Fault Calculations

and
Selection of
Protective Equipment
Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E.
University of South Florida – Tampa
Senior Member, IEEE
r.fehr@ieee.org
Wednesday, March 22, 2006
8:00AM – 3:00PM

Seminole Electric Cooperative, Inc.

16313 North Dale Mabry Hwy.
Tampa, Florida
 Symmetrical Components

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 2
 Most power systems are designed as
balanced systems.

Due to the symmetry of the problem, a

single-phase equivalent approach can be
taken to simplify the calculation process.

When the voltage and current behavior is

calculated for one of the phases, the
behaviors on the other two can be
determined using principles of symmetry.

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 3
 But when the system phasors are not balanced,
the single-phase equivalent approach cannot
be taken.

This means that either

1. a three-phase solution must be found,

or

2. the unbalanced phasors must be resolved

into balanced components so the single-phase
equivalent method can be used.
☺
IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 4
 Charles Fortescue’s Theory of Symmetrical
Components, first published in 1918, proves
that any set of unbalanced voltage or current
phasors belonging to a three-phase system can
be resolved into three sets of components,
each of which is balanced.

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 5
 IC
IA

IB
ω

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 6
 Physical Example of
Vector Components

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 7
 Calculation of Moment

Moment = Force × Perpendicular Distance

M=F×d
IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 8
 Calculation of Moment

Moment = Force × Perpendicular Distance

M≠F×d
IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 9
 Calculation of Moment

d
FH
θ

FV F

Moment = Force × Perpendicular Distance

M = FV × d
IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 10
 Calculation of Moment

d
FV = F cos θ
FH
θ
FH = F sin θ
FV F

FH + FV = F
⎛ FH ⎞
θ = tan ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
−1

⎝ FV ⎠
IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 11
 Application of Symmetrical
Components to a Three-Phase
Power System

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 12
 IC
IA

IB
ω

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 13
 IC
IA

IB
ω

A-B-C Sequencing

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 14
 IB IA

ω IC

A-C-B Sequencing

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 15
 Fortescue’s theory shows that three sets of
balanced components are required to represent
any unbalanced set of three-phase phasors.

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 16
 I C1

I A1

I B1

Positive Sequence Components

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 17
 I B2
I A2
ω

I C2

Negative Sequence Components

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 18
 I A0
I B0
I C0
ω
ω
ω

Zero Sequence Components

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 19
 The constraint equations for the symmetrical
components require the sum of the three
components for each unbalanced phasor to
equal the unbalanced phasor itself.

IA = IA0 + IA1 + IA2

IB = IB0 + IB1 + IB2

IC = IC0 + IC1 + IC2

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 20
 The a operator

−1 3
a≡ + j = 1 /120°
2 2

a2 = 1 /240° a3 = 1 /360°

Recall the j operator

j2 = 1 /180° = −1 j3 = 1 /270° = −j j4 = 1 /360° = 1

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 21
 Using the a operator and the symmetry of the
sequence components, we can develop a
single-phase equivalent circuit to greatly
simplify the analysis of the unbalanced system.

We will start by expressing the sequence

components in terms of a single phase’s
components. We will use Phase A as the phase
for developing the single-phase equivalent.

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 22
 I C1 = a I 1

I A1 = I 1

I B1 = a 2 I 1

Positive Sequence Components

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 23
 I B2 = a I 2
I A2 = I 2
ω

I C2 = a 2 I 2

Negative Sequence Components

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 24
 I A0 = I 0
I B0 = I 0
ω I C0 = I 0
ω
ω

Zero Sequence Components

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 25
 Recall the original constraint equations:
IA = IA0 + IA1 + IA2

IB = IB0 + IB1 + IB2

IC = IC0 + IC1 + IC2

Rewrite them using the a operator

to take advantage of the symmetry:

IA = I0 + I1 + I2

IB = I0 + a2 I1 + a I2

IC = I0 + a I1 + a2 I2

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 26
 Unbalanced Phasors and their Symmetrical Components

I0
IC
IA
a I1
I0
a2 I 2

IB I2
I0 ω I1

a I2
a2 I 1

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 27
 ⎡I A ⎤ ⎡1 1 1⎤ ⎡I 0 ⎤
⎢ I ⎥ = ⎢1 a 2 a ⎥⎥ ⋅ ⎢⎢ I1 ⎥⎥
⎢ B⎥ ⎢
⎢⎣ I C ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣I 2 ⎥⎦

