The

Enlightenment

Key figures and

Philosophies of the
18th century Europe
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According to review text, keep in mind:

2. How does the thinker/book/topic reflect the principles of
Enlightenment thouht?
3. To what degree was this area of life (medicine, education, law, etc.)
reformed in line with Enlightenment principles?

Table of Contents
 State of Nature/Rights/Social Contract
 Locke and Hobbes
 The Enlightenment background
 Key Enlightenment thinkers
 Fontenelle and religious conflict
 Bayle/Philosophes
 Why France
 Limitations/censorship
 Montesquieu
 Voltaire/deism
 Chatelet
 Diderot/Encyclopedia
 Later Enlightenment
 Hume/D’Holbach/Skepticism
 Condorcet/Rousseau/Kant
 Becccaria
Click on topic to move to
correct slides
 Salon
 Impact: literacy/revolution
 Physiocrats and Adam Smith
 Wollstonecraft
 Enlightened Despots
 Maria Theresa/Joseph II
 Frederick the Great
 Catherine the Great
 France
 Impact
 18th Century Warfare/War of Austrian Succes
State of Nature
 Note your handout of Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau
 The condition of man without government
 Some see good, others evil, some see order, others
chaos
 Some argue that freedom exists until govt. is agreed
to and then you get rights
 Others argue that rights exist and then govt. limits
rights
 This determines philosophers purpose of govt.(create
order, protect rights)
 Hobbes?

Or Locke?
Natural Rights
 Inherent in people
 Some argue “God given rights”
 Universal & Inalienable
 Natural law--discover fair, just, and natural in
political and social realms through reason
Social Contract
 Note comparison
sheet Hobbes, Locke,
Rousseau
 The implied
agreement by which
people group together
to form government
 People give up rights
to protect social order
 Also note chart handout

Locke
 Most influential political
philosopher of 17th century
 Defended the Glorious
Revolution--purpose of civil govt.
to protect life, liberty, and property
 Natural right to rebel against tyranny
 Spokesman for revolution and representative
govt.(consent of governed)
 Toleration, Respect for Reason, and optimism about
human perfectibility
 Constitutional govt. to place limits on govt.
 Second Treatise on Government (1689)
Locke
 Father of the Empirical School
 Natural rights--to rational beings
 Ideas derive from perceptions--tabula rasa
 Human beings are cooperative not competitive
 In State of Nature man has natural rights, natural rights not
surrendered, but enhanced when entering into contract,
conflict is created due to property
 Didn’t believe humans were capable of interpreting nature
unlike Rousseau
 Ideal govt.--representation, guarantees of rights, respect
for property
 Also note handout
Hobbes
 A materialist--the only things that are
real are material--tangible.
 Affected by the English Civil War
 Supported absolute power of
monarch/king
 Power derives from people who give
it to monarch--no divine right
•The Leviathan
 Ideal state is that with the greatest
security •Justification of
 Laws created by humans to protect absolutism is secular
themselves and “scientific”
 Social contract--king is king and
subjects are subjects
 “In every human is a perpetual
desire of Power, after Power,
Hobbes that ceaseth only in death.”

 He alienated the king--no divine right

 He alienated the common people by
claiming the absolute power of the king
 He alienated those who were religious
because he denied the existence in the
universe of any divinely established
authority. He did not deny the existence
of God but came too close.
 He alienated the rationalists by posing
his materialism
 His pessimism and extreme position
have resulted in controversy over his
writings
Hobbes on the Nature of Man
 Human beings are social by necessity
 Thoughts, feelings, and desires are reaction to external stimulus
 Humans are inherently selfish and aggressive--state of nature
“every man against every other man"
 In order for society to function properly, man needed a contract
to prevent the pursuit of self-interest that leads to conflict,
therefore absolutism is the answer
 Social contract allows for protection from each other
 Humans give up rights for security

