Appendix 16: Equation Sheet

Chapter 1: Review of Modern Physics

1.2. Quantum mechanics
h hc
λ= E ph = hν = hω =
p λ

h 2 d 2 Ψ ( x)
− + V ( x )Ψ ( x ) = E Ψ ( x )
2m dx 2

h2 n 2 m0 q 4
En = ( ) , with n = 1, 2, ... En = − , with n = 1, 2, ...
8ε 02 h 2 n 2
*
2m 2 L x

1.3. Electromagnetic theory

dE ( x ) ρ ( x ) dφ ( x )
= = −E ( x )
dx ε dx

d 2φ ( x ) ρ ( x)
=−
dx 2 ε

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Chapter 2: Semiconductor Fundamentals
2.3. Energy bands
αT 2
E g (T ) = E g (0) −
T +β

2.4. Density of states

1 dN 8π 2 * 3 / 2
g c (E) = = m E − E c , for E ≥ E c
L3 dE h3

g c ( E ) = 0, for E < E c

2.5. Carrier distribution functions

1
f (E) =
( E − E F ) / kT
1+ e

1 1
f donor ( E d ) = f acceptor ( E a ) =
1 + 1 e ( E d − E F ) / kT 1 + 1 e ( E a − E F ) / kT
2 4

1 1
f BE ( E ) = f MB ( E ) =
e ( E − EF ) / kT − 1 e ( E − EF ) / kT

2.6. Carrier densities

∞ Ev
no = ∫ g c ( E ) f ( E )dE po = ∫ g v ( E )[1 − f ( E )]dE
Ec −∞

3/ 2
2 2 ⎛ m* ⎞
no = ⎜ ⎟ ( E F − E c ) 3 / 2 , for E F ≥ E c and T = 0 K
3 π 2 ⎜⎝ h 2 ⎟⎠

E F − Ec Ev − E F
2π me* kT 3 / 2 2π mh* kT 3 / 2
no = N c e kT
with N c = 2 [ ] po = N v e kT
with N v = 2 [ ]
h2 h2

− E g / 2kT
ni = N c N v e n o ⋅ p o = n i2

Ec + Ev 1 N E + Ev 3 m*
Ei = + kT ln( v ) = c + kT ln( h* )
2 2 Nc 2 4 me

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no = ni e ( EF − Ei ) / kT p o = ni e ( Ei − EF ) / kT

n p
E F = E i + kT ln o E F = E i − kT ln o
ni ni

*
m cond
E c − E d = 13.6 eV
m 0 ε r2

N d+ − N a− N d+ − N a− 2 N a− − N d+ N a− − N d+ 2
no = + ( ) + ni2 po = + ( ) + ni2
2 2 2 2

Fn − Ei Ei − F p
n = no + δ n = ni exp( ) p = p o + δ p = ni exp( )
kT kT

2.7. Carrier Transport

Δ | vr | qτ μ max − μ min
μ= r = μ = μ min + α
|E | m N
1+ ( )
Nr
r r
J = qnμ n E J = q nv e + q p v h = q ( n μ n + p μ p ) E

Δ J 1 1
σ= = q(nμ n + p μ p ) ρ= =
E σ q(nμ n + p μ p )

μE
v (E ) =
μE
1+
v sat

dn dp
J n = q Dn J p = −q D p
dx dx

kT kT
Dn = μ n = μ nVt Dp = μ p = μ pVt
q q

dn dp
J n = qnμ n E + q Dn J p = q pμ p E − q D p
dx dx

I total = A( J n + J p )

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 2.8. Carrier recombination and generation
n p − n p0 p − pn0
U n = Rn − Gn = U p = Rp − Gp = n
τn τp

pn − ni2
U b − b = b( np − ni2 ) U SHR = N t vthσ
Ei − Et
p + n + 2ni cosh( )
kT

Popt ( x)
U Auger = Γn n(np − ni2 ) + Γ p p(np − ni2 ) G p ,light = G n,light = α
E ph A

d Popt ( x)
= −αPopt ( x)
dx

2.9. Continuity equation

∂ n ( x, t ) 1 ∂ J n ( x, t ) ∂ p ( x, t ) ∂ J p ( x, t )
= + Gn ( x, t ) − Rn ( x, t ) =−1 + G p ( x, t ) − R p ( x, t )
∂t q ∂x ∂t q ∂x

