Metal Science and Heat Treatment Vol. 46, Nos.

5 – 6, 2004

UDC 620.178.3

ON THE PROBLEM OF THE FATIGUE LIMIT OF METALLIC MATERIALS

V. F. Terent’ev1

Translated from Metallovedenie i Termicheskaya Obrabotka Metallov, No. 6, pp. 22 – 28, June, 2004.

The main concepts of the fatigue limit of metallic materials are considered. Results of cyclic tests of various
steels and copper in the range of high-cycle and gigacycle fatigue are presented. Special features of the respec-
tive fatigue curves are discussed. Problems of initiation of fatigue cracks in various domains of cyclic defor-
mation and of existence of a secondary fatigue limit in the range of gigacycle fatigue are considered.2

It is assumed that high-cycle fatigue curves of metallic
materials plotted for standard test bases of N = 107 – 108 cy-
cles in semilogarithmic coordinates s – log N can have two
forms (curves 1 and 2 in Fig. 1). Curve 2 has a horizontal re-
gion at a certain critical stress sR1 and critical number of cy-
cles, at which the specimen remain unbroken for the test base
NR1 . In this case researchers speak of a physical fatigue limit
sR (physikalische Dauerschwingfestigkeitsgrenze in German
sources [1] or sharp fatigue limit in English sources [2]) by
analogy with the physical yield point sy . Note that the physi-
cal fatigue limit is most frequently observed in materials
having a physical yield point [3 – 5]. For metallic materials
having no physical fatigue limit, researchers determine the
restricting fatigue limit sRN , i.e., the cycle stress with a
maximum whose absolute value corresponds to the specified
endurance [6] (curve 1 in Fig. 1). In accordance with the
GOST 25.502–79 Standard the test base for determining the
fatigue limit is equal to 107 cycles for metals and alloys pos-
sessing a virtually horizontal region on the fatigue curve and
to 108 cycles for light alloys and other metals and alloys, the
ordinates of the fatigue curves of which decrease continu-
ously over the entire length with growth in the number of cy-
cles [7]. However, for some high-strength [8] and hardened
[9] steels the dependence s – log N is linear (curve 3 in
Fig. 1) and is characterized by enhanced scattering of experi-
mental results. It is assumed that such a linear dependence is
connected with the presence of defects in the material (for
example, quenching microcracks in carbon steels).
1
A. A. Baikov Institute for Metallurgy and Materials Science of
the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia; N. É. Bau-
man Moscow State Technical University, Moscow, Russia
(E-mail: fatig@online.ru).
2
The work was supported by the Russian Fund for Fundamental
Research, Grant No. 04-03-32431.
Let us consider the problem of the nature of the physical
fatigue limit in greater detail, especially in the light of the
fact that in recent years the number of works devoted to fa-
tigue resistance on very large (109 – 1010 cycles) test bases
known as gigacycle fatigue has increased [10 – 13]. Such
tests may be required, because the load life of many heavy-
duty metallic structures operating under cyclic loads exceeds
the standard bases of fatigue tests. Possible methods for com-
putation at very large test bases are considered in [14].
Conduction of such tests has shown an interesting thing.
Metallic materials that exhibit a physical fatigue limit at
standard test bases suddenly start to fail after 107 – 109 load-
ing cycles. A “second branch” of the curve appears in the
range of gigacycle fatigue, and a long step appears between
the ranges of the high-cycle and gigacycle fatigues (a
stepped, double, or multi-stage fatigue curve [15]). At large
test bases (N > 107 – 108 cycles) cracks virtually always ap-
pear under the surface layer instead of on the surface as oc-
curs in high-cycle fatigue. Figure 2 presents results of fatigue
sa
3
1
2
sR1
sR2
NR1 NR2 log N
Fig. 1. Fatigue curves: 1 ) with horizontal region; 2 ) without hori-
zontal region; 3 ) in the form of linear dependence; NR1 and
NR2 ) standard test bases for curves 1 and 2, respectively; sR1 and
sR2 ) fatigue limits.

