TECHNICAL PAPER - TENSILE STRUCTURES IN ARCHITECTURE

Guide: Ar. Deepa Rani Author: Varun Kakkara

ABSTRACT

The objective of this dissertation is to provide basic information about the nature and characteristics of tensioned fabric
structures. Its target audience includes architects, engineers, builders, owners, users, students, and libraries which serve
those groups. In the first chapter a historical overview is presented. Next, the development of modern tensile structures. The
report then outlines the form, structure and construction principles of tensile structures. Next, the properties and behavior of
the most commonly used membrane materials. The basics of structural geometrics, form and design methods are presented,
followed by the chapter on selected case studies all over the world, describing the application of various tensile structures. A
glossary of terms pertinent to tensioned fabric structures concludes the document.

INTRODUCTION OBJECTIVES

The tent can represent the lowest and the highest forms of Basic understanding of the development of tensile
architecture structures through ages, starting from the early history

Lightweight architecture and the design of buildings which
use minimal amounts of materials and resources. Perhaps
a better understanding of lightweight construction &
tensile architecture can show us, the builders of the future,
the way forward, and perhaps make us think differently
about the way in which the planets resources are used in
modern day heavy weight construction projects.
This dissertation aims to highlight the exciting possibilities
available to architects, constructors and students, for
utilizing tensioned membranes in their future projects.
Tensile membrane architecture has been popularized over
the last 60 year. It is, however specialist, a very dynamic
and expressive building form. One which can be applied
to both permanent, nonpermanent and deployable
buildings. The mantra for tensile membrane architecture is
“doing more with less”.
AIM
A detailed study of tensile structures and its history of
development through ages to the modern tensile
structures .Also to understand the various types of
modern tensile structures, new fabric materials and their
properties, , which will be useful as a basic guideline for
designing a tensile structure
Studying and exploring the different forms and structures
in tensile structures
Understand and study the contemporary membranes and
foils used for tensile structure construction
Study the design process of tensile structures.
METHODOLOGY
 Literature study of history and modern tensile
structures
 Literature study on modern tensile structures
(technical data).
 Live case studies in and around Asian Countries
SCOPE
Tensile membrane architecture has been popularized over
the last 60 year. It has always been and always will be a
specialist field of architecture and engineering. It is,
however specialist, a very dynamic and expressive
building form. One which can be applied to both
permanent, nonpermanent and deployable buildings.
Lightweight is the key to a sustainable future in the
building industry.