∂ n ( x, t ) ∂ 2 n p ( x , t ) n p ( x, t ) − n p 0 ∂ p ( x, t ) ∂ 2 p n ( x, t ) p n ( x, t ) − p n 0
= Dn − = Dp −
∂t ∂ x2 τn ∂t ∂ x2 τp

d 2 n p ( x) n p ( x) − n p 0 d 2 p n ( x) p ( x) − p n0
0 = Dn − 0 = Dp − n
dx 2 τn dx 2 τp

2.10. The drift-diffusion model

dE ρ
ρ = q( p − n + N d+ − N a− ) =
dx ε

dφ dE i
= −E = qE
dx dx

( E i − F p ) / kT
n = ni e ( Fn − E i ) / kT p = ni e

dn dp
J n = qnμ n E + q Dn J p = q pμ p E − q D p
dx dx

∂ Jn np − ni2 1 ∂Jp np − ni2 1

0= 1 − 0=−1 −
q ∂x E − Ei τ q ∂x E − Ei τ
n + p + 2ni cosh( t ) n + p + 2ni cosh( t )
kT kT

A16-4
Chapter 3: Metal-Semiconductor Junctions
3.2. Structure and principle of operation
Eg
φ B = Φ M − χ , (n-type semiconductor) , φB = + χ − Φ M , (p-type semiconductor)
q

Ec − E F , n Ec − E F , p
φi = Φ M − χ − , n - type φi = χ + - ΦM , p - type
q q

3.3. Electrostatic analysis

d 2φ ρ q
=− = − ( p − n + N d+ − N a− )
dx 2 εs εs

d 2φ 2q ni φ − φF φ φ N a− − N d+
= (sinh + sinh F ) sinh F =
dx 2 εs Vt Vt Vt 2ni

ρ ( x ) = qN d 0 < x < xd , and ρ ( x ) = 0 xd < x

qN d 2
qN d φ ( x) = [ x d − (x d -x) 2 ] 0 < x < xd
E ( x) = − (x d - x) 0 < x < xd 2ε s
εs
qN d x d2
E ( x) = 0 xd ≤ x φ ( x) = xd ≤ x
2ε s

qN d x d Q qN d x d2
E ( x = 0) = − =− d φ i − V a = −φ ( x = 0) =
εs εs 2ε s

2ε s (φ i − V a ) dQ d qε s N d ε
xd = Cj = = = s
qN d dV a 2(φ i − V a ) x d

3.4. Schottky diode current

φ V 2q (φ i − Va ) N d
J n = qμ n E max N c exp(− B )[exp( a ) − 1] E max =
Vt Vt εs

⎛ 3/ 2 ⎞
φB
V kT
*
⎜ 4 2qm φ B ⎟
J n = qv R N c exp(− )[exp( a ) − 1] vR = and Θ = exp⎜ −
Vt Vt 2π m ⎜ 3 h E ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠

J n = q vR n Θ

A16-5
Chapter 4: p-n Junctions
4.2. Structure and principle of operation
Nd Na
φ i = Vt ln φ = φ i − Va
ni2

4.3. Electrostatic analysis of a p-n diode

xd = xn + x p

ρ = q ( p − n + N d+ − N a− ) ≅ q ( N d+ − N a− ), for − x p ≤ x ≤ x n

ρ ( x) = 0 , for x ≤ − x p
ρ ( x) = −qN a , for − x p ≤ x ≤ 0
ρ ( x) = qN d , for 0 ≤ x ≤ xn
ρ ( x) = 0 , for xn ≤ x

Q n = qN d x n Q p = − qN a x p

dE(x) ρ ( x ) q
= ≅ ( N + ( x ) − N a− ( x )), for − x p ≤ x ≤ x n
dx εs εs d

E ( x) = 0 , for x ≤ − x p

qN a ( x + x p )
E ( x) = − , for − x p ≤ x ≤ 0
εs
qN d ( x − xn )
E ( x) = , for 0 ≤ x ≤ x n
εs

, for x n ≤ x
E ( x) = 0

qNa x p q N d xn 2(φ i − Va )
E ( x = 0) = − =− E ( x = 0) = −
εs εs xd

N d xn = N a x p

Na Nd
xn = xd x p = xd
Na + Nd Na + Nd

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 q N d xn2 q N a x 2p 2ε s 1 1
φ i − Va = + xd = ( + )(φ i − Va )
2ε s 2ε s q Na Nd