244
0026-0673/04/0506-0244 © 2004 Springer Science+Business Media, Inc.
On the Problem of the Fatigue Limit of Metallic Materials 245

smax , ÌPà sa , ÌPà

I II à
1000
1000
1
900
900 T
T
800 A
2 T
700 800
104 105 106 107 108 109 1010 N, cycles 104 105 106 107 108 N, cycles
sa , ÌPà
Fig. 2. Fatigue curves for high-strength spring Cr – Si steels [12]: T
)) 54SC6; =) 55SC7; ^) 55SC7TT2; I ) range of crack initiation on 1400 b
T A 3
the surface; II ) under the surface. 1300 A
1200 A T
1100 A M
tests with a frequency of 20 kHz under conditions of sym- TA M
1000 4 T A A
metric tension-compression of specimens of high-strength A T
900 A
Cr – Si spring steels [12]. It can be seen that in all the cases M T
the fatigue curves have two branches separated by a horizon- M
800
tal region (discontinuity of fatigue curves). As a rule, the first 104 105 106 107 108 N, cycles
branch ends at an endurance of N = 1 ´ 106 – 5 ´ 106 cycles,
Fig. 3. Fatigue curves of steel JIS-SCM440 with strength class cor-
and the second branch begins after 108 loading cycles. If the responding to sr @ 1600 MPa (a) and sr @ 2000 MPa (b ) in different
specimens break in a test lasting up to 107 cycles, fatigue states [17]: 1 ) AF1600 (after ausforming); 2 ) QT1600 (after
cracks appear on their surface. At N > 107 cycles cracks ap- quenching and tempering); 3 ) AF2000 (after ausforming);
pear at the subsurface level primarily at sulfide nonmetallic 4 ) QT2000 (after quenching and tempering); &, )) cycle frequency
inclusions from 10 to 40 mm in size [12]. f = 120 Hz; ^) f = 20 kHz; A ) initiation of cracks in subsurface
Subsurface microcracks in the range of gigacycle fatigue layer at nonmetallic inclusions of Al2O3; T ) at TiN inclusions;
M ) in the matrix; crossed spots) initiation of cracks on the surface.
can also appear near fine dispersed segregations, on inter-
faces of plastic and stronger phases, and as a result of crack-
ing of brittle phases. In plastic metals cycling with standard
the structure consisted of tempered martensite. After ausfor-
test bases can lead to the appearance of pores in internal vo-
ming the grain boundaries were extended in the direction of
lumes of the material. For example, the authors of [16] stu-
the deformation. The mechanical properties and the notation
died formation of internal microcracks and pores in different
of the studied variants of state are given in the table. Figure 3
stages of fatigue tests of iron (0.025% C) using microscopic
presents results of fatigue tests in an electromagnetic reso-
diffraction analysis and determining the strength of the mate-
nance machine (with loading frequency f = 120 Hz) and in an
rial. The fatigue tests were performed at a constant amplitude
ultrasonic installation (f = 20 kHz). It can be seen from
of plastic deformation in a cycle Dep1 = 6 ´ 10 – 3 and a num- Fig. 3a that the maximum fatigue limit sR = 920 MPa is ob-
ber of loading cycles amounting to 50, 70, and 90% of the served in the steel with strength class corresponding to
expected life (before failure). It was shown that cyclic defor-
sr @ 1600 MPa after ausforming. In this case fatigue cracks
mation decreased the density of the iron specimens due to
initiate on the surface of the metal. After quenching and tem-
formation of microcracks and pores up to 2.4 mm in diameter pering the fatigue limit sR = 820 MPa. Before N = 105 cycles
with increase in the test time. Thus, subsurface microcracks the cracks appear on the surface of the metal, and at
can be generated in plastic metals and alloys at very large test N > 105 cycles they appear in the subsurface layers primarily
bases in the region of large pores that have formed in the cy-
cling process at standard test bases.
Interesting data on special features of initiation of micro- TABLE 1. Mechanical Properties of Steel JIS-SCM440 in Differ-
cracks at different endurances are presented in [17]. The au- ent Structural States
thors studied the fatigue characteristics of high-strength
Conventional s , MPa sr , MPa
low-alloy steel JIS-SCM440 (0.42% C, 0.19% Si, 0.8% Mn, d, % y, % HV
name of state 0.2
0.015% P, 0.018% S, 0.01% Cu, 0.02% Ni, 1.16% Cr, and
AF1600 1495 1580 11.9 56 457
0.16% Mo) with ultimate rupture strength sr @ 1600 MPa
QT1600 1380 1520 11.8 51 455
and 2000 MPa obtained by conventional hardening and tem-
AF2000 1540 2070 12.1 54 576
pering and by ausforming (thermomechanical treatment with
quenching from the range of stable austenite). In both cases QT2000 1545 1975 11.2 49 557
246 V. F. Terent’ev

