THE PHILIPPINES
existence. Religious associations are part of the system of
The Philippines (Filipino: Pilipinas), officially known as the
Republic of the Philippines (Filipino: Republika ng
Pilipinas), is a country in Southeast Asia in the western Pacific
Ocean. To its north across the Luzon Strait lies Taiwan. West
across the South China Sea sits Vietnam. The Sulu Sea to the
southwest lies between the country and the island of Borneo,
and to the south the Celebes Sea separates it from other
islands of Indonesia. It is bounded on the east by the
Philippine Sea. Its location on the Pacific Ring of Fire and its
tropical climate make the Philippines prone to earthquakes
and typhoons but have also endowed the country with natural
resources and made it one of the richest areas of biodiversity
in the world. An archipelago comprising 7,107 islands, the
Philippines is categorized broadly into three main
geographical divisions: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. Its
capital city is Manila.
With an estimated population of about 92 million people, the
Philippines is the world's 12th most populous country. An
additional 11 million Filipinos live overseas. Multiple
ethnicities and cultures are found throughout the islands. In
prehistoric times, Negritos were some of the archipelago's
earliest inhabitants. They were followed by successive waves
of Austronesian peoples who brought with them influences
from Malay, Hindu, and Islamic cultures. Trade introduced
Chinese cultural influences.
The arrival of Ferdinand Magellan in 1521 marked the
beginning of an era of Spanish interest, and eventual
dominance. Manila emerged as the Asian hub of the Manila–
Acapulco galleon treasure fleet. Christianity became
widespread. As the 19th century gave way to the 20th, there
followed in quick succession the short-lived Philippine
Revolution, the Spanish-American War, and the Philippine-
American War. In the aftermath, the United States replaced
Spain as the dominant power. Aside from the period of
Japanese occupation, the United States retained sovereignty
over the islands until the end of World War II when the
Philippines gained independence. The United States
bequeathed to the Philippines the English language and a
stronger affinity for Western culture. Since independence the
Philippines has had an often tumultuous experience with
democracy and political corruption, with popular "People
Power" movements overthrowing a dictatorship in one
instance but also underlining the institutional weaknesses of
its constitutional republic in others.
Etymology
The name Philippines is derived from that of King Philip II of
Spain. Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos during his
expedition in 1542 named the islands of Leyte and Samar
Felipinas after the then Prince of Asturias (Spain). Eventually
the name Las Islas Filipinas would be used to cover all the
islands of the archipelago. Before it became commonplace,
other names such as Islas del Poniente (Islands of the West)
and Magellan's name for the islands San Lázaro were also
used by the Spanish to refer to the islands.
The official name of the Philippines has changed several times
in the course of the country's history. During the Philippine
Revolution, the Malolos Congress proclaimed the
establishment of the República Filipina or the Philippine
Republic. From the period of the Spanish-American War and
the Philippine-American War until the Commonwealth period,
American colonial authorities referred to the country as the
Philippine Islands, a translation of the Spanish name. During
the American period the name Philippines began to appear
and it has since become the country's common name. The
official name of the country is now Republic of the Philippines.
Religion
Religion in the Philippines are spiritual beliefs held by
Philippine citizens. Religion holds a central place in the life of
the majority of Filipinos, including Catholics, Jewish, Muslims,
Buddhists, Protestants and animists. It is central not as an
abstract belief system, but rather as a host are experiences,
rituals, ceremonies, and adjurations that provide continuity in
life, cohesion in the community and moral purpose for
kinship ties, patron-client bonds and other linkages outside
the nuclear family.
Animism, is the term used to describe the indigenous
spiritual traditions practiced in the Philippines during pre-
colonial times.The traditions are a collection of beliefs and
cultural mores anchored more or less in the idea that the
world is inhabited by spirits and supernatural entities, both
good and bad, and that respect be accorded to them through
nature worship. These spirits all around nature are known as
"diwatas", showing cultural relationship with Hinduism
(Devatas). Some worship specific deities, such as the Tagalog
supreme deity, Bathala, and his children Adlaw, Mayari, and
Tala, or the Visayan deity Kan-Laon; while others practice
Ancestor worship (anitos). Variations of animistic practices
occur in different ethnic groups. Magic, chants and prayers
are often key features. Its practitioners were highly
respected[citation needed] (and some feared) in the
community, as they were healers, midwives (hilot), shamans,
witches and warlocks (mangkukulam), priests/priestesses
(babaylan/katalonan), tribal historians and wizened elders
that provided the spiritual and traditional life of the
community. In the Visayan regions, there is a belief in the
existence of witchcraft or barang and mythical creatures such
as the "aswang", "balay sa dwendi" and "Bakonawa", despite
the existence of the Christian and Islamic faiths.
