /cm 2

3cm x 1cm

H o o k e ’s la w in t w o d im e n s io n s s t a t e s t h a t :
1 1  6
 x  [ x    y ]  7
[ 9 0 0 0  0 .3 ( 1 4 0 0 0 ]  2 4 0 x 1 0
E 2 x 10
1 1  6
a n d  y  [ y    x ]  7
[ 1 4 0 0 0  0 .3 ( 9 0 0 0 ]  5 6 5 x 1 0
E 2 x 10
 1.13 Relationship between Elastic
Modulus (E) and Bulk Modulus, K
I
tha
sb
ee
ns
ho
wn
th
at: 

v
 x y z

1
x   x   ( y   z )
E
For hydrostatic stress,  x   y   z  

1 
i. e. x    2    1 2 
E E

Similarly ,  y and  z are each 1 2 
E
 v   x   y   z  Volumetric strain
3
v  1 2 
E
3
E 1 2 
v
Volumetric or hydrostatic stress 
Bulk Modulus, K  
Volumetric strain v
E
i. e. E  3 K 1  2  and K 
3 1 2 
 Maximum Value For Poisson’s
Ratio

F r o m t h e e q u a t io n , if v = 0 . 5 , t h e v a lu e o f K b e c o m e s in f in it e ly la r g e .
H e n c e t h e b o d y is in c o m p r e s s ib le . If v > 0 . 5 , K b e c o m e s n e g a t iv e
i. e . t h e b o d y w ill e x p a n d u n d e r h y d r o s t a t ic p r e s s u r e w h ic h is
in c o n c e iv a b le . It m a y b e c o n c lu d e d t h a t t h e u p p e r lim it o f P o is s o n ’s r a t io
is 0 . 5 .
2 G 1 
N o te : K  and E  2 G 1 
3 1 2 
W h e r e : G is S h e a r M o d u lu s
 1.14 Compound Bars

A compound bar is one comprising two or more parallel elements, of different materials,
which are fixed together at their end. The compound bar may be loaded in tension or
compression.
1 2

F F

Section through a typical compound bar consisting of a circular bar (1) surrounded by a
tube (2)
 1.14.1 Stresses Due to Applied Loads
in Compound Bars

If a c o m p o u n d b a r is lo a d e d in c o m p r e s s io n b y a f o r c e , F ,
S in c e t h e r o d a n d t u b e a r e o f t h e s a m e le n g t h a n d m u s t r e m a in
t o g e t h e r , t h e t w o m a t e r ia ls m u s t h a v e t h e s a m e s t r a in i. e .
 1   2

S tr e s s    1E
S tr a in  i.e 1
 2
,  2  2
.....(1 )
E E 1 E 2 E1
W h e r e E 1 a n d E 2 a r e t h e e la s t ic m o d u li o f m a t e r ia ls 1 a n d 2 r e s p e c t iv e ly .
A ls o : T h e t o t a l lo a d , F m u s t b e s h a r e d b y t h e t w o m a t e r ia ls , i. e . F = F 1 + F 2
W h e r e : F 1 a n d F 2 a r e t h e lo a d s in t h e in d iv id u a l e le m e n t s .
 Compound Bars Contd.

N o w : a s f o rc e = s tre s s x a re a : T h e n : F =  1 A 1   2 A 2 ...............(2 )
W h e re A 1 a n d A 2 a re th e a re a s o f m a te ria ls 1 a n d 2 re s p e c tiv e ly .

S u b s titu tin g f o r  2 f ro m E q n . 1 in to E q n 2 :

F  A1 
 1 E 2 A2

LMA  E A O
P2 2
1
E1
1
N 1
E Q 1

F E1 F E2
1  and  2 
E 1 A1  E 2 A 2 E 1 A1  E 2 A 2
 1.14.2 Temperature stresses in
compound bars
1 1
2 2
L
(a) L1T
1
L2 T

FL
2 {b}
AE
1 1

F 1 F

F 2 F
FL
(c)
A2E2
 Temperature stresses in compound
bar Contd.