Department of Architecture College of Engineering Trivandrum

LIMITATIONS
Case studies are limited to literature studies.
There are different types of tensile structures today. This
study is limited to tensile membrane structures only.
A BRIEF HISTORY OF TENSILE ARCHITECTURE
PRE 1950
Tents , Kibitas and Yurts: A tent is any supported structure
covered by flexible material. Tents may not be as durable
as conventional buildings, but they require far less
material to create. This makes them more economical and
portable. Tents arose where two conditions prevailed: a
shortage of suitable building material and a need for
mobility.
The oldest tents known come from Siberia, Lapland,
Iceland and Alaska. The evidence found thus far dates
back at least 40,000 years. Thirty thousand years later,
woven fabric was first incorporated into the tent.
Romans: Military tents of the roman army (papilio or
butterfly tent) were made to exact specifications and sizes.
They are a very simple ridge tent form covered in leather
membrane which is sewn together from overlapping
leather squares. There are many depictions of the
Roman‟s use of tent awnings and other textiles in their
buildings. A famous fresco of the amphitheatre in Pompeii
clearly depicts, although in a very distorted perspective, a
linen awning called a vela or velarium which acted as a
retractable roof over the ladies seating area. This is rather
reminiscent of modern day sporting venues.
The middle ages : Textile architecture was used
extensively by travelling royalty and their armies in the
Middle Ages. Many depictions of the ornamented tents of
the Ottoman rulers blur the boundary between a more
permanent architecture and the humble tent. In Western
Europe mediaeval tents were used by the royal courts, not
just for military campaigns, but for entertainment like fetes
and jousts. The English court had a Master of the Tents
and this position existed for 5½ centuries. A famous
painting called the Field of the Cloth of Gold depicts large
groups of elaborate renaissance tents .
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Suspension Bridges : For 4,000 thousand years tensile
principles have been used in bridge building as the only
way to span large distances. Throughout the Far East and
South America, suspension bridges made of rope and
bamboo were used.
Some of the early bamboo bridges could span over 800
feet. It was not until the introduction of steel cable in the
nineteenth century that western engineering could greatly
increase that span. The inventor of steel cable was John
Roebling who designed a number of suspension bridges
in the United States. His masterpiece, the Brooklyn Bridge
still remains one of the finest bridges ever built.
MODERN TENSILE STRUCTURES - POST 1950s
Inventor, Robert Buckminster Fuller (1895-1983) : R.
Buckminster Fuller was a renowned 20th century inventor
and visionary born in Milton, Massachusetts on July 12,
1895. Dedicating his life to making the world work for all of
humanity, Fuller operated as a practical philosopher who
demonstrated his ideas as inventions that he called
“artifacts.” Fuller did not limit himself to one field but
worked as a 'comprehensive anticipatory design scientist'
to solve global problems surrounding housing, shelter,
transportation, education, energy, ecological destruction,
and poverty. Throughout the course of his life Fuller held
28 patents, authored 28 books, received 47 honorary
degrees. And while his most well know artifact, the
geodesic dome, has been produced over 300,000 times
worldwide, Fuller's true impact on the world today can be
found in his continued influence upon generations of
designers, architects, scientists and artists working to
create a more sustainable planet.
Engineer George Robert Le Ricolais (1894-1977) : Le
Ricolais was born in 1894 at La Roche sur Yon.As a
practicing hydraulics engineer (as well as a painter and
poet), in 1935 he introduced the concept of corrugated
stress skins to the building industry and was awarded the
Medal of the French Society of Civil Engineers. Then in
1940 his work on three-dimensional network systems
introduced many architects to the concept of "space
frames." After years of research and many patents and the
1962 Grand Prix of the Cercle d'Études Architecturales he
was well established as the "father of space structures."
Frei Otto : Frei Otto was the seminal figure in the
development of tensile architecture. He was the first to
lead away from the simple geometric solutions to the
organic free forms that could respond to complex
planning and structural requirements. He found that
natural objects will create forms that are very efficient,
wasting nothing and use a minimum of material.
He was born in Germany (31 May 1925). He is
a German architect and structural engineer. He began
private practice in Germany in 1952. His saddle-shaped
cable-net music pavilion at the Bundesgartenschau
(Federal Garden Exposition) in Kassel brought him his first
significant attention. He earned a doctorate about
tensioned constructions in 1954.
In the 1960's, Otto founded The Institute for Lightweight
Structures part of the University of Stuttgart in Germany.
This innovative think tank published scores of books and
papers packed with innovative ideas and trained a
generation of European engineers.
Summary : There are many other architects, engineers,
contractors and specialists who contributed to the
development of the language of tensile architecture,
owing to the experimental projects by visionary thinkers
with Frei otto being the undisputed master of tensile form.
Ove Arup ,Ted Happold, Walter Bird, Horst Berger,
Michael Hopkins etc. were the major contributors in tensile
architecture.
FORM, STRUCTURE AND CONSTRUCTION
PRINCIPLES
CLASSES OF TENSILE STRUCTURES
Cable nets structures: When a separate grid of structural
cables supports a non- structural weather shield
(membrane) such a system is called a cable – net
structure
Pneumatic structures: Pneumatic structures are structural
forms stabilized wholly or mainly by pressure differences
in gas, liquid, or material in bulk. In pneumatic structures,
the tension force is created by an interior positive pressure
and the membrane acts as the weather shield .The
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pressure difference causes prestressing if unbalanced
forces are present when no load acts and weight is
neglected. The study of bubbles greatly helps the study of
pneumatic structures.
Tensegrity structures: Tensegrity or tensional integrity is a
type of structure with an integrity based on a balance
between tension and compression components. In a
tensegrity structure the compressive members are
connected to each other by tensile members. The
term tensegrity was coined by Buckminster Fuller.
Tensioned fabric structures: Tensile fabric structures are
an environmentally sensitive medium and an inexpensive
way to create an organic form. The biggest performance
advantage is its strength to weight ratio, which saves on
materials (most fabrics can be recycled). Being lightweight
and flexible; fabric interacts better with natural forces than
a rigid material, this combined with its daytime
translucency and night-time luminosity gives a magical
feeling of being outdoors, combined with the security and
comfort of indoors.
SHAPE BASED CLASSIFICATION
Anticlastic Form: Anticlastic surfaces have negative
Gaussian curvature. This means the two directional forces
are in opposing directions such as the cone, saddle or
hyperbolic parabaloid. The opposing directional forces
that are introduced by prestressing the fabric in both
directions counterbalance each other.
Synclastic Form: synclastic surfaces have positive
Gaussian curvature, that is, curvature in the same
direction, such as the dome. Since the forces are in the
same orientation, these forces must be balanced by air
pressure.
Point supported structure: These structures have clear
spans avoiding the control mass. They are often hyper
shaped with two high and two low point connections and
usually utilize an exterior frame.
Arch supported structures: In these types of structures
arches act as main support to membrane where cross
arches are often used. A curved from compression
member is introduced n structural.

