Communication Networks
Abstract
Specialization in wireless communication became
inherently mandatory for the further progress in the
civilization. As the saying ‘ Necessity is the mother of
invention’, its indeed our time to be needy for us to
become wireless. In this paper, various advancements,
limitations, challenges in wireless communication and
their possible solutions are discussed. The special
feature of the telecom services is that the advancement
is continuous, that is to say one newly advanced device
over takes the other. Imagine you enter into a room
connected with WLAN, and you need to get a printout of
your mms clip, which is in your mobile without a
bluetooth, 4G wireless communications will solve it!
1. Introduction
The wireless communications can be regarded as an
adjunct with the wired systems. As the progress of
telecom industry is exponential, the evolution of
telecom products is also exponential. As far as wireless
communication is concerned, mobile radio propagation
is regarded as the predecessor. As far as today’s telecom
service is concerned 3G systems have impregnated and
in the near future or so we would witness 4G and UWB
systems in the race.
2. Evolution of wireless communication
The various advancements of wireless
communications are listed below.
2.1. First generation wireless communication
1G (or 1-G) refers to the first-generation of wireless
telephone technology, mobile telecommunications.
These are the analog telecommunications standards that
were introduced in the 1980s and continued until being
replaced by 2G digital telecommunications. The main
difference between two succeeding mobile telephone
systems, 1G and 2G, is that the radio signals that 1G
networks use are analog, while 2G networks are digital.
Although both systems use digital signaling to
connect the radio towers (which listen to the handsets)
to the rest of the telephone system, the voice itself
during a call is encoded to digital signals in 2G whereas
1G is only modulated to higher frequency, typically
150MHz and up.
Examples of 1G are NMT, AMPS, TACS, RTMI.
2.2. Second-generation wireless
communication
Second generation 2G cellular telecom networks
were commercially launched on the GSM standard in
1991. Three primary benefits of 2G networks over their
predecessors were that phone conversations were
digitally encrypted, 2G systems were significantly more
efficient on the spectrum allowing for far greater mobile
phone penetration levels; and 2G introduced data
services for mobile, starting with SMS text messages.
After 2G was launched, the previous mobile
telephone systems were retrospectively dubbed 1G.
While radio signals on 1G networks are analog, and on
2G networks are digital, both systems use digital
signaling to connect the radio towers (which listen to the
handsets) to the rest of the telephone system
2G technologies can be divided into TDMA-based
and CDMA-based standards depending on the type of
multiplexing used. The main 2G standards are:
1. GSM (TDMA-based), originally from
Europe but used in almost all countries on all six
inhabited continents (Time Division Multiple Access).
Today accounts for over 80% of all subscribers around
the world.
2. IS-95 (CDMA-based)
3. PDC (TDMA-based)
4. iDEN (TDMA-based)
5. IS-136aka D-AMPS (TDMA-based)
2G services are frequently referred as Personal
Communications Service, or PCS.
2.3. Generation 2.5 (2.5G)
2.5G services enable high-speed data transfer over
upgraded existing 2G networks. Beyond 2G, there's 3G,
with higher data speeds, and even evolutions beyond
3G, such as 4G, which is now available.
2.4. Third generation wireless wireless
communication
 International Mobile Telecommunications-2000
(IMT-2000), better known as 3G or 3rd Generation, is a
family of standards for wireless communications
defined by the International Telecommunication Union,
which includes GSM EDGE, UMTS, and CDMA2000
as well as DECT and WiMAX.
3. Advancements in digital communications
3.1 Ad hoc Networks
Ad hoc networks are designed to dynamically
connect remote devices such as cell phones, laptops and
PDAs. These networks are termed as “Ad hoc” because
of their shifting topology. Whereas WLANs use a fixed
network infrastructure, Ad hoc networks maintain
random network configurations, relying on a system of
mobile routers connected by wireless links to enable
devices. As devices move about in an unpredictable
fashion, these networks must be reconfigured to handle
the dynamic topology. It offers peer-to-peer
communication. No backbone infrastructure is needed.
Routing can be multihop. The topology is dynamic.
They are fully connected with different link SINRs.
They provide a flexible network infrastructure for many
emerging applications. The capacity of the Ad hoc
network is generally unknown, which is due to the fact
that number of user nodes in an Ad hoc network is
always a variable. Each node of the Ad hoc network is a
router. Energy constraints impose interesting design
tradeoffs for communication and networking.
3.1.1. Mobile router. The mobile router is commonly
integrated in a device such as a PDA,
notebook or mobile phone. This mobile
router, when configured, ensures that a
remote, mobile device, such as a mobile
phone, stays connected to the network.
The router maintains the connection and
controls the flow of communication.