 Chaos Social contract Absolutism

The Enlightenment
 An intellectual movement in 18th century Europe applying
methods and principles of the Scientific Revolution to
issues of political, economic, and social reform
 Focused on the power and goodness of human rationality
 Often connected to the Age of Reason, a broader
classification of thinking
 Philosophers searched for general understanding of
values and reality
 Profoundly secular--worldly explanations
 Affected the urban middle classes and aristocracy
 Causes
“The key, and most significant,
cause of the Enlightenment was the
Scientific Revolution”
 Ideas of Newton and Locke
 Stability and commercial prosperity of Britain and
need for administrative and economic reform in
France
 Consolidation of print culture
Goals
 To establish an
authoritative ethics,
aesthetics, and
knowledge based on
an “enlightened”
rationality.
 To provide the
intellectual stimulus to
social change that
would result in
progress
Common threads of thought
 Reason--methods of natural sciences should be
used to examine and understand all aspects of
life. Nothing was to be accepted by faith.
Rationalism
 The discipline of social sciences--scientific
method capable of discovering the laws of human
society
 Progress--it was possible for human beings to
create a better society and better people. They
looked to improvements in economic and social
life in the 18th century
Rationalism
 Everything was to be submitted to the rational, critical,
scientific way of thinking--making reason ultimate
 Brought conflict between Enlightenment thinkers and the
church
Empiricism
 All knowledge is
derived from
experience
 Gives
observation
priority
Fontenelle (1657-1757)
 The most famous and influential
popularizer of the scientific
revolution
 Made science witty and
understandable to common
people
 Humans capable of progress
 Science and religion in conflict
 Skeptical about absolute truth and
cynical about religion
 Conflict with Religion:
Uncertainty
 Copernican hypothesis left uncertainties
 Religious truth questioned
 30 Years’ War--religious conflict
 Strong state requires religious unity of faith
 Could religious truth be known with absolute certainty--
they concluded that it could not
 Travel literature--other customs and ideas
 Locke’s Essay Concerning Human
Understanding--tabula rasa--a dominant
intellectual inspiration of the Enlightenment
Religion and Skepticism
 Sci. Rev. caused increase in skeptical & secular attitudes
 At first, scientists blended the ideas and beliefs
 Next, more empirical evidence was demanded
 Changes in punishment
 Decline in witchcraft persecutions
 New standards of evidence
 Eliminating torture and hearsay testimony
 More scientific basis for legal proceedings
 New Biblical scholarship
 New calendar--Gregorian calendar more accurate
 Church accepts heliocentric view under Gregory XIII
 Archbishop Usher--date of world (4000 B.C.)
Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677)
 Portuguese Jew fled to Netherlands
due to Inquisition
 Synthesis of scientific and spiritual
 Monism--everything is from one
substance
 Ethics as Determined in a
Geometric Manner (1677)
 Rationalist style
 Rejected miracles, holy books, and
free will
Blaise Pascal (1623-1662)
 Child prodigy and mathematical
genius
 Religious conversion, Jansenist
 Pensees (The Thoughts)
 Show proper relationship between
faith & reason
 Human reason was distinct capacity
in the universe
 We will always want for evidence
 Alternatives--eternal reward v. earthly
pleasure
 Pascal’s Wager “For we have much to gain
and little to lose with faith”
Bayle (1647-1706)
 Skeptic
 French Huguenot
 Examination of religious beliefs and
persecutions of the past
 Nothing could be known beyond doubt
 Our best hope: open-minded toleration
 Popular author--4 volume Historical
and Critical dictionary found in more
libraries of 18th century than any other
book
 His work formed a bridge from
Scientific Revolution to Enlightenment
Philososophes
 One of history’s most influential
groups of intellectuals
 Bringing the light of knowledge to
their ignorant fellow creatures
 Ideas embraced by educated elite
 Systematic criticism of human
custom & tradition through reason
 Gradual reform and progress was
goal, not revolution
 Ideals: Reason, secularism,
equality, progress, individualism
 It was in France that the Enlightenment
reached its highest development.
Why France?
 French was the international language of the educated
classes--the elites of Europe often chose French tutors
espousing Enlightenment ideas
 French absolutism and religious orthodoxy strong, but
not too strong
 Philosophes were indeed philosophers, asking
fundamental questions about the meaning of life, God,
human nature, good and evil, cause and effect--they
wanted to reach “the public.”
 Strength lay in their number, dedication, and
organization
Limitations
 The Enlightenment did not have
much impact on the common
people--”the people.”
 Common people were doomed to
superstition and confusion because
they lacked money and leisure to
look beyond poverty
 They were suspicious of the
people, but committed to reason,
progress, and reform
Censorship
 A rampant force limiting new
ideas
 It was illegal in France to
criticize openly either church
or state
 Radical ideas circulated
through manuscripts
 Satire
 Published works elsewhere
and smuggled in
Montesquieu
 Persian Letters--social satire of Europe
 Student of politics and history
 Geography, climate, history influence
govt.
 Dismayed by French absolutism
 Separation of power--checks and
balances (between monarch/nobility)
 Strong independent upper class
to check power of ruler
 Admired British balance of power
 Not a proponent of democracy or
republics--uneasy about the uneducated
poor
Who was the most symbolic man
of the Enlightenment?
Voltaire (1694-1778)
 Prolific writer,
 Candide --satire
exposing human nature of
stupidity and shallow optimism
 Concern for injustice based on his own experiences (jail,
exile)
 Praised England, popularized scientific method
 Praised Newton for genius and contribution to
humanity--”those who use reason in pursuit of truth should
be praised, not those who use force to subdue people and
reduce them to slavery”
 Voltaire
 Glorification of science and reason
to improve individuals and institutions
 A reformer, not a revolutionary
 Socialized with royalty and connected Enlightenment
with despots of eastern Europe
 More pessimistic than Montesquieu--best we can hope
for is a good monarch
 Did not believe in social and economic equality
 Deist--seen as challenging the Church
 Religious tolerance --“crush the infamous thing”
Deism
 The Watchmaker
 God is creator who was present at the beginning
but is now removed
 Belief in God but often critical of church
 God does not work in the lives of humans or
institutions
 God rewards and punishes individuals according
to their moral conduct
 Reject fundamental doctrines of the Christian faith
Madame Chatelet (1706-1749)
 Intellectually gifted social elite with passion for
sciences
 Companion of Voltaire
 “Perhaps the best representative of the female
accomplishments in science and their unequal
treatment”
 Excluded from Royal Academy of Sciences
 Spread ideas of Newton
 Tried to reform intellectual world’s ideas for
women
Diderot
 Co-editor of Encylopedia
with D’Alembert
 Mission held the project
together for 15 years under
pressure of censorship and
excommunication
 Expansive knowledge
 Favorite of the salons
 Created controversy
 Religious
 Economic--trade secrets of the guilds
The Encyclopedia
 Greatest and most representative
intellectual achievement of the
Enlightenment
 Many contributing authors to hundreds of
thousands of articles to teach people how
to think critically and objectively about all
matters--17 volumes
 Revolutionary effect--open forum for
education and criticism
 Triumph of rationalism
 Greater knowledge leads to greater
human happiness
 Knowledge created path for progress
 Illustrations--convey practical knowledge
 The Later Enlightenment
 New phase after 1760
 Harmonious unity begins to break down
 A changing world-view increasingly accepted
 A new originality through exaggeration and
extremism
 Often, they appeared dogmatic and rigid
 Moved from deism and natural law to atheism and
utility (usefulness)
Hume
 Skeptic, empiricist
 Powerful long-term influence
on intellectual activity
 Built on Locke’s teaching
on learning--our reason cannot tell us anything not verified
by sense experiences
 Ethics (the oughts) based on moral sense or sentiments
“His rationalistic inquiry ended up undermining the
Enlightenment’s faith in the power of reason”
D’Holbach (1723-1789)
 System of Nature 1770
 Human’s determined by outside
forces
 Atheist--Free will, God, and
immortality of the soul were
foolish myths
 Radical views unsettled the
harmony of earlier Enlightenment
 Materialist--leaves no room for
spiritual
 Determinist (opposite of free will
Skepticism
 Doubt that which is beyond sense
experiences or what is obtained by
controlled experiments or mathematics
Marquis de Condorcet (1743-1794)
 Transformed Enlightenment belief in progress into
fanciful utopianism
 Equality (even for women), justice, constitutional
govt., and individual liberty
 Progress of the Human Mind (1795)
 He hypothesizes that 9 stages
of progress have already occurred
and the 10th is perfection
 Advocated science is key to
greater freedom and happiness
 Note handout
Rousseau
 Influenced by Diderot and Voltaire
 Lived alone pursuing original ideas
 Attacked rationalism--it destroyed
the individual
 Feeling must be added to thinking
 Goodness of child must be
protected from cruel and tainted
civilization
 Influence on the early Romantic
movement
Rousseau and Social Contract
 The Social Contract (1762)
 Agreement between the people, not between Govt. and
people--role of individual as member of society
 Government must follow “general will”, or citizens may
rebel
 General will--sacred and absolute--common interest of
people, not necessarily the will of majority--it may
represent long-term needs as seen by farsighted minority
or an enlightened ruler
 Popular sovereignty--rule of people through contract
 Humans loving and cooperative but property corrupts
 Born with natural rights: life and liberty
Rousseau
 Noble Savages--exemplified by Native Americans,
no need for reason, as instinct and emotion are
more reliable in producing happiness
 Emile (1762)--new approach to child-rearing and
education
 Focus on child’s positive experiences
 Experiential education
 Women’s domestic role
 Kant
 Greatest German ethicist and philosopher
of his age--most important modern
philosopher
 Frederick the Great was enlightened
because he permitted freedom of the
press
 Humans are rational and moral
 Deontology--study of duty
 Ethics--rejected Hume, a pure rationalist “We live in an age of
 Categorical imperative--do what you Enlightenment, but not
would wish to be a universal law (moral of
an action is defined by motive, not by an enlightened age”
outcome
Marquis de Beccaria (1738-1794)
 Italian philosopher
 On Crimes and Punishment 1764
 “Reason and certainty of punishment (not its severity) should act as a
guide to law and the penal system”
 Founding work on criminology and penal reform
 Condemned death penalty and torture
 Torture tends to excite people’s bloodlust and fear of power rather than
respect for the law
 Punishment
 Deterrent
 Proportional
 Build prisons to rehabilitate inmates through discipline
 Became a utilitarian--usefulness--greatest good for greatest
number
The Salon
 Free discussion and
social interchange
free of concern for
censorship
 Variety of content
 Mixing of social
groups
 Educational
 Influence on art
 United members of intellectual, economic, and social elites
resulting in greater influence between the upper and middle
classes
 Free examination of Enlightenment thought
 Middle class--used coffeehouses and Freemason lodges
The Salon The salons of the
Enlightenment are not so different.
And I am all We talk about many issues of
About interior human nature, literature, philosophy,
design And other topics.
Women and the Salon
 Madame Geoffrin--
 Godmother of Encyclopedia
 Corresponded with eastern enlightened despots
 Host, mediator, and financier of salons for 25 years
 Rococo art and interior design
 Some philosophes championed greater rights and
expanded education for women--the best
indicator of the level of civilization and decency or
a society is the treatment of women
 The Salonnieres