MEMBRANES AND FOILS USED IN
CONTEMPORARY TENSILE ARCHITECTURE
Membrane and foil materials: Technical textiles used in
modern tensile architecture are flexible materials that have
to be able to be mechanically tensioned to form load
transmitting surfaces and they should also be able to form
3D curved forms. They also have to be able to perform
well in many different circumstances according to the
project requirements. There are three main types of
membranes most commonly used in tensile architecture:
PVC – PES. (Polyvinyl chloride)- coated polyester fabric.,
PTFE - (Polytetrafluoroethylene) coated glass fibre and
ETFE - Ethyltetrafluorethylen.
MEMBRANE PROPERTIES AND DESIGN
CONSIDERATIONS
Warp & Weft: The terms “Warp and Weft” are important
when dealing with woven membranes such as PTFE
coated fiber glass and PVC coated polyester used in
tensile architecture. In the case of the fibre glass fabric,
the material is weaved in a basket weave pattern. The
“warp” threads are initially straight and then the “weft” (fill)
threads are snaked around them in an alternating under
and over pattern. This results in a long fabric role where
the straight warp threads are in the long direction and the
weft threads run from side to side in the short direction.
The subsequent coating of PTFE or PVC keeps the weave
in place.
Span: The maximum span length of a membrane can vary
greatly. It is dependant firstly on the inherent tensile
strength of the membrane, the structural calculations of
the membrane and the radius of curvature of the designed
form, snow and wind loads. It is also very dependent upon
the type of . Plain weave. Warp & Weft before stressing .
Plain weave. Warp & Weft after stressing structure
(mechanically tensioned or air supported).
Tensile strength: Tensile strength requirements are
obviously dictated by the structural design calculations for
the membrane project. The membranes used for tensile
architecture are usually very strong. 5 cm Strips of material
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are tested for their tensile strength, this is the standard
test for this type of material. Different materials have varied
tensile strength.
Insulation: It is obvious that the thickness 0.2-1.5 mm
provided by a membrane will not offer very good thermal
insulation against the cold. So a membrane construction
can either implement a multi layer solution, trapping air
between layers or a filling insulation material could be
used, this could be a translucent material like modern
aerogel matting, aerogel in its raw form or transparent
plastic tubular insulation like “wavecore”.
Acoustics: Membranes have a low mass and therefor are
not very good acoustic insulators, when it comes to
keeping external noise levels out. Although this also can
be solved using additional layers or high tech micro
perforated acoustic fabrics. Membranes can also be used
as acoustic and reverberation dampening panel in interior
projects.
Fire: The fire performance of a membrane material
depends on the base fabric and coating type. All
membrane materials will melt under higher temperatures,
even if at different grades. The speed of this process
depends on the type of coating, the temperature reached
into the covered space in fire situations and the pretension
in the membrane.
The fire performances of materials are classified based on
their performances in case of fire dictated by the material
behaviour of the project requirements.
UV & Weather resistance : Membranes, made using
fluorpolymers like PTFE & ETFE, are generally resistant to
UV light showing no change over 30 years. They are also
impervious to rain, snow and other weather phenomena
like acid rain, and are generally good at reflecting the heat
from the sun. PVC-PES does, however, deteriorate slightly
due to UV and weather and it has a tendency to soil
easily. Whereas PTFE coated fabrics and ETFE are self
cleaning, PVCPES can be combined with an additional
coating, which gives the material the same self cleaning
properties.
Light transmition, adsorption & colour: Light transmission
of a membrane can vary greatly according to the
building‟s requirements for light. The natural light, which
permeates through the membranes, help to save energy
form artificial lighting and also gives a natural colour
spectrum. The opacity of a membrane vary according to
the material type.
Folding tolerance: In some circumstances a membrane is
required to be repeatedly folded. This is true of temporary
membrane structures and other demountable structures.
Other applications could be retractable roofs on sporting
venues.For this type of application glass fibre based
fabrics are not suitable, as they do not respond well to
folding. Therefore, membranes based on polyester like