3.2. Bluetooth
Bluetooth, a cable replacement RF technology, is of low
cost and covers short range of about 10m and all of its
74 channels use the same crowded 2.4 GHz band as the
WLANs. This network uses TDMA\TDD scheme of
multiplexing.The Bluetooth network forms a PAN
(Personal Area Network), which connects computers,
cameras, speakers, cellular phones, headsets etc., for the
devices to be within a person’s reach.
3.2.1. Bluetooth topology. The two famous bluetooth
topologies are Piconet and Scatternet:
Piconet
A piconet is a small Ad hoc network of 8 stations.
One is called Master and the other seven are called the
slaves. All slave stations synchronize their clocks with
the Master. There may be one station in the parked state
(stand by). All the communication is done through the
master.
Scatternet
By making one of the slaves as a master of another
piconet, a scatternet is formed by combining several
piconets.
3.3. Sensor networks
Sensor networks are the subsets of Ad hoc networks
with some special intelligence for a very specialized
purpose. Major features:
• Energy is the major driving constraint.
• Nodes are powered by non
rechargeable batteries
• Data flows to a centralized location
• Data is highly correlated in time and
space
• Nodes can cooperate in transmission,
reception and signal processing
3.4. Ultra Wide Band (UWB)
UWB forms the future wireless communication
network. The UWB has the following advantages over
the above-discussed networks.
• Data rate up to 1000 Mbps
• Ultra low power is used with very narrow
pulses
• Very hard to detect, because of low power
• Exceptional multi-path immunity
• No need of license
• Low interference
• Very large band-width of 7.5 GHz
•
Thus UWB forms the next generation wireless
communication. One more advantage is that because of
low power, transmission is economical. The only one
serious challenge posed by UWB is that converters must
be designed to sample sub-nano-levels, hence
processing is costlier.
4. Electronic mail
 Electronic mail (e-mail), may be the most heavily
used feature of the Internet or LANs in an organization.
At the most basic level, the e-mail process can be
divided into two principal components:
• Mail servers, which are hosts that deliver,
forward and store mail.
• Clients, which interface with users and allow
users to read, compose, send and store e-mail messages.
4.1. Security issues of e-mail
Some of the security issues involved in e-mails are
as follows:
• Flaws in the configuration of mail server
through maintenance and administration standards.
• Denial of service (DoS) attacks may be
directed to the mail server denying or hindering valid
users.
• Sensitive information transmitted unencrypted
between mail server and e-mail client may be
intercepted.
• Information within the e-mail may be altered
at some point between the sender and the recepient.
• Viruses and other types of malicious code may
be distributed throughout an organization via e-mail.
• Users may send inappropriate, proprietary or
other sensitive information via e-mail leading to legal
exposure.
4.1.1. Solutions for threats………
To improve e-mail security, organizations should:
• Address the security aspects of the
development of a mail server through maintenance and
administration.
• Ensure that the mail server application is
deployed, configured and managed to meet the security
policy.
• Consider the implementation of encryption
technologies to protect user authentication and mail
data.
In email security, a digital signature authenticates a
transmission from a user in an untrustworthy network
environment. A digital signature is a sequence of bits
appended to a digital document. Like a handwritten
signature, it is unique to the document being signed.
Digital signatures are another application of public key
cryptography. Digital signatures are a good method of
securing e-mail transmissions in that:
• The signature cannot be forged.
• The signature is authentic and encrypted.
• The signature cannot be reused (a signature on
one document cannot be transferred to another
document).
• The signed document cannot be altered; any
alteration to the document (whether or not it has been
encrypted) renders the signature invalid.
5. Logical access exposures
Technical exposures are one type of exposure that
exists from accidental or intentional exploitation of
logical access control weakness. International
exploitation of technical exposures might lead to cyber
crime. However, all computer crimes do not exploit
technical exposures.
Technical exposures include:
• Data leakage – Involves siphoning or leaking
information out of the computer.
• Trojan horses – involve malicious, fraudulent
code in an authorized computer program.
• Wire trapping – involves eavesdropping on
information being transmitted over telecommunication
lines.
• Viruses – involve the insertion of malicious
code into the other executable codes.
• Worms - destructive programs that may
destroy data.
• Spyware – transmits potentially sensitive
information from the host to the originator.
• Logic bombs- involves programming the
destruction or modification of data at a specific time in
the future.
• Denial of service attacks-disrupts or
completely denies the legitimate users.
5.1 Solutions for threats………
To protect organizational information resources,
access control software has become even more critical
in assuring the confidentiality, integrity and availability
of information resources.
6. Wireless Security Threats
• Errors and omissions
• Frauds and theft committed by authorized
or unauthorized users of the system.
• Employee sabotage
• Loss of physical and infrastructure support
• Malicious hackers
• Industrial espionage
• Malicious code
• Threats to personal privacy
6.1. Solutions for threats………
Ensuring confidentiality, integrity, authenticity and
availability are prime objective in wireless networks.