−1 −1
⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡I A ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡1 1 1⎤ ⎡I 0 ⎤
⎢1 a 2 a ⎥⎥ ⋅ ⎢⎢ I B ⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢1 a 2 a ⎥⎥ ⋅ ⎢⎢1 a 2 a ⎥⎥ ⋅ ⎢⎢ I1 ⎥⎥
⎢
⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I C ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣I 2 ⎥⎦

−1
⎡I 0 ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡I A ⎤
⎢ I ⎥ = ⎢1 a 2 a ⎥⎥ ⋅ ⎢⎢ I B ⎥⎥
⎢ 1⎥ ⎢
⎢⎣I 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I C ⎥⎦

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 28
 −1
⎡I 0 ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡I A ⎤
⎢ I ⎥ = ⎢1 a 2 a ⎥⎥ ⋅ ⎢⎢ I B ⎥⎥
⎢ 1⎥ ⎢
⎢⎣I 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I C ⎥⎦

⎡I 0 ⎤ ⎡1 1 1⎤ ⎡I A ⎤
⎢ I ⎥ = 1 ⎢1 a a 2 ⎥⎥ ⋅ ⎢⎢ I B ⎥⎥
⎢ 1⎥ 3 ⎢
⎢⎣I 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a 2 a ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I C ⎥⎦

1
I0 = (I A + I B + IC )
3
I1 =
1
3
(
IA + a IB + a 2 IC )
I2 =
1
3
(
IA + a 2 IB + a IC )
IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 29
 Summary of Symmetrical Components
Transformation Equations

IA = I0 + I1 + I2
IB = I0 + a2 I1 + a I2

IC = I0 + a I1 + a2 I2

1
I0 = (I A + I B + IC )
3
I1 =
1
3
(
IA + a IB + a 2 IC )
I2 =
1
3
(
IA + a 2 IB + a IC )
IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 30
 Workshop #1
Symmetrical Components

Ia = 0.95 /328°
Ib = 1.03 /236° Find I0, I1, and I2
Ic = 0.98 /92°

I0 = 0.7 /300°
I1 = 1.2 /10° Find Ia, Ib, and Ic
I2 = 0.3 /167°

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 31
 Workshop #1
Symmetrical Components

Ia = 0.95 /328°
Ib = 1.03 /236° Find I0, I1, and I2
Ic = 0.98 /92° a2 I2 I0
a I Ic
1

I0 = 0.1418 /297°
I1 = 0.9634 /339°
I2 = 0.1622 /191° 2
I1
a I1 I2
Ia I0
a I2
I0 Ib
IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 32
 Workshop #1
Symmetrical Components

I0 = 0.7 /300°
I1 = 1.2 /10° Find Ia, Ib, and Ic
a2 I2
I2 = 0.3 /167°
a I1
I0
Ic I2
Ia = 1.2827 /345° I1

I0
Ib = 2.0209 /271° Ia

Ic = 0.5749 /112° a2 I 1

a I2

I0
IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 33
 Electrical Characteristics of
the Sequence Currents

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 34
 I

x L
O
A
y
D

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 35
 I

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 36
 Middle Wire
Top Wire
I Bottom Wire

t=T

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 37
 I0

I0 L
O
A
I0
D

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 38
 I0

I0 L
3 I0
O
A
I0
D

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 39
 I0

I0 L
3 I0
O
A
VN = (3 I0) × ZN
I0
D
VN = I0 × (3 ZN)

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 40
 The Delta-Wye Transformer

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 41
 The Delta-Wye Transformer
IB Ib

Ia
Ib Ic Ib
IA

Ic Ic
IC Ia

Ia

Assume Ia = 1 /0o, Ib = 1 /240o, and Ic = 1/120o.

Ic IA
IA = Ia – Ib = 1 /0o – 1 /240o = 3 /30o IC
Ia
IB = Ib – Ic = 1 /240o – 1 /120o = 3 /270o
Ib
IC = Ic – Ia = 1 /120o – 1 /0o = 3 /150o
IB
IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 42
 Workshop #2
Non-Standard Delta-Wye Transformer

IB Ib

IA Ic

IC Ia

Given that Ia = 1/0o, Ib = 1/240o, and Ic = 1/120o, find IA, IB, and IC.