Madame Madame
Geoffrin Mademoiselle Suzanne
(1699-1777) Julie de Necker
Lespinasse (1739-1794)
(1732*-1776)
 Other Female Salons
► Wealthy Jewish women created
nine of the fourteen salons in
Berlin.
► In Warsaw, Princess Zofia
Czartoryska gathered around
her the reform leaders of
Poland-Lithuania.
► Middle-class women in London
used their salons to raise money
to publish women’s writings.
 Impact of Enlightenment on
Literacy
 From 600 new titles in 1700 to 2600 in 1780
 Modest increase in literacy (strongest among males and middle class)
 Private libraries: 8 to 10 x increase especially in arts and sciences
 Censorship and its impact--little long-term success due to
decentralized intellectual life and lack of enforcement
 Newspapers in most every major city--The Spectator
 Scandalmongering of high government officials
 New approaches to reading: from a spiritual and communal
experience of highly sacred texts read by the father out loud to a silent,
personal, and rapid approach to reading
 Gibbon’s Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire--history critical of
religion
 Poor and peasants--chapbooks (chivalric romances, religious stories)
and almanacs
Education
 Remained a privilege of well-to-do
 Secondary schools reinforced social
hierarchy and taught classical
languages
 Critics saw need for reform
 Need to teach more science
 Germany’s Realschule--focused on
practical skills
 Changes in universities
 Enlightened despots attempted to
reform education
Impact on American Revolution
 Enlightenment writings
 Locke’s influence on Jefferson
 Montesquieu’s influence on Franklin
 Religious toleration
 Natural rights
 Right to rebellion
 Public Opinion--political energy generated by a reading
public informed and concerned about politics
 An embodiment of
I wrote the
the Enlightenment,
Enlightenment into
I appreciated my
The Declaration
time in France
of Independence