sa , ÌPà log Dep1 /2

1600
10 – 4 I
II
1200 III
IV
10 – 5
log Dep1 /2 » 2.5 ´ 10 – 5
800
103 104 105 106 107 N, cycles
10 – 6
Fig. 4. Fatigue curves for high-carbon chromium bearing steel JIS 104 105 106 107 108 109 N, cycles
SUJ2 [11]: )) initiation of crack on the surface; &) in subsurface
Fig. 6. Fatigue curve of copper at super-high test bases in coordi-
layer.
nates log ep1 – N (ep1 is the amplitude range of plastic deformation
per cycle, N is the number of cycles before failure) [15].

2a
We can ask whether the secondary fatigue limit will arise
1 in a test at still lower stresses and very large test bases. Two
points of view exist on the problem [15]. Some researchers
[15, 18, 19] assume that fatigue curves can have one more
2b

2 fatigue limit at low stresses and ultrahigh-base tests, and oth-

dinc

ers think that it is absent in the gigacycle range [20, 21].

3
Specimen surface
à in high-strength bearing steel JIS SUJ2 (1.01% C, 0.23% Si,
50 mm
b
Fig. 5. Diagram of initiation of subsurface fatigue crack at nonme-
tallic inclusion (a) and view of the starting defect (“fisheye”) in initi-
ation of fatigue crack in high-strength steel JIS SUJ2 (b ) [11]: 1 ) in-
clusion; 2 ) “fisheye”; 3 ) light fracture facet.
near TiN and “fisheye” nonmetallic inclusions. A step is
formed on the fatigue curve. The steel with strength class
corresponding to sr @ 2000 MPa also exhibits the highest fa-
tigue limit after ausforming (sR = 1010 MPa). After conven-
tional heat treatment (quenching and tempering) sR =
840 MPa (Fig. 3b ). In both cases fatigue cracks appear on
the surface only at high amplitude stresses and in subsurface
layers (at various types of nonmetallic inclusion) at low
stresses. Fatigue microcracks may appear around nonmetal-
lic inclusions and on the interface of the matrix with an in-
clusion or on the tip of an inclusion. Fatigue fractures exhibit
a small optically dark surface in addition to the nonmetallic
inclusion [17].
An example of fatigue curve of the second type obtained
in a test with a base of 109 cycles is presented in [11]. The
authors studied special features of initiation of fatigue cracks
0.36% Mn, 1.45% Cr, 0.06% Cu, 0.04% Ni, 0.02% Mo,
0.012% P, and 0.007% S) with sr = 2315 MPa under the con-
ditions of bending with torsion at a frequency f = 52.5 Hz.
It can be seen from Fig. 4 that at a stress amplitude
sa > 1200 MPa the fatigue curves have two branches. On one
of the branches (corresponding to failure of specimens after a
small number of cycles) fatigue cracks appear on the surface
of the specimens and on the other branch (for specimens with
longer endurance) they appear at nonmetallic inclusions in
subsurface layer. In the latter case a “fisheye” zone of initia-
tion of fatigue crack appears (Fig. 5). At sa < 1200 MPa and
test base of 107 – 109 cycles fatigue cracks always appear un-
der the surface. The number of cycles before failure is virtu-
ally independent of the length of a subsurface crack within
2b = 40 – 380 mm. The critical size of a microcrack for this
high-strength steel is 2b ~ 40 mm.
It should be noted that in addition to double or stepped
fatigue curves, fatigue curves without steps (like curve 1 in
Fig. 1) can occur up to superlarge test bases. Such a fatigue
curve has been obtained for specimens of cast iron of grade
SG 52 at different loading frequencies. At an endurance
N > 107 cycles cracks appear under the surface layer [22].
The author of [15] considers the problem of the shape of
gigacycle fatigue curve or ultrahigh cycle fatigue curve
(UHCF) and concludes that there exist two types of materials
differing in the mechanism of initiation of fatigue cracks. In
materials of type I represented by annealed plastic metals
and alloys the initiation of fatigue microcracks and their
propagation start from the surface. These materials are char-
On the Problem of the Fatigue Limit of Metallic Materials
acterized by stepped fatigue diagrams with two fatigue lim-
its. In [15] such a fatigue diagram obtained from experimen-
tal data for plastic copper is presented in semilogarithmic co-
ordinates log Dep1 – N (Fig. 6). Here region I corresponds to
fatigue fracture obeying the Coffin – Manson law and the
horizontal region II corresponds to the fatigue limit on stan-
dard test bases (the author of [15] associates this threshold
deformation with the minimum amplitude of plastic defor-
mation per cycle at which formation of stable slip bands is
possible).
Region III is a secondary branch of the fatigue curve in
the gigacycle range, and region IV is a secondary fatigue
limit connected with the threshold amplitude of plastic defor-