Security requirements include the following:
• Authenticity – A third party must be able to
verify that the content of a message has not been
changed in transit.
• Nonrepudiation – The origin or receipt of a
specific message must be verifiable by a third party.
• Accountability - The actions of an entity must
be uniquely traceable to the entity.
• Network availability – The IT resource must be
available on a timely basics to meet mission
requirements to avoid substantial losses. Availability
also includes ensuring that resources are used only for
intended purposes.
6.2. Internet threats and security
The Internet protocol is designed solely for the
addressing and routing of data packets across a network.
The nature of Internet makes it vulnerable to attack. For
example, hackers and virus writers try to attack the
Internet and computers connected to Internet. Some
want to invade others’ privacy and attempt to crack into
databases of sensitive information or sniff information
as it travels across Internet routes.
6.2.1. Challenges in Internet….
It does not guarantee or provide evidence on the
delivery of messages; there is no verification of an
address; the sender will not know if the message reaches
its destination at the time it is required; the receiver does
not know if the message came from the address
specified as the return address in the packet. Other
protocols may correct some of these drawbacks.
6.3. Wireless application protocol
Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) is a general
term used to describe the multi-layered protocol and
related technologies that bring Internet content to
wireless mobile devices such as PDAs and cell phones.
WAP protocols are largely based on Internet
technologies. The motivation for developing WAP was
to extend Internet technologies to wireless networks,
bearers and devices.WAP supports most wireless
networks and is supported by all operating systems
specifically engineered for handheld devices. Micro-
browsers use displays and access the Internet run and
have small file sizes that can accommodate the low-
memory constraints of handheld devices and the low-
bandwidth of the wireless network.
6.3.1. Issues and exposures
• Interception of sensitive information
• The loss or theft of devices
• The misuse of devices
• The loss of data contained in the devices
• Distractions caused by the devices
• Possible heath effects of device usage
6.3.2. Solutions to mitigate the threats
Wireless user authentication
There is a need for stronger wireless user
authentication and authorization tools at the device
level. The current technology is just emerging.
File security
Wireless phones and PDAs do not use the type of
file access security that other computer platforms can
provide.
Wired Equivalent Privacy security encryption
WEP security depends particularly on the length of
the encryption key and on the usage of static WEP or
dynamic WEP. The drawback in WEP is that an attacker
possessing the WEP key could also sniff packets being
transmitted and decrypt them.
6.4. LAN security
Local Area Networks facilitates the storage and
retrieval of programs and data used by a group of
people. LAN software and practices need to provide for
the security of these programs and data. Unfortunately,
most LAN software provides a low level of security.
The emphasis has been on providing capability and
functionality rather than security. As a result, risks
associated with the use of LANs include:
• Loss of data and program integrity through
unauthorized changes.
• Lack of current data protection through
inability to maintain version control
• Exposure to external activity through limited
user verification and potential public network access.
• Virus and worm infection
• Improper disclosure of data because of general
access rather than need-to-know access provisions
• Violating software licenses by using
unlicensed or excessive numbers of software copies.
• Illegal access by impersonating or
masquerading as a legitimate LAN user
• Internal user’s sniffing
 • Destruction of logging and auditing data
6.4.1. Security measures
Following measures are suggested for the LAN
security
• Declaration of ownership of programs, files
and storage
• Limiting access to a read-only basis
• Implementation of record and file locking to
prevent simultaneous update
• Enforcing user ID/password sign-on
procedures, including the rules relating to password
length and format.
The use of these security procedures requires
administrative time to implement and maintain. Network
administration is often inadequate, providing global
access because of the limited administrative support
available when limited access is appropriate.
6.5. WLAN risks and issues
The administrative and control functions
available with network might be limited. Software
vendors and network users have recognized the need to
provide diagnostic capabilities to identify the cause of
problems when the network goes down or functions in
an unusual manner. The use of logon Ids and passwords
with associated administration facilities is only
becoming standard now. Read, write and execute
permission capabilities for files and programs are
options available with some network operating system
versions, but detailed automated logs of activity are
seldom found on WLANs. Fortunately, newer versions
of network software have significantly more control and
administration capabilities. LANs can represent a form
of decentralized computing. Decentralized local
processing provides the potential for a more responsive
computing environment; however, organizations do not
always give the opportunity to efficiently develop staff
to address the technical, operational and control issues
that the complex LAN technology represents. As a
result, local LAN administrators frequently lack the
experience and time to effectively manage the
computing environment. The various alternatives of
media, protocol, hardware, transmission techniques,
topology and network software ensure that each LAN is
unique. This mix of vendors and unique environment
makes it difficult to implement standard management,
operating and auditing practices. As a result, the costs of
resolving problems can be substantial. Normal LAN
users recognize only one attribute of the LAN-it works.