2ε s N a 1 2ε s N d 1
xn = (φ i − Va ) xp = (φ i − Va )
q Nd Na + Nd q Na Na + Nd

qε s Na Nd εs
Cj = Cj =
2(φ i − Va ) N a + N d xd

4.4. The p-n diode current

p n ( x = xn ) = p n0 eVa / Vt n p ( x = − x p ) = n p 0 eVa / Vt

− ( x − xn ) / L p ( x − xn ) / L p
pn ( x ≥ xn ) = pn 0 + Ae + Be L p = D pτ p

− ( x + x p ) / Ln ( x + x p ) / Ln
n p ( x ≤ − x p ) = n p0 + Ce + De Ln = Dnτ n

x − xn w' x − xn
p n ( x ≥ x n ) = p n 0 + p n 0 (e Va / Vt − 1)[cosh − coth n sinh ]
Lp Lp Lp

x+ xp w 'p x+ xp
n p ( x ≤ − x p ) = n p 0 + n p 0 (e Va / Vt
− 1)[cosh + coth sinh ]
Ln Ln Ln

wn' = wn − xn w'p = w p − x p

I = A[ J n ( x = − x p ) + J p ( x = xn ) + J r ] ≅ I s (eVa / Vt − 1)

Dn n p 0 w'p D p p n0 w'
I s = q A[ coth( )+ coth( n )] (general case)
Ln Ln Lp Lp

Dn n p 0 D p pn0 Dn n p 0 D p pn0
I s = q A[ + ] (“long” diode) I s = q A[ + ] (“short” diode)
Ln Lp w 'p wn'

qni x ' Va / 2Vt

J b−b = qn bw(e
2 Va / Vt
− 1) J SHR = (e − 1)
2τ
i

V a = V a + IR s
*

A16-7
 1
log(e) slope
J = J s e Va / ηVt η= =
Vt slope 59.6 mV/decade

A pn 0 D p
ΔQ p = I s , p (eVa / Vt − 1)τ p I s, p = q
Lp

I s , p eVa / Vt τ p
Cd , p = (“long” diode)
Vt

2
I s , p eVa / Vt t r , p w 'p
Cd , p = (“short” diode) with t r , p =
Vt 2D p

4.5. Reverse bias breakdown

2
E ε E br ε s
Vbr = −φ i + br s x d ,br =
2qN qN

1
M= , where 2 < n < 6
n
Va
1−
Vbr

⎛ 4 2 m* E 3 / 2 ⎞
Θ = exp⎜ −
g ⎟
J n = q vR n Θ
⎜ 3 qh E ⎟
⎝ ⎠

4.6. Optoelectronic devices

I = I s (eVa / Vt − 1) − I ph

q qPin
I ph,max = Pin I ph = (1 − R)(1 − e −α d )
hν hν

I V
< i 2 >= 2 q I Δf Fill Factor = m m
I scVoc

1 1
Roundtrip amplification = e 2 gL R1 R2 = 1 g= ln
2 L R1 R 2

hν
Pout = η ( I − I th )
q

A16-8
Chapter 5: Bipolar Junction Transistors
5.2. Structure and principle of operation
w E' = w E − x n, BE w B' = w B − x p, BE − x p, BC

wC' = wC − x n, BC

2ε s (φ i , BE − V BE ) N B ⎛ 1 ⎞ 2ε s (φ i , BE − VBE ) N E ⎛ 1 ⎞
x n , BE = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ x p , BE = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
q NE ⎝ NB + NE ⎠ q NB ⎝ NB + NE ⎠

2ε s (φ i , BC − VBC ) N C ⎛ 1 ⎞ 2ε s (φi , BC − VBC ) N B ⎛ 1 ⎞

x p , BC = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ xn , BC = ⎜⎜ ⎟
q NB ⎝ N B + NC ⎠ q N C ⎝ N B + N C ⎟⎠

NB NE N B NC
φi , BE = Vt ln φi , BC = Vt ln
ni2 ni2

I E = IC + I B I E = I E ,n + I E , p + I r ,d

I C = I E ,n − I r , B I B = I E , p + I r , B + I r ,d

IC IC α
α= β = =
IE IB 1−α

I E.n
α = αT γ E δ r γE =
I E ,n + I E , p

I E ,n − I r , B I E − I r ,d
αT = δr =
IE,n IE

5.3. Ideal transistor model

⎛ D n, B ⎞⎛ ⎛ D p, E ⎞⎛
I E ,n = qni2 AE ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ exp(V BE ) − 1⎞⎟ I E , p = qni2 AE ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ exp(V BE ) − 1⎞⎟
⎜ N w' ⎟ ⎜⎝ Vt ⎟
⎠ ⎜ N w' ⎟ ⎜⎝ Vt ⎟
⎠
⎝ B B ⎠ ⎝ E E ⎠

ni2 ⎛ V ⎞ w' ΔQ n, B
ΔQn, B = q AE ⎜⎜ exp( BE ) − 1⎟⎟ B I r,B =
NB ⎝ Vt ⎠ 2 τn

2
ΔQn, B w'
I E ,n = tr = B
tr 2 D n, B

A16-9
 2
1 tr w B'
γE = αT = 1− = 1−
D p, E N B w B' τn 2 D n, B τ n
1+
Dn, B N E w E'