mation at which the irreversible processes of shear formation
are virtually absent. Analyzing the possibility of formation of
stable slip bands in the range of gigacycle fatigue the authors
of [23] conclude that these bands cannot appear at superlarge
test bases. However, a low irreversibility of the processes of
shear formation at cyclic loads in 108 – 1010 cycles can lead
to formation of a quite developed local surface texture and
generation of a fatigue microcrack. In materials of type II,
which include steels, surface fracture is observed at high and
intermediate levels of stresses. At low stress amplitudes in
the range of gigacycle fatigue, cracks appear in subsurface
layer.
The discovery of the secondary branch of fatigue curve
at superlarge test bases made in recent years makes us return
once more to the problem of the nature of what is known as
the physical fatigue limit. It is possible that in the light of
novel experimental data this limit obtained on standard test
bases (see curve 2 in Fig. 1) should be called normalized fa-
tigue limit to differentiate it from the conventional fatigue
limit determined on fatigue curves having no horizontal re-
gion on standard test bases (curve 1 in Fig. 1).
Concepts of the fatigue limit are reviewed in [3, 4]. In re-
cent years the presence of a horizontal region on a fatigue
curve has frequently been associated with processes of static
or dynamic strain aging. In [3, 4] I put forward a hypothesis
on the nature of the physical fatigue limit of b.c.c. metals and
alloys. It is based on the idea of the barrier action of the
stronger surface layer with a thickness on the order of the
grain size and enhanced dislocation density, which forms in
advance (relative to the internal volumes of the metal) in ear-
lier stages of cyclic loading at a stress corresponding to the
normalized fatigue limit. In [3, 4] I proceeded from the as-
sumption that such phenomena as physical yield strength and
physical fatigue limit in b.c.c. metals and alloys are interre-
lated in nature.
When the fatigue limit is lower than the static yield
strength, a stronger barrier layer with a thickness on the order
of the grain size and enhanced dislocation density forms in
the stage of cyclic microyield due to the earlier plastic flow
of the surface layers. In b.c.c. metals and alloys the creation
of a stronger surface layer is promoted by the presence of a
great number of slip systems and by the occurrence of pro-
247
sa , ÌPà
Low-cycle fatigue High-cycle fatigue
1200
1100
1000
900
10 50 90
800
5 ´ 104
700
103 104 105 106 N, cycles
Fig. 7. Fatigue curves of nitrided steel 20MnCr5V (with nitrided
layer 0.5 mm thick) with different probability of failure P (indicated
at the curves in percent) [28]: &) initiation of crack on the surface;
¶) subsurface crack initiation.
cesses of dynamic strain aging, as well as by the formation of
residual compressive stresses in this layer. When the fatigue
limit is higher than the static yield strength, conditions for
formation of a stronger surface layer in the process of cyclic
deformation are preserved despite the preliminary plastic de-
formation of the entire cross section of the material. The
same factors as in the former case, when the normalized fa-
tigue limit is lower than the static yield strength, act in the
latter case too. It is known that the phenomena of dominant
flow of the surface layer and creation of residual compres-
sive stresses are observed at high degrees of plastic deforma-
tion too.
In [24] we considered the process of micro- and
macroplastic deformation of metallic materials below the fa-
tigue limit at standard test bases (107 – 108 cycles), which
could lead to formation of stable slip bands and even to
nonpropagating fatigue microcracks. Growth in the test base
to N = 109 – 1010 cycles commonly results in virtual finish-
ing of the process of microplastic deformation in the main
volume of the metal; they are localized in the zone of
subsurface nonmetallic inclusions, where microcracks ap-
pear due to local concentration of stresses. It has been shown
in [25] that hydrogen contained in steels (in an amount of
0.07 ppm) can promote the development of a subsurface fa-
tigue microcrack of “fisheye” type. In addition, strong segre-
gation of hydrogen has been detected in bearing steel SUJ2
at the sites of subsurface initiation of fatigue cracks [26].
We have already mentioned that the initiation of fatigue
cracks in gigacycle tests of metallic materials often occurs in
a subsurface layer and primarily at nonmetallic inclusions. It
should also be noted that subsurface initiation of fatigue
cracks has been detected in conventional high-cycle fatigue