In a well-structured LAN, the unsophisticated user is not
able to judge whether the technology is appropriate, the
software is installed and documented properly, or the
necessary control and security measures are taken. Audit
trails are considered only after a problem occurs.
6.6. Risk in Client –Server environment
• Access controls may be weak in a client-
server environment.
• Change control and change management
may be weak.
• The lose of network availability
• Obsolescence of network components.
7. Wireless data communications
From the second generation of wireless
communications, data transmission is promoted. One
among the data transmission techniques is Electronic
Data Interchange (EDI).
7.1. Electronic data interchange
In use of more than 20 years, EDI is one of the first
e-commerce applications used among business partners
for transmitting business transactions between
organizations with dissimilar computer systems. EDI
involves the exchange and transmittal of business
document in a standard, machine-processable format.
The transmissions use standard formats such as specific
record types and field definitions. The process works by
translating data from a business application into a
standard format, transmitting the data over
communication channels to a trading partner, and then
retranslating using the trading partner’s application.
7.1.1. Benefits of EDI
• Less paper work
• Fewer errors during the exchange of
information
• Improved information flow, database-to-
database and company-to-company
• No unnecessary rekeying of data
• Fewer delays in communication
• Improved invoicing and payment process
Since EDI replaces the traditional paper document
exchange – such as purchase orders, invoices or material
release schedules- the proper controls and edits need to
be built within each company’s application system to
allow this communication to take place.
7.1.2. General requirements
An EDI system requires communication software,
translation software and access to standards.
Communications software moves data from one point to
anther, flags the start and end of an EDI transmission, interaction and materials such as paper documents,
and determines how acknowledgements are transmitted meetings, faxes, etc. Even when paper documents are
and reconciled. Trading partners are free to use any maintained in parallel with EDI exchange, e.g. printed
method for the transmission of documents. In the past shipping manifests, electronic exchange and the use of
one of the more popular methods was the usage of a data from that exchange reduces the handling costs of
bisync modem to communicate through a value added sorting, distributing, organizing, and searching paper
network (VAN). Some organizations have used direct documents. EDI and similar technologies allow a
modem to modem connections and bulletin board company to take advantage of the benefits of storing and
systems (BBS), and recently there has been a move manipulating data electronically without the cost of
towards using some of the many Internet protocols for manual entry. Another advantage of EDI is reduced
transmission, but most EDI is still transmitted using a errors, such as shipping and billing errors, because EDI
VAN. In the healthcare industry, a VAN is referred to as eliminates the need to rekey documents on the
a "clearinghouse". destination side. One very important advantage of EDI
over paper documents is the speed in which the trading
7.1.4. EDI via the Internet (Web EDI) partner receives and incorporates the information into
The Internet, as with VAN providers, uses its own their system thus greatly reducing cycle times. For this
communications protocols to ensure that EDI documents reason, EDI can be an important component of just-in-
are transmitted securely. The most popular protocols are time production systems.
File Transfer Protocol Secure (FTPS), Hyper Text
Transport Protocol Secure (HTTPS), and AS2.
Many companies around the world have shifted
8. Conclusion
production of labour intensive parts to low-cost,
emerging regions such as China and Eastern Europe. The wireless communication advancements like
Web-based EDI, or webEDI, allows a company to UWB systems ensure not only a broad coverage, but
interact with its suppliers in these regions without the also a safer communication withot a liscence which
worrying of implementing a complex EDI infrastructure. enables secured, faster, more reliable and an integrated
In its simplest form, webEDI enables small to communication.
medium-sized businesses to receive, turn around, create
and manage electronic documents using just a web 9. References
browser. This service seamlessly transforms your data
into EDI format and transmits it to your trading partner. [1] “Wireless communications”, CISA Review
Simple pre-populated forms enable businesses to Manual, ISACA, U.S., 2009
communicate and comply with their trading partners'
requirements using built-in business rules. Using a
friendly web-based interface, EDI transactions can be [2] “ Information Sytems Control”, ISACA,U.S.,
received, edited and sent as easily as an email. You will 2005
also be able to receive EDI documents and send EDI
invoices and shipping documents with no software to
install. All you require is an Internet connection.
WebEDI has the added advantages that it is accessible
anywhere in the world and you do not need a dedicated
IT person to manage any software installation.
Even though VANs offer a very secure and reliable
service to companies wishing to trade electronically, the
Internet is making EDI more available to all. This is
especially important in the emerging markets where IT
awareness and infrastructure are very limited. WebEDI
is traditionally based around the "hub and spoke'"model,
with major trading partners or Application Service
Providers (ASPs) being the hubs and smaller partners
being the spokes.

7.1.5. Advantages of EDI over paper

EDI and other similar technologies save a company
money by providing an alternative to, or replacing
information flows that require a great deal of human