PVCPES or PTFE based fabrics are more suitable,
although PTFE fabrics are very expensive
Life span: Generally, the life span of a membrane used in
a tensile project is between 15-25 years for PVC-PES and
25-30 years for PTFE coated. The life span is also largely
dependent upon UV exposure, climate, chemical
exposure and maintenance. Quality or suitability of design,
detailing and construction also play a major role in the life
span of a membrane.
Economy Planning & Environment: Lightweight structures
are inherently economic. This is obviously due to the
“doing more with less” design principle which is the
mantra for all working in the field of lightweight and tensile
architecture. Lightweight buildings require less materials,
less energy to produce, less energy to run and less time
to construct. They do, however, take a much longer period
of time to plan due to their complexity and risk factor.
Cleaning: Every structure has its own maintenance
manual describing fixing points and cleaning procedures.
Ideally canopies should be cleaned annually but
PTFE/glass fabric would be the preferred option if
cleaning is unlikely or impractical. This is because it‟s
inherent „non-stick‟ surface resists pollutant adhesion and
allows rain to clean off most dirt.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Design: design and draft follow completely different
principles than other supporting structures, which are
mainly bending or compressive stressed. In particular the
difference is that the process of design of mainly tensile
stressed membrane constructions mostly develops self-
regulation.
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Design process: The stress demands put on the
membrane surface will determine the construction and the
patterning of the edges, tension elements and anchors.
Determination of the form, (the cutting patterns as well as
the preconditions for the load-sensitive demands of the
surfaces as a basis of the static-dynamic computations)
was determined a few decades ago in order to simulate a
full scale representation of a natural structure. Today„s
engineering achievements make use of proven computer
generated methods for the accurate construction unit
dimensioning and automated cutting.
Form finding and pretensioning: Permanent tensile
membrane structures are designed to resist the same
basic loading criteria as conventional buildings. This
architecture needs a symbiosis of live forces in each
situation. The force generating those forms is the tension
transmitted and governed by the material. Soap bubble
techniques & computer simulations are the best used
techniques for the purpose.
CASE STUDIES
2008 Olympic National Swimming Centre In Beijing –
“Water Cube”, The Khan Shatyr Entertainment Center,
M&G Ricerche (Research laboratory), Kongberg Jazz
Festival Tubaloon (Temporary Festival Stage), Nuager
Leger, La Grand Arche, Paris, France & The Millennium
dome
ANALYSIS AND INFERENCE
1.1. 2008 OLYMPIC NATIONAL SWIMMING CENTRE IN
BEIJING – WATER CUBE
National swimming pool, Beiging is a unique structure
designed by Ove Arup with ETFE exterior treatement. They
selected transparent blue bubble structure, as the building
is associated with water.
Form: The structure is directly evolved from the organic
natural shapes, which are most stable forms sustaining in
nature, so as to ensure the stability of structure.
Steel framed structures can span more area than the
conventional structures. Use of a proper shielding material
like fabric membranes with steel is an effective solution for
cost effective construction of large span structures, than
the conventional structures for same.
A stable shape / form can be evolved by close
observation of natural shapes as the water cube structure
was evolved from molecular binding and soap bubbles.
Cost: The cost of large span tensile structure compared
to the contemporary structure for same span is economic.
Stability: The use of internal steel frame work as in
biological cells and soap bubbles ensures the stability of
the building.
Fire: The tensile structures can provide automatic exhaust
in fire conditions, as the fabrics melts and evaporates to
form vents in the surface, enabling proper smoke exhaust.
Lighting: Natural lighting can be achieved by proper
selection of fabric material, which transmits light through.
ETFE is a transparent material which transmit maximum
natural light to the building, which reduces the energy
need for artificial lighting.
Heat: A thickness of 0.2-1.5 mm would not provide proper
thermal insulation . A multi-layered fabric can provide
maximum insulation against heat conditions.
1.2.THE KHAN SHATYR ENTERTAINMENT CENTER
Tensile fabric structure can resist wide range of climatic
conditions by use of suitable membrane and structural
