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Basic Aerodynamics
Lift
Bernoulli’s Principle
Energy
■ Definition: Energy is the ability to do work.
■ Energy cannot be created or destroyed. We
can only change its form.
■ A fluid in motion has (mainly) two forms of
energy:
◆ kinetic energy (velocity),
◆ potential energy (pressure).
3
The Venturi Tube and Bernoulli’s Principle
4
Lift: Wing Section
■ Air flows toward the low pressure area above the wing:
upwash and downwash.
■ Newton’s third law of motion: to every action there is an
equal and opposite reaction.
◆ “The reaction to downwash is, in fact, that misunderstood force
called lift.” Schiff p. 8
upwash downwash
5
Angle of Attack
■ The angle of attack is the angle between the chord line and
the average relative wind.
■ Greater angle of attack creates more lift (up to a point).
total
lift
chord
line
average
r elative w
in d
6
Lift and Induced Drag
■ Lift acts through the center of pressure, and
perpendicular to the relative wind.
■ This creates induced drag.
induced drag
effective total
lift lift
chord
line
average
r elative w
in d
7
Got Lift? Flaps
■ Flaps increase
the wing’s
camber.
◆ Some also
increase the
wing area
(fowler flap).
■ Almost all jet
transports also
have leading
edge flaps.
8
Too Much Lift? Spoilers
■ Spoilers destroy lift:
◆ to slow down in flight (flight spoilers);
◆ for roll control in flight (flight spoilers);
◆ to slow down on the ground (ground spoilers).
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Basic Aerodynamics
Side Effects
1,400
1,200
max.
lift/drag
1,000
best glide
800
600
■ induced drag
■ parasite drag 400
Drag (lbs)
◆ resistance 200
■ total drag
50 100 150 200
Indicated Airspeed (knots)
11
Wingtip Vortices and Wake Turbulence
Stability
lift
down lift
weight
■ Static stability (tendency to return after control input)
◆ up elevator increases downward lift, angle of attack increases;
◆ lift increases, drag increases, aircraft slows;
◆ less downward lift, angle of attack decreases (nose drops).
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Aside: CG and Center of Pressure Location
lift
down lift
weight
■ Aft CG increases speed:
◆ the tail creates less lift (less drag);
◆ the tail creates less down force (wings need to create less lift).
◆ This also decreases stall speed (lower angle of attack req’d).
15
Lateral Stability
■ If one wing is lowered (e.g. by turbulence), the
airplane sideslips.
◆ The lower wing has a greater angle of attack (more
lift).
◆ This raises the lower wing.
l at ive l at ive
re re
d d
win win
16
Directional Stability
■ As the airplane turns to the left (e.g. in
turbulence), the vertical stabilizer creates lift
toward the left.
◆ The airplane turns to the right.
17
Speed Stability v. Reverse Command
■ Power curve: 1,400
Percent horsepower
100%
◆ Power is work
performed by the 1,200 max.
engine. (Thrust is force endurance
created by the 1,000 ca. 75% of
propeller.) max.
800 lift/drag
■ Suppose airspeed 50%
Turning Flight
Differential Lift
Turning Flight
■ More lift on one wing than
on the other results in roll
around the longitudinal
axis (bank).
◆ Lowering the aileron on one
wing results in greater lift
and raises that wing.
20
Turning Flight, cont’d
■ More lift on one wing than
on the other results in roll
around the longitudinal axis
(bank).
◆ Lowering the aileron on one
wing results in greater lift and
raises that wing.
◆ This tilts lift sideways.
◆ The horizontal component of Centrifugal
Force
lift makes the airplane turn.
◆ (To maintain altitude, more
total lift needs to be created:
higher angle of attack req’d)
21
Adverse Yaw and Frise Aileron
■ However, more lift on one
wing creates more
induced drag on that
wing: adverse yaw.
■ Adverse yaw is corrected
by rudder application.
■ Frise ailerons counter
adverse yaw:
◆ They create parasite drag
on the up aileron.
22
Basic Aerodynamics
Stalls
lift
weight
25
Stalls, cont’d
■ The whole wing
never stalls at the
same time.
◆ Power-on stalls in
most light singles
allow the wing to
stall more fully.
Why?
■ Where do you
want the wing to
stall last?
◆ Ailerons
26
Stalls, cont’d (Stalls with one Engine Inop.)
■ Stalls in a
twin with
one engine
inoperative
lead to roll
or spin
entry:
◆ Propeller
slipstream
delays
stall.
27
Stalls, cont’d
■ Stall strips make the wing stall sooner.
28
Stalls, cont’d
■ Definition: The angle of incidence is the acute angle
between the longitudinal axis of the airplane and the
chord line of the wing.
■ Twist in the wing makes the wing root stall first:
◆ The angle of incidence decreases away from the wing root.
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Preventing Stalls
31
Stalls and Turns, cont’d
■ Load factor
limit load
(multiple of factor:
aircraft gross
weight the
wings acrobatic 6G
support)
increases
Normal 3.8G
with bank
angle.
■ Stall speed
increases
accordingly.
32
Turns
■ As bank increases, load factor increases.
■ But: as airspeed increases, rate of turn
decreases.
◆ In order to make a 3 degree per second turn, at 500
Kts the airplane would have to bank more than 50
degrees.
◆ Uncomfortable (unsafe?) load factor.
■ This is why for jet-powered airplanes, a
standard rate turn is 1.5 degrees per second.
33
Basic Aerodynamics
36
High and Fast, cont’d
■ Vortex generators delay boundary layer
separation.
37
High and Fast, cont’d
■ With altitude:
◆ indicated
stall speed
(low speed
buffet)
increases;
◆ indicated
airspeed
that results
in critical
Mcrit
decreases.
■ coffin corner
38
References
■ De Remer D (1992) Aircraft Systems for Pilots
Casper: IAP
■ FAA (1997) Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical
Knowledge AC61-23C Newcastle: ASA
■ Lowery J (2001) Professional Pilot Ames: Iowa
State Univ. Press
■ Schiff B (1985) The Proficient Pilot vol. 1 New
York: Macmillan
■ U.S. Navy (1965) Aerodynamics for Naval
Aviators Newcastle: ASA
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