But I was the

one who really
Caused the
Ben Franklin revolution!
•Scientist
•Diplomat Thomas Jefferson
•Writer •Politician
•Innovator •Writer
•Quaker Thomas Paine
•Scientist
•Common Sense 1776
•Religious tolerance
•Rights of Man 1791
 French Physiocrats on Economic
Thought
 Enlightenment ideas--3 duties of govt.: defense against
invasion, maintain civil order, and sponsor public works
 Physiocrats:
 Opposed to mercantilism
 Land, not currency (specie),
is source of wealth
 Laissez-faire
 Free land from feudal restrictions
 Adam Smith and Physiocrats on
Economic Thought
 Adam Smith
 Scottish economist and most influential advocate of laissez-faire
 The Wealth of Nations (1776)--bible of capitalism
 Argued against mercantilism
 Individuals should be free to pursue economic gain without
being restricted by the state--it would not produce anarchy but
an “invisible hand” that would lead to meeting supply and
demand
 Free trade and economic self-interest
 Labor is ultimate source of value
 Division of labor increases productivity and efficiency
Characteristics of Mercantilism
£ “Bullionism”  the eco. health of a nation could
be measured by the amount of precious metal
[gold or silver] which it possessed.
 ‘Hard’ money was the source of prosperity,
prestige, and strength for a nation.
 Bullionism dictated a “favorable balance of
trade.”
• Export more than you import [a trade
surplus].
 High tariffs on imported manufactured good.
 Low tariffs on imported raw materials.

2. Each nation must try to achieve economic

self-sufficiency.
 Those founding new industries should be
rewarded by the state.
Characteristics of Mercantilism
1. Thriving agriculture should be carefully
encouraged.
 Less of need to import foods.
 Prosperous farmers could provide a base
for taxation.
2. Sea power was necessary to control
foreign markets.
 Less need to use the ships of other
nations to carry your trade goods.
 Your own fleet adds to the power and
prestige of the nation.
3. Impose internal taxes of all kinds.
Characteristics of Mercantilism
£ Colonies would provide captive markets
for manufactured goods & sources of raw
materials.
Manufactured goods

Mother
Countr
y Colony
Raw
materials
Cheap labor

£ Trade is a “zero-sum” game.

 A nation can gain in international trade only
at the expense of other nations.
Characteristics of Mercantilism
1. A large population was needed to
provide a domestic labor force to
people the colonies.

2. Luxury items should be avoided

 They took money out of the economy
unnecessarily.

3. State action was needed to regulate

and enforce all of these economic
policies.
 State-sponsored trade monopolies.
Jean Baptiste Colbert [(1619-
1683)
£ Architect of French
mercantilism or
“Colbertism.”
£ He was a bullionist.
£ There are four
professions of
importance to the nation:
 Agriculture
 Trade
 Army
 Navy
£ Uniform weights &
measures.
£ Opposed tolls on internal
trade.
Jean Baptiste Colbert [(1619-
1683)
£ Supported mandatory labor on national
roads.
£ Favored a large population.
 Father of 10 or more children would be
exempt from taxes.
£ Favored low wages and child labor.