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 43
 Workshop #2
Non-Standard Delta-Wye Transformer

IB Ib
IA = Ia – Ic = 1/0o – 1/120o
IA Ia Ib Ib Ic
= 3 /330o
Ic Ia
Ic
IC Ia IB = Ib – Ia = 1/240o – 1/0o

IC = 3 /210o
Ic
Ia = 1/0o
IC = Ic – Ib = 1/120o – 1/240o
Ib = 1/240o
Ia Ic = 1/120o
= 3 /90o
IB Ib IA
IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 44
 Sequence Networks

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 45
 One-Line Diagram

Utility G
Xn

T1 T2

M1 M2

T3

M3

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 46
 Positive-Sequence Reactance Diagram
Utility G
Xn
Positive-Sequence Reference Bus

T1 T2

1 Utility M1 M2 G M3

M1 M2

T3

M3

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 47
 Positive-Sequence Reactance Diagram
Utility G
Xn
Positive-Sequence Reference Bus

T1 T2

1 Utility G

M1 M2
T1 M1 M2 T2 M3

T3 1

M3

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 48
 Positive-Sequence Reactance Diagram
Utility G
Xn
Positive-Sequence Reference Bus

T1 T2

1 Utility G

M1 M2
T1 M1 M2 T2

T3 1

T3 M3
2

M3 2

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 49
 Negative-Sequence Reactance Diagram
Utility G
Xn Negative
Positive-Sequence Reference Bus

T1 T2

1 Utility G

M1 M2
T1 M1 M2 T2

T3 1

T3 M3
2

M3 2

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 50
 Negative-Sequence Reactance Diagram
Utility G
Xn

Negative-Sequence Reference Bus

T1 T2
Utility G

1
T1 M1 M2 T2
M1 M2
1

T3
T3 M3

2
2

M3

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 51
 Zero-Sequence Reactance Diagram
Utility G
Xn
Zero
Negative-Sequence Reference Bus
T1 T2
Utility G
+3Xn
1
T1 M1 M2 T2
M1 M2
1

T3
T3 M3

2
2

M3 Adjust Topology

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 52
 Zero-Sequence Reactance Diagram
Utility G
Xn
Zero-Sequence Reference Bus

T1 T2 G
Utility + 3 Xn Xn

1
T1 M1 M2 T2
M1 M2
1

T3
T3 M3

2
2

M3

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 53
 Zero-Sequence Reactance Diagram
Utility G
Xn
Zero-Sequence Reference Bus

T1 T2 G
Utility + 3 Xn Xn

1
T1 M1 M2 T2
M1 M2
1

T3
T3 M3

2
2
Connection Alteration
Gr. Wye None M3
Wye Open Ckt.
Delta Open Ckt. AND
Short to Ref. Bus

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 54
 Zero-Sequence Reactance Diagram
Utility G
Xn
Zero-Sequence Reference Bus

T1 T2 G
Utility + 3 Xn Xn

1
T1 M1 M2 T2

M1 M2
1

T3 T3 M3

2
2

M3

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 55
 Workshop #3
Sequence Networks
Utility G
Xn

T1 T2
Xn Draw the positive-,
1
negative-, and
zero-sequence
M1
networks for the
one-line diagram
on the left.
T3

M2

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 56
 Workshop #3
Sequence Networks
Positive-Sequence Reference Bus

Utility G

T1 M1 T2

T3 M2

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 57
 Workshop #3
Sequence Networks
Negative-Sequence Reference Bus

Utility G

T1 M1 T2

T3 M2

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 58
 Workshop #3
Sequence Networks
Zero-Sequence Reference Bus

Utility G Xn
+3Xn

T1 M1 T2
+3Xn

T3 M2

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 59
 Thevenin Reduction of
Sequence Networks

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 60
 Positive-Sequence Reactance Diagram

Positive-Sequence Reference Bus

Bus 1 Thevenin
Equivalent
Utility G
[(T1+Utility) ║ M1 ║ M2║ (T2+G)]
║ (T3+M3)
T1 M1 M2 T2

1
Bus 2 Thevenin
Equivalent
T3 M3
M3 ║ {T3+ [(T1+Utility)
║ M1 ║ M2║ (T2+G)]}
2

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 61
 Positive-Sequence Reactance Diagram

Pre-fault
Voltage

X1

Fault
Location

Thevenin
Equivalent

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 62
 Negative-Sequence Reactance Diagram

Negative-Sequence Reference Bus Bus 1 Thevenin

Equivalent
Utility G

[(T1+Utility) ║ M1 ║ M2║ (T2+G)]

T1 M1 M2 T2 ║ (T3+M3)

1
Bus 2 Thevenin
T3 M3 Equivalent
M3 ║ {T3+ [(T1+Utility)
2 ║ M1 ║ M2║ (T2+G)]}

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 63
 Negative-Sequence Reactance Diagram

X2

Fault
Location

Thevenin
Equivalent

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 64
 Zero-Sequence Reactance Diagram

Zero-Sequence Reference Bus Bus 1 Thevenin

Utility
G
Xn
Equivalent
+ 3 Xn

T1
T1 M1 M2 T2

Bus 2 Thevenin
Equivalent
T3 M3

2
T3 + T1

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 65
 Zero-Sequence Reactance Diagram

X0

Fault
Location

Thevenin
Equivalent

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 66
 Types of Fault Calculations

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 67
 First-Cycle or Momentary

First-cycle fault calculations are done to determine

the withstand strength requirement of the system
components at the location of the fault.