Christianity
arrived in the Philippines with the landing of Ferdinand
Magellan in 1521. Roman Catholicism is the predominant
religion and the largest Christian denomination, is shown in
traditions such as Misa de Gallo, Black Nazarene procession,
Santo Niño and Aguinaldo procession, where large crowds
gather, honouring their patron saint or saints. Processions and
fiestas are conducted during feast days of the patron saints of
various barrios or barangays. Roman Catholicism is also the
de facto state religion in the Philippines.
Every year on November 1, Filipino families celebrate the Day
of the Dead, on which they spend much of the day and
evening visiting their ancestral graves, showing respect and
honor to their departed relatives by feasting and offering
prayers. On November 1 Filipino families celebrate All Saint's
Day, where they honor the saints of the Catholic church.
November 2 is All Soul's Day.
Christmas in the Philippines is a celebration spanning just
more than the day itself. Christmas season starts in
September. Many traditions and customs are associated with
this grand feast, along with New Year. Holy Week is also an
important time for the country's Catholics. To help spread the
gospel, the Roman Catholic Church established the Catholic
Media Network with its main TV station Tv Maria as a tool for
evangelization. Other large Roman Catholic television
channels like EWTN and Familyland are also available and
watched in the Philippines.
Roman Catholic Charismatic Renewal and the
Neocatechumenal Way
The El Shaddai movement is a large Catholic Charismatic
Renewal led by 'Brother Mike Velarde'. Other groups include
Couples for Christ, Ligaya Ng Panginoon, FAMILIA Community,
etc.
Protestantism and Evangelicals
Protestantism arrived in the Philippines with the coming of the
Americans at the turn of the 20th century.
Restorationist and Cults
Restorationism describes religious movements that follow
what they understand to be a pristine, or original, form of
Christianity. These movements and churches are considered
as cults by the Christian Community as they significantly went
off/contradicts from the historic Christian faith:
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormonism)
Jehovah's Witnesses - Missionaries of the Jehovah's Witnesses
arrived in the Philippines during the American Occupation
(1898-1945).
The Kingdom of Jesus Christ, the Name Above Every Name
Members Church of God International
The Most Holy Church of God in Christ Jesus
Seventh-day Adventist Church
Iglesia ni Cristo
Pentecostal Missionary Church of Christ )
United Pentecostal Church International (Oneness)
Jesus Christ To God be the Glory (Friends Again)
Jesus Miracle Crusade International Ministry
Churches of Christ
True Jesus Church Jesus is Our Shield worldwide ministries
(Oras ng Himala)
Universal Church of the Kingdom of God (UCKG Help Center)
Islam in the Philippines, Moro people, and
Bangsamoro(muslim nation)
Natural Landmarks
Ambuklao Dam, Bokod, Benguet
Anilao Dive spots, Bgy. Anilao, Mabini, Batangas
Apo Island, cited as one of the best diving spots in the world.
[1]
Baguio City, Benguet (summer capital of the Philippines)
Banaue Rice Terraces, Banaue, Ifugao
Boracay Island, Balabag, Malay, Aklan
Bulusan, Sorsogon
Calamian group of islands, Palawan
Caylabne Bay, Ternate, Cavite
Chocolate Hills, Carmen, Buhol
El Nido, Palawan
Hundred Islands National Park, Alaminos City, Pangasinan
Kennon Road, Tuba, Benguet
Laiya, San Juan, Batangas
Lake Caliraya, Lumban. Laguna
Mactan Island beaches, Lapu-Lapu City, Metro Cebu, Cebu
Manila Reclamation Area Seaside
Maria Cristina Falls, Iligan City, Mindanao
Matabungkay, Lian, Batangas
Mayon Volcano, Legazpi City, Albay
Mount Apo, Kidapawan City, Cotabato (highest mountain in
the Philippines)
Mount Isarog, Naga City, Camarines Sur
Mount Pulog, Kayapa, Nueva Vizcaya
Pagsanjan Falls, Anglas, Cavinti, Laguna
Pagudpud Beaches, Ilocos Norte
Puerto Azul, Ternate, Cavite
Puerto Galera, Oriental Mindoro
Puerto-Princesa Subterranean River National Park, Puerto
Princesa City, Palawan
Punta Fuego, Bgy. Balaytigue, Nasugbu, Batangas
Siargao Island, Surigao del Norte
Taal Volcano, Batangas
Tagaytay Highlands, Bgy. Sungay East, Tagaytay City
Tubbataha Reef, Palawan
Literature
Compared to other Asian nations, the Philippine Islands has
very few artifacts that show evidence of Asian writing.