Colbert & Louis XIV

Who Benefited Most From
Mercantilism?

£ Monarchs.

£ Merchant capitalists.

£ Joint-stock companies.

£ Government officials.
 The
Physiocrats
(The “Government of
Nature”)
Francois Quesnay (1694-1774)
£ A surgeon who
turned to medicine
because of failing
eyesight.
£ He began publishing
economics treatises
at the age of 62.
£ No single document
or book summarizes
his economic system.
£ He was concerned
about the state of
the French economy,
especially of French
agriculture.
Quesnay’s Economic Theories
£ Tableau Économique
[1759].
 A reaction against the
extreme mercantilist
policies of Colbert.
£ Three economic classes:
 “Proprietary class” 
landowners.
 “Productive class” 
agricultural laborers.
 “Sterile class” 
artisans & merchants.
£ Productive work was
the source of national
wealth.
Quesnay’s Economic Theories
£ Therefore, the wealth of the nation was
derived from agriculture.
 Agriculture was the productive sector of an
economy.

£ Tax only the landowning class.

Capitalism
Adam Smith (1723-1790)
£ Appointed to the chair of
logic in 1751 at the
University of Glasgow,
Scotland.
£ In 1752 he transferred to
the chair of philosophy.
£ On his travels to France,
he was influenced by the
writings of the
physiocrats.
£ 1776  The Theory of
Moral Sentiments and an
Inquiry Into the Nature
of Causes of the Wealth
of Nations was published.
 A vehement attack of
the mercantilist system.
The Wealth of Nations (1776)
 Adam Smith’s Attack on
Mercantilism
£ He was making a political argument, NOT
an economic one.
 Part of the argument was for new economic
policy, but..
 An essential part of the argument was for new
social and political arrangements.

£ He argued that the basic unit for social

analysis should be the nation, not the state.

£ He was against the belief that trade was a

zero-sum game
 It was a positive-sum game.
 Both nations gained.
Basic Capitalist Principles
£ Goods and services are produced for
profitable exchange.

£ Human labor power is a commodity for

sale  LABOR IS THE SOURCE OF VALUE.

Goods & Service

Consumer Spending

Businesses Households
Wages

Labor & Investments

 Basic Capitalist Principles
£ The “Invisible Hand” of the market
 Problem  How do we survive in a world
where we must depend on many others,
but where humans are by nature self-
interested individuals??
 Solution  the free market, while
appearing chaotic and unrestrained, is
actually guided to produce the right amount
and variety of goods by a so-called
“invisible hand.”
 Therefore, the basic
market mechanism is
self-regulating!
 Basic Capitalist Principles
£ Individuals seeking success are driven by
self-interest  Profit Motive
£ The Law of Supply and Demand
 Individuals who are free to pursue their
self-interest will produce goods and services
that others want, at prices others will be
willing to pay.
 Basic Capitalist Principles
1. Law of Competition
 The competitive market system compels
producers to be increasingly efficient, and
to respond to the desires of consumers.

2. A social division of labor will maximize the

satisfaction of individual wants and needs,
given scarce resources.

3. Government should interfere minimally

with the free and efficient workings of
the market
 Laissez faire [“Leave things alone.”]
There, there it is again—the invisible hand
of the marketplace giving us the finger.
Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)
 English author and first modern
feminist
 Thoughts on the Education of
Daughters
 Educational equality
 Vindication of the Rights of
Women 1792
 First to openly state that women
should have the right to vote and
hold office
Enlightened Despots
 Top down change
 Distrust of “the people”
 Philosophes thought it offered
best opportunity for change
 Enlightened ideas of reform
implemented from an
absolute ruler
 Eastern and east central
Europe
Be Prepared! I wonder what kind of
question I should
ask about
Enlightened Despots?
Be Now,
Prepared!
students, make sure you
understand each
of the major enlightened despots
to be able to characterize them as one.
Also, think about how you would
evaluate the label of enlightened despots.
Maria Theresa (r. 1740-1780)
 Some do not include her
 Pragmatic Sanction
 Secured her inheritance
 Inherited weak army and $
 Only female ruler of HRE
 Considered one of its most capable rulers
Maria Theresa
 Centralized the Austrian govt
 Increased army 2x-3x, military academy
 Financial reforms: Tax reforms and increases
 Religious toleration and state above church
 Educational reforms, genuinely concerned about subjects
 Academy of engineering and focus on medicine at Univ. of
Vienna (inoculated family for smallpox) health of subjects
 Legal reforms toward fairer judiciary--supreme court
 Robot Patent--reform of serf’s labor providing relief
 War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748)
 Seven Years’ War (1756-1763)
Joseph II (1765-1780)
 Served w/ mom 1765-1780
 Ruled forcefully but in interest
of subjects
 Tried to bring Cath. Church
under control
 Tried to emulate Frederick II
 Physiocratic Economic reforms
 Over 10,000 edicts for the betterment of the people although
many were later reversed following his death
 Alienated local traditions and nobility
 Unquestioned commitment to reform--results limited by pace
and disregard for opposition
 See me in the movie
Joseph II (1765-1790) Amadeus