D n, B N E w E'
β≅ , if α ≅ γ E
D p, E N B w B'

QB qN B wB' 1 V
VA = = n= ≅ 1 + t C j , BE
C j , BC εs d ln I C QB
Vt
x p , BC + x n , BC dVBE

A16-10
Chapter 6: MOS Capacitors
6.3 MOS analysis
VFB = Φ M − Φ S

Eg Na Eg N
ΦM − ΦS = ΦM − χ − − Vt ln( ) (nMOS) Φ M − Φ S = Φ M − χ − + Vt ln( d ) (pMOS)
2q ni 2q ni

N a, poly ni2
Poly-silicon: Φ poly − Φ S = Vt ln( ) (p-type) Φ poly − Φ S = Vt ln( ) (n-type)
Na N d , poly N a

Qi 1 tox ε ox
V FB = Φ MS − − ∫ ρ ox ( x) x dx with C ox =
C ox ε ox 0 t ox

Qinv = C ox (VG − VT ) for VG > VT Qinv = 0 for VG ≤ VT

Na Nd
φ F = Vt ln (nMOS) φ F = Vt ln (pMOS)
ni ni

2ε s qN aφ s
VG = V FB + φ s + for VFB < VG < VT and 0 ≤ φ s ≤ 2φ F (nMOS)
C ox

2ε s qN d φ s
VG = V FB − φ s − for VFB > VG > VT and 0 ≤ φ s ≤ 2φ F (pMOS)
C ox

2ε s φ s 4ε sφ F
xd = , for 0 ≤ φ s ≤ 2φ F x d ,T =
qNa qN a

4ε s qN aφ F 4ε s qN d φ F
VT = V FB + 2φ F + (nMOS) VT = V FB − 2φ F − (pMOS)
Cox C ox

1
C LF = C HF = C ox , for VG ≤ VFB C LF = C HF = , for VFB ≤ VG ≤ VT
1 xd
+
Cox ε s

1 1 ε s Vt
C LF = Cox and C HF = , for VG ≥ VT C FB = with LD =
1 x 1 L qN a
+ d ,T + D
Cox εs Cox ε s

A16-11
Chapter 7: MOS Field Effect Transistors
7.3. MOSFET analysis
Linear model

W
I D = μ C ox (VGS − VT )V DS , for | V DS |<< (VGS − VT )
L

Quadratic model

W V DS2
ID = μ C ox [(VGS − VT )V DS − ] , for V DS < VGS − VT
L 2

W (VGS − VT )
2
I D , sat = μ C ox , for V DS > VGS − VT
L 2

W W
g m, quad = μ C ox V DS g m, sat = μ C ox (VGS − VT )
L L

W
g d , quad = μ C ox (VGS − VT − V DS ) g d , sat = 0
L

Channel length modulation

W (VGS − VT ) 2
I D, sat = μ Cox ( 1 + λV DS ) , for VDS > VGS − VT
L 2

Variable depletion layer model

μ n C oxW V DS
ID = (VGS − V FB − 2φ F − )V DS
L 2
2 W
− μn 2ε s qN a ((2φ F + V DB ) 3 2 − (2φ F + V SB ) 3 2 )
3 L

qN a ε s 2
C ox
V DS , sat = VGS − V FB − 2φ F − { 1+ 2 (VGB − V FB ) − 1}
2
C ox qN a ε s

⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
W ⎜ 1 ⎟
g m, sat = μ n* C ox (VGS − VT ) μ n* = μ n ⎜1 − ⎟
L ⎜ 2(2φ F + V SB )C ox
2 ⎟
⎜⎜ 1+ ⎟⎟
⎝ qN a ε s ⎠

A16-12
 7.4. Threshold voltage
2ε s qN a
ΔVT = γ ( (2φ F + VSB ) − 2φ F ) γ=
C ox

7.7. Advanced MOSFET issues

V − VT
I D ∝ exp( G )
Vt

μ surface ∝ E −1 / 3

A16-13