However, a script called Baybayin, was used in Luzon when
the Spaniards settled the islands in 1521.
The Spaniards recorded that Indigenous people in Manila, and
among other native groups in the Philippines, wrote on
bamboo, and specially prepared Arecaceae palm leaves, using
knives, and styli. They were using the primitive Tagalog script
which had basic symbols. These were the vowels a/e, i, and
o/u. Each basic consonantal symbol had the inherent a sound:
ka, ga, nga, ta, da, na, pa, ba, ma, ya, la, wa, sa, and ha.
A diacritical mark, called "kudlit", modified the sound of the
symbol. The kudlit could be a dot, a line, or even an
arrowhead. When placed above the symbol, it changed the
inherent sound of the symbol from a/e to i, placed below, the
sound became o/u. Thus a ba/be with a kudlit placed above
became a bi, if the kudlit was placed below, the symbol
became a bo/bu.
Notable Philippine literary works
Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas
Ninay, novela de costumbres filipinas
Sampaguitas, poesias varias
Noli Me Tangere
El Filibusterismo
Perfil de cresta
Florante at Laura
Ibong Adarna
Tuwaang
Bantugan
Hinilawod
Dekada '70
A Child of Sorrow
A lo largo del camino
The culture of the Philippines reflects the complexity of the
history of the Philippines through the blending of several
diverse traditional Malay heritage mixed with Spanish,
American and other Asian cultures.
Some of the groups that perform these folk songs and dances
are the Bayanihan, Filipinescas, Barangay-Barrio, Hariraya ,
the Karilagan Ensemble, and groups associated with the
guilds of Manila, and Fort Santiago theatres. Many Filipino
musicians have risen prominence such as the composer and
conductor Antonio J. Molina, the composer Felipe P. de Leon,
known for his nationalistic themes and the opera singer Jovita
Fuentes.Philippine folk dances include the Tinikling and
Cariñosa.
Itneg and Mindanao Tribal art
The Itneg tribes are known for their intricate weaving
production. The binakol is a blanket which features optical
illusion designs. Weavings of the Ga'dang tribe usually have
bright red tones. Their weaving can also be identified by
beaded ornamentation. Other tribes such as the Ilongot make
jewelry from pearl, red hornbill beak, plants and metals.
The tribes of Mindanao such as the B'laan, Mandaya, Mansaka
and T'boli became skilled in art of dyeing abaca fibre. Abaca is
a plant, and its leaves are used to make fibre known as Manila
hemp. The fibre is dyed by a method called ikat. Ikat textiles
are woven into geometric patterns with human, animal and
plant pictorial themes.
Kut-kut art
The merging of these ancient styles produces a unique
artwork characterized by delicate swirling interwoven lines,
multi-layered texture and an illusion of three-dimensional
space.
Islamic art
Islamic art in the Philippines have two main artistic styles.
One is a curved-line woodcarving and metalworking called
okir, similar to the Middle Eastern Islamic art. This style is
associated with men. The other style is geometric tapestries,
and is associated with women. The Tausug and Sama-Bajau
exhibit their okir on elaborate markings with boat-like
imagery. The Marananaos make similar carvings on housings
called torogan. Weapons made by Muslim Filipinos such as the
kampilan are skillfully carved.
Architecture
The Nipa hut (Bahay Kubo) is the mainstream form of housing.
It is characterized by use of simple materials such as bamboo
and coconut as the main sources of wood. Cogon grass, Nipa
palm leaves and coconut fronds are used as roof thatching.
The Coconut Palace is an example of Philippine Architecture.