It is the maximum amplitude of the fault current

ever expected (worst case).

It requires use of the subtransient reactances of

rotating machines, and includes induction motors.

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 68
 Contact-Parting or Clearing

Contact-parting fault calculations are done to

determine the interrupting rating of the protective
devices at the location of the fault.

It is a reduced amplitude of the fault current

anticipated at clearing time (worst case).

It requires use of the transient reactances of

rotating machines, and excludes induction motors.

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 69
 Short-Circuit Fault
Calculations

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 70
 Three-Phase Fault

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 71
 Line-to-Ground Fault

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 72
 Double Line-to-Ground Fault

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 73
 Line-to-Line Fault

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 74
 Workshop #4
Short-Circuit Fault Calculations

The Thevenin-equivalent sequence reactances at a

given bus are:

X1 = 0.032 p.u.
X2 = 0.029 p.u.
X0 = 0.024 p.u.

Find the fault currents at that bus for a (1) three-phase,

(2) line-to-ground, (3) double line-to-ground, and (4) line-
to-line fault.

The base current is 1.5 kA.

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 75
 Workshop #4
Short-Circuit Fault Calculations

Three-Phase Fault

IA = 31.25 /-90o p.u. = 46.9 /-90o kA

IB = 31.25 /150o p.u. = 46.9 /150o kA

IC = 31.25 /30o p.u. = 46.9 /30o kA

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 76
 Workshop #4
Short-Circuit Fault Calculations

Line-to-Ground Fault

IA = 35.29 /-90o p.u. = 52.9 /-90o kA

IB = 0

IC = 0

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 77
 Workshop #4
Short-Circuit Fault Calculations

Double Line-to-Ground Fault

I0 = 12.124 /90o p.u.

I1 = 22.157 /-90o p.u.

I2 = 10.033 /90o p.u.

IA = 0

IB = 33.29 /147o p.u. = 49.9 /147o kA

IC = 33.29 /33o p.u. = 49.9 /33o kA

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 78
 Workshop #4
Short-Circuit Fault Calculations

Line-to-Line Fault

I0 = 0

I1 = 16.39 /-90o p.u.

I2 = 16.39 /90o p.u.

IA = 0

IB = 28.4 /180o p.u. = 42.6 /180o kA

IC = 28.4 /0o p.u. = 42.6 /0o kA

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 79
 Open-Circuit Fault
Calculations

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 80
 One-Line-Open Fault

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 81
 Two-Lines-Open Fault

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 82
 X/R Ratio at Fault Location

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 83
 The X/R ratio at the point of the fault
determines the rate of fault current decay.

The larger the X/R ratio, the more slowly the

fault current decays.

Small X/R Large X/R

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 84
 Determination of the X/R ratio requires the
construction of a positive sequence
resistance network.

The X (positive-sequence reactance) and R

must be determined separately at the fault
location. Then the resistance is divided into
the reactance to give the X/R ratio.

A SINGLE IMPEDANCE DIAGRAM

COMBINING R AND X CANNOT BE USED! It
will undercalculate the actual X/R ratio.

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 85
 Selection of Protective
Equipment

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 86
 Protective devices are always sized for the
highest possible fault current at the location
where the device will be installed – this is NOT
always a three-phase fault!!

RMS symmetrical fault current is used to

determine all protective device ratings.

With the exception of power circuit breakers,

protective devices are sized based on a
multiplying factor to account for X/R ratios that
exceed the manufacturer’s assumptions.

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 87
 Power Circuit Breakers

Power circuit breakers are specified by a Close-and-

Latch rating.