 Impatient by slow nature of reform

 Domestic Policy
 Wanted govt. based on sevice not birth
 Reforms judiciary
 Builds schools, hospitals, orphanages
 Reforms church
 Edict of Toleration--included Jews

 Expanded/trained/equipped army
 Freedom of press
 Single land tax
 Single German culture
 Abolition of serfdom
 Reforms end--civil unrest--secret police
Frederick II (r.1740-1786) Prussia
 Well educated, many talents
 Voltaire
 Domestic Policy
 Built up towns and local economies

 Started new industries and built 250+

factories
 Reformed the judicial system and
developed written laws
 Schools

 Freedom of thought and press

 Quick reconstruction of war-torn areas

 Good example--justified reign by results, “first

servant of the state” not divine right
Frederick II
 Foreign policy-expansion
 Attacked Hapsburg’s Maria Theresa
in War of Austrian Succession
(1740-1748)
 Invaded Silesia 1740
 Doubled population
 Seven Years’ War (1755-1763)
 Attacked by Austria, France, Russia
 Miraculously saved by Russian
Peter III
 Partition of Poland
 Demonstrated that interests of the
state came above principles
Frederick II
 Limitations
 He never tried to change Prussia’s
existing social structure
 He condemned serfdom in abstract
but accepted it in practice
 Accepted and extended privileges
of nobility--Junkers a primary ally
 Jews remained oppressed
Reform in Russia
 Peter the Great
 Peter the Great
Became known as Peter the Great for his efforts to transform Russia
into a modern state.

Early Rule Building a Navy

• 1682, Peter became czar while a
child; sister ruled in his place
• Age 17, removed sister from
throne, took power for himself
– Tall, strong man
– Had strong personality,
boundless energy
• One of first acts, stormed Azov,
Black Sea port held by Turks
• Attack disaster, but inspired
Peter to build navy
• Labored side-by-side with
thousands of carpenters
• Built hundreds of ships
• New navy took up Azov
campaign
• Turks surrendered
 Modernization and Reform
Westernization
• Peter realized country needed to modernize to catch up with rest of Europe
• Wanted westernization; to bring elements of Western culture to Russia
• 1697, journeyed to western Europe to see what Russia needed to modernize

New Skills
• Peter traveled in disguise, was sometimes recognized anyway
• Learned hands-on skills, especially shipbuilding
• Recruited European experts to bring skills to Russia
Rebellion
• Trip cut short by rebellion of streltsy, military corps with political influence
• Thought streltsy wanted sister on throne; had members tortured, executed
• Disbanded streltsy, organized more modern army
 Reforms
• In addition to modernizing army, Peter made many other
reforms
• Brought church under state control
• Built up Russian industry
• Started first newspaper in Russia
Cues from
• Sponsored new West
schools Modern Russia
• Supported education; believed • Through these, other reforms Peter
• Russians
Modernizedneededcalendar,
to learn more promotedtried
officials onwillservice,
to impose not
on Russians
about
socialscience
statusfrom West • Goal was to make Russia more
• Wanted Russians to adopt modern country
European-style clothing, grooming • Not always successful, but
• Cut off boyars’ traditional long considered founder of modern
coats, beards to look European Russia for efforts
 St. Petersburg
St. Petersburg
Peter also founded a new city
 Early 1700s, fought Sweden to acquire warm-water
port
 Other ports choked by ice much of year
 Port farther south on Baltic Sea to keep Russia open to western
trade all year, connect Russia to west
 On land won from Sweden, Peter built new capital,
St. Petersburg
 Russia’s government moved to new city
 Featured Western-style architecture
 Recall

Name three ways in which Peter the Great

attempted to westernize Russia.
Answer(s): by encouraging men to shave off their
beards, encouraging people to adopt European
styles of dress, building a new capital with
Western-style architecture
Catherine the Great (r. 1762-1796)
 Comes to power following period of
weak and unstable rulers and nobility
increasing power
 “One of the most remarkable rulers
who ever lived”
 German born, marriage to Peter III,
conspired with military to kill him,
became empress
 3 main goals
 Bring sophisticated western culture to
Russia
 New legal code
 Territorial expansion
 Catherine the Great Results
“Champion of the human race”
 Westernizer
 Imported artist, intellectuals, art, patronized philosophes and
corresponded with Voltaire
 Set the tone of westernization and western thinking of Russian nobility

 Increased trade

 Legal reforms
 No new unified code

 Restricted torture, capital punishment

 Allowed limited religious toleration

 Tried to improve education (including girls) and local government

 Legislative commission--500 delegates + philosophe ideas=govt.