Cuisine
The Philippines is considered a melting pot of Asia. Eating out
is favorite Filipino pastime. A typical Pinoy diet consists at
most of six meals a day; breakfast, snacks, lunch, snacks,
dinner and again a midnight snack before going to sleep. Rice
is a staple in filipino diet, it is usually eaten together with
other dishes. Filipinos regularly use spoons together with forks
and knives. Some also eat with their hands, especially in
informal settings, and when eating seafood. Rice, corn, and
popular dishes such as adobo (a meat stew made from either
pork or chicken), lumpia (meat or vegetable rolls), pancit
(noodle dish) and lechón (roasted pig) are served on plates.
Other popular dishes include: afritada, asado, chorizo,
empanadas, mani (roasted peanuts), paksiw (fish or pork,
cooked in vinegar and water with some spices like garlic and
pepper), pan de sal (bread rolls), pescado (fried or grilled
fish), sisig, torta (omelette), kare-kare (ox-tail stew), kilawen,
pinakbet (vegetable stew), pinapaitan, and sinigang (tamarind
soup with a variety of pork, fish or prawns). Some delicacies
eaten by some Filipinos but may seem unappetizing to the
Western palate include balut (boiled egg with a fertilized
duckling inside), longanisa (sweet sausage) and dinuguan
(soup made from animal blood).
Popular snacks and desserts such as chicharon (deep fried
pork or chicken skin), halo-halo (crushed ice with evaporated
milk, flan, and sliced tropical fruits), puto (white rice cakes),
bibingka (rice cake with butter or margarine and salted eggs),
ensaymada (sweet roll with grated cheese on top), polvoron
(powder candy) and tsokolate (chocolate) are usually eaten
outside the three main meals. Popular Philippine beverages
include San Miguel Beer, Tanduay Rhum Masters, lambanog
and tuba.
Patis, suka, toyo, bagoong and banana catsup are the most
common condiments found in Filipino homes and restaurants.
Martial arts
Filipino martial arts is a term used to describe the numerous
martial art forms that originated in the Philippines, similar to
how Silat describes the martial arts practiced in Asia. Filipino
martial arts include Panantukan (empty-handed techniques),
Eskrima, Kali, Arnis de Máno (blade and stick fighting) and
Pananjakman (kicking).
Games
Traditional Filipino games include yo-yo, piko, patintero,
bahay kubo, pusoy and sungka. Pusoy is a popular gambling
game. Sungka is played on a board game using small sea
shells in which players try to take all shells. The "Salagubang
gong"a toy using beetles to create a periodic gong effect on a
kerosene can as the beetle rotates above the contraption.
Regular holiday
January 1 - New year’s Day,March or April - Good Friday,April
9 - Araw ng Kagitingan (Bataan, and Corregidor Day),May 1 -
Labor Day,June 12 - Independence Day,August 31 - National
Heroes Day,November 1 - All Saints day,November 30 -
Bonifacio Day,December 25 - Christmas Day,December 30 -
Rizal Day,Moveable date - Maundy Thursday,Nationwide
holiday,August 21 - Ninoy Aquino Day,November 1 - All Saints
Day,December 31 - Last day of the year
Native holiday
January 9 - The Black Nazarene procession in Quiapo, and
Manila.
Third Sunday of January - The Fiesta del Santo Niño de Cebu
(Festival of the Child Jesus of Cebu), Sinulog in Cebu, Ati-
Atihan Festival in Kalibo, Aklan.
Last Sunday of January - The Dinagyang Festival in Iloilo.
March or April - Semana Santa (Holy Week).
May - Flores de Mayo. A festival celebrated by farmers as they
welcome the fertile season. Celebrations around towns
showcase crops, food and delicacies. One of the most
celebrated festivity is the "Pahiyas", a colorful festival in
Lucban, Quezon where houses are decorated mainly with
dried rice papers in different shapes and colors. Crops also
accentuate these houses in artistic shapes, and styles.
Last week of May - Pintados-Kasadyaan Festival (A Festival
honoring Santo Niño de Leyte) in Tacloban City, Leyte
Third Saturday and Sunday of September - The Peñafrancia
Festival in Naga City, Camarines Sur, Bicol Region. During the
festivities, people attend church services, followed by parades
on the streets, fireworks and feasting. The Peñafrancia
Festival is also celebrated by a fluvial procession in the Bicol
River.
October 31 to November 2 - "Araw ng mga Patay", "Día de los
Muertos" (Day of the Dead, All Saints Day, and All Souls Day).