[27] in cases where the surface layer of the material was
hardened (for example, by induction hardening, carburizing,
or nitriding [28 – 30]). Figure 7 presents experimental results
of cyclic tests of nitrided high-strength steel 20MnCr5V
248
1 1. We have reviewed works devoted to testing of metallic
3 (N = 107 – 108 cycles),
2
Fig. 8. Fracture of steel 45 after surface induction hardening and fa-
tigue fracture (place of initiation of subsurface crack at nonmetallic
inclusion, ´ 100): 1 ) hardened layer; 2 ) core; 3 ) nonmetallic inclu-
sion.
[28]. It can be seen that the transition from low-cycle fatigue
to high-cycle fatigue is accompanied by an inflection of the
fatigue curve and a change in the mechanism of crack initia-
tion from surface to subsurface pattern [28]. Figure 8 pre-
sents a picture of initiation of a fatigue crack in a specimen
of steel 45 at a nonmetallic inclusion on the interface of the
surface hardened by the induction method and the matrix
metal [29, 30].
Thus, we may infer that the most probable cause of sub-
surface initiation of fatigue microcracks in the range of
gigacycle fatigue is predominant hardening of the surface
layer (with a thickness ranging from several microns to sev-
eral tens microns) in the process of long-term repeated load-
ing. As a result, the surface layer becomes a barrier for exit
of dislocations and hinders formation of stable slip bands.
Such a layer is stronger than the core despite the presence of
surface defects (including microcracks not propagating in
plastic materials and nonmetallic inclusions located on the
surface of the metal). A hardened surface layer can be pre-
sent even in the initial material after mechanical or thermo-
chemical treatment [31, 32]. The presence of such a layer re-
sults in initiation of fatigue microcracks under the surface
primarily at nonmetallic inclusions. The chemical composi-
tion, sizes, and shapes of the inclusions affect considerably
the level of the fatigue limit (especially in high-strength
steels). The initiation of microcracks at these inclusions is
promoted by high local stress concentration and possible
penetration of hydrogen into the zone of the inclusion
[25, 33].
The problem of existence of secondary fatigue limit in
the range of gigacycle fatigue is a matter for discussion. In
the philosophical aspect, the fatigue limit in the range of
gigacycle fatigue in technically pure metals and alloys under
the conditions of special-humidity air medium (many other
factors and test conditions can be mentioned) seems to be
impossible. The technical aspect of this problem is connected
with specific problems of evaluation of fatigue limit of me-
tallic structures operating under actual conditions.
V. F. Terent’ev
CONCLUSIONS
materials for fatigue and established that today the fatigue
tests can be classified into three kinds, i.e., tests for low-cycle
fatigue (N = 5 ´ 104 – 1 ´ 105 cycles), for high-cycle fatigue
and for gigacycle fatigue
(N = 109 – 1010 cycles).
2. We suggest calling the characteristics obtained in fa-
tigue tests with standard bases normalized characteristics, for
example, the normalized conventional fatigue limit for high-
cycle fatigue (for the case where the fatigue curve has no
horizontal region on a standard test base) and simply the nor-
malized fatigue limit (when the fatigue curve has a horizon-
tal region).
3. Two principal kinds of fatigue curve exist in the range
of gigacycle fatigue, i.e., (a) the curve with a continuously
increasing endurance before failure with a decrease in the cy-
clic stresses (in this case we can speak of the conventional
fatigue limit in the gigacycle range, which depends on the
chosen test base) and (b ) the curve with a step (normalized
fatigue limit) and secondary branch of the fatigue curve in
the gigacycle range.
4. In plastic metals and alloys the mechanism of initia-
tion of fatigue microcracks is connected with stable slip
bands formed in the surface layer. If the surface layers of me-
tallic materials have been hardened preliminary (for example
by nitriding or induction hardening), microcracks of the
“fisheye” type form under the surface at standard bases in the
range of high-cycle fatigue.
5. The presence of an intermediate fatigue limit (corre-
sponding to the horizontal region on the fatigue curve in a
range of 105 – 107 cycles) and the initiation of subsurface
cracks at ultralarge fatigue test bases can be explained by
predominant hardening of the surface layer with a thickness
ranging from several microns to several tens of microns in
the process of long-term loading.
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