C
ons
ide
rac
o m
pou
ndb
ar,s
e e(a
)ab
oveo
fle
ngth
,Lc
o n
sis
tin
gof2
d
iffe
ren
tma
teria
ls(1
)an
d(2
)ha
vin
gcoe
ffic
ien
tso
fex
p a
nsio
n
1 a
nd2r
e s
p e
ctiv
e ith
lyw 1>2. Ifthebarissubjectedtoa
1 u
nifo
rmte
m p
era
tureris
e ,Ta
ndth
erig
hth
andfix
ingre
lea
sed
,

1th
eba
r(1
)wille
xpa
ndm
oreth
an(2
)ass
h o
w nind
iag
ram(b
).
H
owe
ver,b
ecau
seo
fth
een
dfix
ing
,fre
eex
p a
nsio
ncan
noto
ccur.
D
ia
gra
m (c
)sho
w sth
atth
een
dfix
ingm
usts
u p
plyafo
rcew
hic
h
d
ecre
asesth
ele
ngtho
fba
r(1
)an
din
cre
asesth
ele
ngtho
fba
r(2
)
u
ntil e
quilib
riu
m isa
chie
veda
tac
o m
monle
ngth
.
A
snoe
xte
rna
l fo
rcesa
rein
volv
e d
,as
e lfe
quilib
ratin
g
(b
ala
ncin
gfo
rces
yste
m isc
rea
ted
).
Temperature Stresses Contd.
Free expansions in bars (1) and (2) are L1T and L2T respectively.
Due to end fixing force, F: the decrease in length of bar (1) is
FL FL
and the increase in length of (2) is .
AE
1 1 A2E2 1 1

At Equilibrium: 2 2
L
FL FL
L1T   L2T  (a) L1T
AE
1 1 A2E2
1
1 1
i.e. F[  ]  T(1 2 ) L2 T
AE
1 1 A E
2 2

i.e. 1A1
L
A E  AE O
M 2
P
 T (  )
2 1 1
2 {b}
FL
AE
1 1

NE E A1A Q 2 1 2
1 2
F 1 F
T (1 2 ) A2E1E2
1 
1 1  A2 E2
AE F 2 F
FL
(c)
A2E2
T (1 2 ) AE
1 1E2
2 
1 1  A2 E2
AE

Note: As a result of Force, F, bar (1) will be in compression while (2) will be in tension.
 Example

 A steel tube having an external diameter of

36 mm and an internal diameter of 30 mm
has a brass rod of 20 mm diameter inside it,
the two materials being joined rigidly at their
ends when the ambient temperature is 18 0C.
Determine the stresses in the two materials:
(a) when the temperature is raised to 68 0C
(b) when a compressive load of 20 kN is
applied at the increased temperature.
Example Contd.

 For brass: Modulus of elasticity = 80

GN/m2; Coefficient of expansion = 17 x
10 -6 /0C
 For steel: Modulus of elasticity = 210
GN/m2; Coefficient of expansion = 11 x
10 -6 /0C
Solution

30 B ra s s ro d 20 36

S te e l tu b e

 x 202
A re a o f b ra s s ro d (A b) =  3 1 4 .1 6 m m 2

4
 x (3 6 2  3 0 2)
A re a o f s te e l tu b e (A s) =  3 1 1 .0 2 m m 2

4
6
A s E s  3 1 1 .0 2 x 1 0 m 2
x 210 x 109 N /m 2
 0 .6 5 3 1 4 2 x 1 0 8 N
1 8
 1 .5 3 1 0 6 x 1 0
A sE s
 Solution Contd.

A b E b  3 1 4 .1 6 x 1 0  6 m 2 x 8 0 x 1 0 9 N / m 2  0 . 2 5 1 3 2 7 x 1 0 8 N
1
 3 .9 7 8 8 7 3 6 x 1 0  8
Ab E b

T ( b   s )  5 0 (1 7  1 1) x 1 0 6  3 x 1 0 4
W it h in c r e a s e in t e m p e r a t u r e , b r a s s w ill b e in c o m p r e s s io n w h ile
s t e e l w ill b e in t e n s io n . T h is is b e c a u s e e x p a n d s m o r e t h a n s t e e l.