Also known as "Undas". During All Saints, and Souls Day,
friends and families visit the cemeteries, and pay homage to
their dearly departed. The cemetery becomes a party
atmosphere, rather than a solemn celebration.December 24 -
Noche Buena (Christmas Eve).December 25 - Araw ng Pasko,
Navidad (Christmas).January 1 - Bagong Taon, Año Nuevo
(New Year).
Language
170 languages are used in Philippines and all of these
languages predominantly belong to Austronesian language
family.Since its establishment in the sixteenth century,
Spanish was the original official language of the Philippines.
According to the 1987 Constitution, Filipino, heavily based on
Tagalog, and English both are acknowledged as the official
languages.
The twelve major regional languages are the auxiliary official
languages of their respective regions, each with over one
million speakers: Tagalog, Cebuano, Ilokano, Hiligaynon,
Waray-Waray, Bikol, Kapampangan, Pangasinan, Kinaray-a,
Maranao, Maguindanao and Tausug.some of the Filipinos
particularly those who belong to the upper strata of society
primarily use English as their first language. Both Spanish and
Arabic are used as secondary languages in the Philippines and
the use of Arabic is prevalent among the Filipino Muslims. The
Lan-nang-oe version of Min Nan Chinese dialect is widely
spoken by the country's Chinese minority. November 12, 1937
is a red letter day in the history of Philippines Language as
this particular date marked the creation of National Language
Institute by the First National Assembly.
Philippine languages are further divided into a handful of
subgroups which consists of Northern Philippine languages;
Meso Philippine languages; Southern Philippine languages;
Southern Mindanao languages; Sama-Bajaw languages and
the Sulawesi languages.
History and Ethnic relations
Emergence of the Nation. Early inhabitants are believed to
have reached the area over land bridges connecting the
islands to Malaysia and China. The first people were the
Negritos, who arrived twenty-five thousand years ago. Later
immigrants came from Indonesia. After the land bridges
disappeared, immigrants from Indo-China brought copper and
bronze and built the rice terraces at Benaue in northern
Luzon. The next wave came from Malaysia and is credited
with developing agriculture and introducing carabao (water
buffalo) as draft animals. Trade with China began in the first
century C.E. Filipino ores and wood were traded for finished
products.
In 1380, the "Propagation of Islam" began in the Sulu Islands
and Mindanao, where Islam remains the major religion. The
Muslim influence had spread as far north as Luzon when
Ferdinand Magellan arrived in 1521 to claim the archipelago
for Spain. Magellan was killed soon afterward when a local
chief, Lapu-Lapu, refused to accept Spanish rule and
Christianity. Miguel Lopez de Legazpi landed in the Philippines
in 1564 and consolidated Spanish power, designating Manila
as the capital in 1572. Roman Catholic religious orders began
Christianizing the populace, but the Sulu Islands and
Mindanao remained Muslim. The Spanish governed those
areas through a treaty with the sultan of Mindanao. The
Spanish did not attempt to conquer the deep mountain
regions of far northern Luzon.
The occupation by Spain and the unifying factor of
Catholicism were the first steps in creating a national identity.
Filipinos became interested in attaining independence in the
middle of the nineteenth century. In the 1890's, the novels of
José Rizal, his exile to a remote island, and his execution by
the Spaniards created a national martyr and a rallying point
for groups seeking independence. Armed attacks and
propaganda increased, with an initial success that waned as
Spanish reinforcements arrived. The Spanish-American War of
1898 and the defeat of the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay led the
Filipino leader Emilio Aguinaldo to declare independence from
Spain. The United States paid twenty million dollars to the
Spanish for the Philippines under the Treaty of Paris.
Aguinaldo did not accept United States occupation and fought
until the Filipino forces were defeated. In 1902, the Philippines
became an American territory, with the future president
William Howard Taft serving as the first territorial governor.
Over the next two decades, American attitudes toward the
Philippines changed and the islands were given
commonwealth status in 1933. Independence was promised
after twelve years, with the United States retaining rights to
military bases.
The Japanese invaded the Philippines early in 1942 and ruled
until 1944. Filipino forces continued to wage guerrilla warfare.
The return of U.S. forces ended the Japanese occupation. After
the war, plans for independence were resumed. The Republic
of the Philippines became an independent nation on 4 July
1946.