reforms
 Expansion
 Partition of Poland and gains from Ottoman Empire
Pugachev rebellion 1773
 Uprising of serfs (like Stenka Razin)
 Proclaimed himself to be rightful tsar
 “Decrees” abolishing serfdom, taxes, and army service
 Thousands joined, slaughter of landlords
 Overthrown
 End to domestic reforms of system--peasants were dangerous--
need support of nobility
 Results: extended serfdom, formalized privilege of nobility (Charter
of Nobility 1785), no taxes or state service of nobility forever--
serfdom most oppressive and nobles most exalted
Pugachev Rebellion
Overall Influence of
Enlightenment
 France on decline
 Eastern Europe moves to Enlightened
Absolutism
 Reforms limited by internal struggles for
power
 Increased religious toleration and
separation of political and religious spheres
 French Revolution brings end to reforms
Social impact of Enlightement
 In early modern Europe, peasants and nobles had
similar cultural experiences
 With the Enlightenment, now the upper class
experienced a print culture and social interaction quite
different
 Appreciation for scientific learning
 Appreciation for secular learning
 The poor, relied on oral traditions and held more
tightly to religious beliefs and traditions
 Only modest improvements and life of peasantry
remains hard
Enlightened Despots?
 Rulers committed to reform
 Humanitarian concerns secondary to strengthen state--primacy of the state
 Humane laws and practices could contribute to the welfare of state and a
tool for power
 Reform of laws and justice

 Religious tolerance

 Promoting education

 Expanded role of state in life of society

 Perfected bureaucratic machine to survive into 20th century

 Laid groundwork for the revolutionary movements of 18th and 19th

centuries
 “By promoting centralization and calling into question traditional authorities,
enlightened monarchs provided an agenda and a method for future
changes, even if in the future by ways of revolution.”
 The Legacy of the
Enlightenment?
1. The democratic revolutions
begun in America in 1776 and
continued in Amsterdam,
Brussels, and especially in
Paris in the late 1780s, put
every Western government on
 Reform,
1. democracy, and
the defensive.
republicanism had been placed
irrevocably on the Western
agenda.
1. New forms of civil society
arose –-- clubs, salons,
fraternals, private academies,
lending libraries, and
professional/scientific
organizations.
• 19c conservatives blamed it
for the modern “egalitarian
disease” (once reformers
began to criticize established
institutions, they didn’t know
where and when to stop!)
• It established a materialistic
tradition based on an ethical
system derived solely from a
naturalistic account of the
human condition (the
“Religion of Nature”).
• Theoretically endowed with full
civil and legal rights, the
individual had come into
existence as a political and
social force to be reckoned
with.
18th Century Warfare
 Highly trained standing armies
 Strategic objectives as goal
 Soldiers largely drawn from
lower classes
 Questions of war were
practical and rational
 Bright uniforms
 Smoothbore muskets
 War of Austrian Succession
1740-1748
 Frederick The Great attacks Austria’s Silesia
 Defies Pragmatic Sanction
 Other nations rush to claim territory (Bavaria, Saxony, Spain, and
France)
 Britain joins war to maintain balance of power on continent
 Britain and France waged war in several theatres
 Commerical and colonial objectives
 Treaty of Aix Chapelle (1748)--predominantly an English-French
agreement--return to prewar conditions other than Silesia
 France realized need for both a strong army and navy
 Balance between Prussia and Austria established
Back to Frederick the Great Back to Maria Theresa
 Back to Frederick the Great Back to Maria Theresa

Seven Years’ War (1756-1763)

 The War
 Frederick fought brilliantly thouhg outnumbered 10 to 1
 Berlin burned to the ground
 Lack of coordination of opponents helps Prussia
 Britain on side of Prussia although mostly financial while focusing on colonial
conflict with France in North America (Fr. And Indian War)
 France on side of Austria although not enthusiastic
 Treaty of Hubertusburg (1756)--Prussia keeps Silesia
 William Pitt the Elder leads Britain to victories in North America, the continent, and
India as reflected in treaty
 Results: Treaty of Paris
 Britain gains
 Land east of Mississippi River
 Dominant position in India
 Sets the stage for major events on 3 continents
 North America---American Revolution
 Continent--balance of Prussia and Austria in Germany and set stage for French
Revolution
 India--Britain established strong colonial presence and diminishes Mogul Empire
Partition of Poland
 Resulted from collusion of Poland’s
rivals taking advantage of internal
instability and Poland’s inability to
centralize
 3 Partitions
 1772, 1793, 1795
 Maintained balance of power in
eastern Europe
 Austria, Prussia, and Russia make
gains
What was life like
during the
Enlightenment?
 Daily Life
(1600-1800)