1 1
i.e. F [  ]  T ( b   s )
AsE s Ab E b
-8 -4
i. e . F [ 1 . 5 3 1 0 6 + 3 . 9 7 8 8 7 3 6 ] x 1 0 = 3 x 10
F = 5 4 4 4 .7 1 N
 Solution Concluded
5 4 4 4 .7 1 N
S tr e s s in s t e e l tu b e = 2
 1 7 .5 1 N / m m 2
 1 7 .5 1 M N / m 2 ( T e n s i o n )
3 1 1 .0 2 m m
5 4 4 4 .7 1 N
S tr e s s in b r a s s r o d = 2
 1 7 .3 3 N / m m 2
 1 7 .3 3 M N / m 2 ( C o m p r e s s i o n )
3 1 4 .1 6 m m
( b ) S t r e s s e s d u e to c o m p r e s s io n f o r c e , F ’ o f 2 0 k N
F 'E s 20 x 103N x 210 x 109N /m 2
 s    4 6 .4 4 M N / m 2 ( C o m p r e s s i o n )
E sA s  E bAb 0 .6 5 3 1 4 2  0 .2 5 1 3 2 7 x 1 0 8

F 'E b 20 x 103N x 80 x 109N /m 2

 b    1 7 .6 9 M N / m 2 ( C o m p r e s s i o n )
E sA s  E bAb 0 .6 5 3 1 4 2  0 .2 5 1 3 2 7 x 1 0 8

2
R e s u lt a n t s tr e s s in s t e e l t u b e = - 4 6 . 4 4 + 1 7 . 5 1 = 2 8 . 9 3 M N / m ( C o m p r e s s io n )
2
R e s u lt a n t s tr e s s in b r a s s r o d = - 1 7 . 6 9 - 1 7 . 3 3 = 3 5 .0 2 M N /m ( C o m p r e s s io n )
 Example
 A composite bar, 0.6 m long comprises a steel
bar 0.2 m long and 40 mm diameter which is
fixed at one end to a copper bar having a
length of 0.4 m.
 Determine the necessary diameter of the
copper bar in order that the extension of each
material shall be the same when the composite
bar is subjected to an axial load.
 What will be the stresses in the steel and
copper when the bar is subjected to an axial
tensile loading of 30 kN? (For steel, E = 210
GN/m2; for copper, E = 110 GN/m2)
 Solution

0.2 mm
0.4 mm
F 40 mm dia d F

Let the diameter of the copper bar be d mm

Specified condition: Extensions in the two bars are equal
dlc  dls
 FL
dl   L  L
E AE
Fc Lc FL
Thus:  s s
Ac Ec As Es
Solution Concluded
A ls o : T o t a l f o r c e , F is t r a n s m it t e d b y b o t h c o p p e r a n d s t e e l
i. e . F c = F s = F
L L
i.e . c
 s
AcE c A sE s

S u b s t it u t e v a lu e s g iv e n in p r o b le m :
0 .4 m 0 .2 m

 d 2
/4 m 2
110 x 109 N /m 2
 / 4 x 0 .0 4 0 2
x 210 x 10 9
N /m 2

2 x 2 1 0 x 0 .0 4 0 2 2
d 2
 m ; d  0 . 0 7 8 1 6 m  7 8 .1 6 m m .
110
T h u s f o r a lo a d in g o f 3 0 k N

30 x 103N
S t r e s s in s t e e l,  s   6
 2 3 .8 7 M N / m 2

 / 4 x 0 .0 4 0 2 x 1 0

30 x 103 N
S tr e s s in c o p p e r ,  c   6
 9 M N /m 2

 / 4 x 0 .0 7 8 1 6 2 x 1 0
1.15 Elastic Strain Energy

 If a material is strained by a gradually

applied load, then work is done on the
material by the applied load.
 The work is stored in the material in the form
of strain energy.
 If the strain is within the elastic range of the
material, this energy is not retained by the
material upon the removal of load.
 Elastic Strain Energy Contd.
Figure below shows the load-extension graph of a uniform bar.
The extension dl is associated with a gradually applied load, P
which is within the elastic range. The shaded area represents
the work done in increasing the load from zero to its value
Load
P

Extension
dl
Work done = strain energy of bar = shaded area
 Elastic Strain Energy Concluded

W=U=1/2 Pdl (1)

Stress,  =P/A i.e P=  A
Strain = Stress/E
i.e dl/L =  /E, dl = ( L)/E L= original length
Substituting for Panddl inEqn (1) gives:
W=U=1/2  A. ( L)/E =  2/2Ex AL
AL is the volume of the bar.

i.e U= 2/2Ex Volume

The units of strain energy are same as those of work i.e. Joules. Strain energy
per unit volume,  2/2Eis known as resilience. The greatest amount of energy that can
stored in a material without permanent set occurring will be when  is equal to the
elastic limit stress.