The new nation had to recover economically from the six-year terms. The president and vice president do not run on
destruction caused by World War II. Peasant groups wanted the same ticket and may be political opponents.
the huge land holdings encouraged by the Spanish and The seventy provinces have governors but no legislative
Americans broken apart. In 1955, Congress passed the first bodies. Over sixty cities have been created by legislation.
law to distribute land to farmers. Cityhood is desirable since cities are funded separately from
Ferdinand Marcos governed from 1965 to 1986, which was the the provinces so that additional federal money comes into the
longest period for one president. From 1972 to 1981, he ruled area. Each province is divided into municipalities. The
by martial law. Marcos was reelected in 1982, but a strong smallest unit of government is the barangay, which contains
opposition movement emerged. When the leader of the up to two hundred dwellings and an elementary school. The
opposition, Benigno Aquino, was murdered after his return barangay captain distributes funds at the local level.
from exile in the United States, his wife, Corazon Aquino, Leadership and Political Officials. Charges of corruption, graft,
entered the presidential race in 1986. Marcos claimed victory and cronyism are common among government officials at all
but was accused of fraud. That accusation and the withdrawal levels. People accept cronyism and the diversion of a small
of United States support for Marcos led to "People Power," a percentage of funds as natural. Rewriting the constitution to
movement in which the residents of Manila protested the eliminate term limits and establishing a strong two-party
Marcos regime. The Filipino military supported Aquino, who system are the reforms that are discussed most often.
was declared president, and the Marcos family went into exile Politicians move from party to party as the needs of their
in Hawaii. constituencies dictate because the political parties have no
The Aquino years saw the passage of a new constitution with ideologies.
term limits and the withdrawal of U.S. military forces in 1991,
when the government did not grant a new lease for United Many of the people who are currently active in politics were
States use of military bases. politically active in the commonwealth era. Men of rank in the
Fidel Ramos, the first Protestant president, served from 1991 military also move into the political arena. Joseph Estrada,
to 1998. Major problems included a fall in the value of the whose term as president is 1998–2004, entered the public eye
peso and the demands of Muslim groups in Mindanao for self- as a popular film star. He then became the mayor of a large
determination and/or independence. The government offered city and went on to become vice president in the Ramos
self-governance and additional funds, and the movement administration. Previous presidents have had political or
quieted. military backgrounds, with the exception of Corazon Aquino,
Joseph "Erap" Estrada was elected for one six-year term in the president from 1986 to 1992, who became politically
1999. The demands of the Muslim rebels escalated, active after her husband was assassinated.
culminating with the kidnaping of twenty-nine people by the
Abu Sayyaf group in April 2000. Late in the year 2000,
impeachment proceedings were brought against Estrada, who
was charged with financial corruption.
National Identity. Filipinos had little sense of national identity
until the revolutionary period of the nineteenth century. The
word "Filipino" did not refer to native people until the mid-
nineteenth century. Before that period, the treatment of the
islands as a single governmental unit by Spain and the
conversion of the population to Catholicism were the unifying
factors. As a desire for independence grew, a national flag
was created, national heroes emerged, and a national anthem
was written. A national language was designated in 1936.
National costumes were established. The sense of a national
identity is fragile, with true allegiance given to a kin group, a
province, or a municipality.
Ethnic Relations. Ninety-five percent of the population is of
Malay ancestry. The other identifiable group is of Chinese
ancestry. Sino-Filipinos are envied for their success in
business. They have maintained their own schools, which
stress Chinese traditions.
Seventy to eighty language groups separate people along
tribal lines. Approximately two million residents are
designated as cultural minority groups protected by the
government. The majority of those sixty ethnic groups live in
the mountains of northern Luzon. People whose skin is darker
are considered less capable, intelligent, and beautiful.
Descendants of the Negritos tribe are regarded as inferior.

Politics
Government. The country has a republican form of
government that was developed during the commonwealth
period. It contains three branches: executive, legislative, and
judicial. The first constitution, based on the United States
Constitution, was written in 1935. When President Marcos
declared martial law in 1972, that constitution was replaced
by another one providing for a head of state, a prime minister,
and a unicameral legislature. The president had the power to
dissolve the legislature, appoint the prime minister, and
declare himself prime minister. A new constitution was
approved in a national referendum in 1987. It was similar to
the 1935 constitution but included term limitations. The 221
members of the House may serve three consecutive three-
year terms, which is also the case for provincial governors.
The twenty-four senators, who are elected at large, may serve
two consecutive six-year terms. The president serves one six-
year term, but the vice president may serve two consecutive