I. Intro Key Terms

II. Society’s Structure  Bourgeoisie
III. Nobility  Family Economy
A. England vs. French  Cottage Industry
IV. The “Masses”  Dowry
A. Mortality Rates
B. Family
 Corvée
C. Women’s Lives
 Emelian
D. Peasant Life Pugachev
 Pugachev Rebellion  Apprentice
E. Urban Workers &  Journeyman
Guilds  Master
F. Fun/Entertainment
Bourgeoisie
 General term for “middle class” (primarily in
France)
 Included shopkeepers, skilled workers, business
owners, bankers, etc.
 Nobles/Lords: 1-5%

Clergy: 5-10%
Bourgeoisie: 5-10%

The “Masses”
75-85%
English Nobility

 About 400 families (House of Lords)

 Political Power: they passed legislation
 Eldest son = House of Lords
 Other sons entered industry, military, clergy, etc.
French Nobility
 Noble Status was inherited:
 Nobles of Sword - obtained a title by serving in
the military
 Nobles of the Robe - served the King or
purchased their title
 French nobles didn’t pay taxes!
 Bolshoi Ballet started
as a dance school in
1700s
 Theater opened in
1800s

Bolshoi Theater, Moscow

The Nobility & Fun
 Gambling, adultery, hunting, tennis, opera,
ballet, dances & elaborate dinner parties,
salons, etc.
• Food: Breads and wine/hard liquor & coffee;
greater amounts of food were available & exotic
spices
 The Masses: Mortality Rates
 Average life expectancy: 15-20
years shorter for the “Masses”
than nobility (Hôtel Dieu)
 Disease & Accidents = biggest
killers
 Diet was monotonous & not
balanced:
Staples-Black bread &
beer
For most, very little meat Hospital For The Poor
or fresh vegetables
 Family Life
 Men/Fathers: Plowing,
planting, running a shop; also
became migrant workers
 Women/Mothers: “Carriers,”
childrearing/ raising, “Deputy
Husbands
• Children: Laborers (age seven)
– 25% of infants died before
Peasant Family
age one; 55% before age ten
in France
• Servants: Laborers, but weren’t
slaves
Cottage Industry or “Putting Out” System
 Spinning Wheel  Why was the
 Women set their own European Economy
pace & made extra So Successful?
money  Access to Science
 Typically, this  Ability to organize
involved the textile time
industry  Banking and Credit
Facilities
 Girl With A Pearl Earring
 She worked as a
servant to help earn
money for her family
 Others might work to
earn money for a dowry

Griet
Women
Dowry
–Wealth given by a bride to her husband upon marriage
–Women often worked 10 years to build their dowry

 Childbirth & Abandonment; many women worked as

“wet nurses” or prostitutes (40-60,000 in Paris)
 “Rule of Thumb”
 It was legal to beat one’s wife with a stick as long as
the stick was no thicker than the husband’s thumb
Peasant Life
 About 75% of Europe’s population lived as
peasants/serfs.
 Peasants “rented” land from Nobles.
 Peasants could be bought, sold & traded.
 Marriage was often delayed in the 17th and
early 18th centuries. Why?
 Could not marry until they could support themselves
 Laws and Community controls tempered impetuous
love and physical attraction; often very poor need the
permission of the landlord to marry
 Tax System In France
 Nobles & Clergy-did not pay taxes
 Who was left…?
–Peasants & Bourgeoisie

• Those with the least wealth paid the most in

taxes.
• Corvée: Peasants were required to work 12-
15 days of unpaid labor per year for the state
(roads, bridges, etc).
Pugachev Rebellion
(1773-1774)

 A former soldier who led a

mass rebellion attacking
serfdom & monarchy of
Catherine the Great.
 Controlled a large area in
eastern Russia including
Kazan.
• He was captured, tortured
and executed; ending the
Emelian Pugachev rebellion.
(c. 1742-1775)
Guild System
(Early industry)

 Master- Shop-owner (if they had enough

money & connections).
 Journeyman- After completing seven year
apprenticeship they could receive “Journeyman
Papers.” Received wage plus room & board.
 Apprentice-worked for room & board only
(seven year term), but with a hope of
advancement.
 Unskilled Laborer -received room & board
with little or no hope of advancement.
 Master

Journeymen

Apprentice

Unskilled Laborers
“The Masses” & Fun
Public Punishments
Fun: For Rich & Poor
Gambling/Card-playing, Casinos, Lottery
“The Masses” & Fun
Gambling On Cockfights

Razor-sharp
 “The Masses” & Fun
Taverns
In London, the average male consumed 100 gallons
of beer or ale per year (one quart per day).
“The Masses” & Fun
Religious Ceremonies: A Christening
“The Masses” & Fun
Soccer
 Daily Life
(1600-1800)
I. Intro
Key Terms
II. Society’s Structure
III. Nobility
 Bourgeoisie
A. England vs. French
 Family Economy
IV. The “Masses”  Cottage Industry
A. Mortality Rates  Dowry
B. Family  Corvée
C. Women’s Lives
 Emelian
D. Peasant Life
Pugachev
 Pugachev Rebellion
E. Urban Workers &
 Apprentice
Guilds  Journeyman
F. Fun/Entertainment  Master
Westshore.edu