RMS Close-and-Latch rating =

1.6 × RMS symmetrical fault current

Crest Close-and-Latch rating =

2.7 × RMS symmetrical fault current

Example: If the maximum fault current is 23.5 kA,

kA
the required RMS close-and-latch rating
is 1.6 × 23.5 = 37.6 kARMS
IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 88
 Fused Low-Voltage Circuit Breakers

2 e −2 π /( X / R ) + 1
MFLV fused bkr = for X / R > 4.9
1.25
Example: Maximum fault current = 27.5 kA
X/R at fault location = 7.8

2 e −2 π / 7.8 + 1
MFLV fused bkr = = 1.101
1.25
So, the fused low-voltage circuit breaker
must be rated at least 27.5 × 1.101 = 30.3 kA
IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 89
 Molded-Case Circuit Breakers

MFmolded−case bkr =
( )
2 e − π /( X / R ) + 1
for X / R > 6.6
2.29
Example: Maximum fault current = 45 kA
X/R at fault location = 9.2

MFmolded−case bkr =
( )
2 e − π / 9 .2 + 1
= 1.056
2.29
So, the molded-case circuit breaker must be
rated at least 45 × 1.056 = 47.5 kA
IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 90
 Medium-Voltage Expulsion Fuses

2 e −2 π / ( X / R ) + 1
MFMV fuse = for X / R > 15
1.52
Example: Maximum fault current = 45.8 kA
X/R at fault location = 21.4

2 e −2 π / 21.4 + 1
MFMV fuse = = 1.038
1.52
So, the medium-voltage expulsion fuse must
be rated at least 45.8 × 1.038 = 47.6 kA
IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 91
 Low-Voltage Expulsion Fuses

2 e −2 π / ( X / R ) + 1
MFLV fuse = for X / R > 4.9
1.25
Example: Maximum fault current = 38.2 kA
X/R at fault location = 11.8

2 e −2 π / 11.8 + 1
MFLV fuse = = 1.180
1.25
So, the low-voltage expulsion fuse must be
rated at least 38.2 × 1.180 = 45.1 kA
IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 92
 Current-Limiting Fuses

2 e −2 π / ( X / R ) + 1
MFcurrent −limiting fuse = for X / R > 10
1.44
Example: Maximum fault current = 58.4 kA
X/R at fault location = 16.2

2 e −2 π / 16.2 + 1
MFcurrent −limiting fuse = = 1.066
1.44
So, the current-limiting fuse must be rated at
least 58.4 × 1.066 = 62.3 kA
IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 93
 Workshop #5
Protective Device Specification

1. Find both the RMS Close-and-Latch rating and the

Crest Close-and-Latch rating required for a
power circuit breaker to be installed on a bus
where the maximum fault current is 32.9 kA.

2. Find the required interrupting rating for a molded-

case circuit breaker installed on a bus with a
maximum fault current of 46.5 kA and an X/R ratio
of 14.

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 94
 Workshop #5
Protective Device Specification

3. Find the required interrupting rating for a medium-

voltage fuse installed on a bus with a maximum
fault current of 46.5 kA and an X/R ratio of 18.

4. Find the required interrupting rating for a low-

voltage fuse installed on a bus with a maximum
fault current of 64.8 kA and an X/R ratio of 12.

5. Find the required interrupting rating for a current-

limiting fuse installed on a bus with a maximum
fault current of 27.3 kA and an X/R ratio of 8.

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 95
 Workshop #5
Protective Device Specification

1. Close-and-LatchRMS = 32.9 kA × 1.6 = 52.6 kA

Close-and-LatchCrest = 32.9 kA × 2.7 = 88.8 kA

2. MFmolded−case bkr =
(
2 e − π/14 + 1 )
= 1.111
2.29

46.5 kA × 1.111 = 51.7 kA

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 96
 Workshop #5
Protective Device Specification

2 e −2π/ 18 + 1
3. MFMV fuse = = 1.021
1.52

46.5 kA × 1.021 = 47.5 kA

2 e −2 π / 12 + 1
4. MFLV fuse = = 1.182
1.25

64.8 kA × 1.182 = 76.6 kA

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 97
 Workshop #5
Protective Device Specification

2 e −2π/ (X/R) + 1
5. MFcurrent −limiting fuse = for X/R > 10
1.44

Since X/R ≤ 10, no multiplying factor is used.

Required Interrupting Rating = 27.3 kA

IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 98
 Fault Calculations
and
Selection of
Protective Equipment
Don’t forget the power engineering resources mentioned in this course:

http://web.tampabay.rr.com/usfpower/fehr.htm

which includes a link to

Alex McEachern’s Power Quality Teaching Toy
 Fault Calculations
and
Selection of
Protective Equipment
Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E.
University of South Florida – Tampa
Senior Member, IEEE
r.fehr@ieee.org

Thank you!
Seminole Electric Cooperative, Inc.
16313 North Dale Mabry Hwy.
Tampa, Florida