type.
Form: Tensile structures can form any size structures
varying from small canopies to large tents.
Span: Tensile structures can cover large amount of area
more effectively and economically than a contemporary
structure for the same.
Selection of membrane: Selection of membrane is
important for the efficiency of the structure.
ETFE membranes have transparent property ,high thermal
range , anti tear propagation property and survive extreme
weather condition.
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Climate: Tensile structures can create a microclimate in a
region by completely covering and weather shielding a
huge area, as in khan shatyr entertainment center.
Insulation:. A multi-layered fabric with three layers can
provide maximum insulation against heat conditions.
Stability: Tensile structures are not made rigid, so as to
allow minimum movements in extreme wind and snow
conditions.
In cable net structures, cables installed in pairs can add to
the stability of the structure.
High pretension of the cables are done to ensure
maximum stability.
1.3. M&G RICERCHE (RESEARCH LABORATORY)
Form: Evolved from organic biological shape – woodlouse
Membrane : PVC membranes transmits diffused daylight
to the interior, causing a considerable reduction in the
energy consumption for artificial lighting, & the reflective
character of the PVC membrane can create dramatic view
of the building in artificial light.
Interior : The monotonous diffused light in the interior is
broken by proper openings along the walls and roof.
Climate: The membranes also acts as weathershield in
varying climatic conditions.
1.4. KONGBERG JAZZ FESTIVAL TUBALOON
(TEMPORARY FESTIVAL STAGE)
Tensile structures can be used to create both temporary
as well as permanent structures.
Structure: Pneumatic beams can compete with steel
structure of same strength, but large size.
Materials used: PVC membrane can be used efficiently in
temporary structures, which can be deflated, folded,
transported and stored without membrane creasing or
getting worn out permanently.
1.5. NUAGER LEGER, LA GRAND ARCHE, PARIS,
FRANCE
Tensile structures can also be used in facades
Form: Lightweight character of the tensile structures
facilitates formation of dramatic shapes for the building
Stability: Stability tests should be conducted for wind
condition, fire condition etc, with scale model or computer
simulations.
Lighting: Hybrid membrane and glass can let in more light
into the building.
1.6. THE MILLENNIUM DOME
Form: The basic structural form of pneumatic structures,
domes are most stable structures.
Structure & Span: The cable net structure can span more
area than tensioned fabric structures.
Insulation: High humidity conditions caused condensation
raining inside the structure, which can be solved by the
use of 2 layers of PTFE membranes.
Maintenance: PTFE are self cleaning, which reduces the
maintenance cost.
Lighting: Translucent membranes reduce the energy
requirement for artificial lighting.
ADVANTAGES OF TENSILE STRUCTURES OVER
CONVENTIONAL STRUCTURES
 Unique building medium
 Lightweight and flexible - fabric interacts with and
expresses natural forces
 Tensile fabric structures are an environmentally
sensitive medium
 Tension is the most efficient way of using any
material, it utilises the material at maximum
efficiency rather than just the material at the
extremes of the cross sectional form, as in
bending and compression loads
 Fabric structures have higher strength/weight
ratio than concrete or steel
 Most fabrics can be recycled
 A fabric structure can be designed for almost any
condition, heavier fabrics and more 3 dimensional
forms will cope with extreme wind and snow
loads.
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 There is no buckling problems as the system
does not involve compression anywhere to such a
large extend
 The fabric structures tries to take full advantage of
the tensile strength of the material, while
preventing negative stresses to occur
 Tensioned membrane structures, meet all
architectural criteria for extensive life cycle and
durability, fire safety, energy conservation,
maintenance cost, lighting, HVAC operational
efficiencies, wind and snow loading, and unique
design signature
 When used in open air coverings, shaded areas
remain bright but cool even on the hottest day
 At night, people can benefit from the safety of
abundant light reflected off the membrane
CONCLUSION
Historically tensile architecture has come full circle, since
its real beginning in the 1950‟s. It has steadily risen in
popularity and public acceptance of what constitutes
architecture, with people getting used to seeing this type
of construction as a contrast to the heavy monumental
buildings of old. The work of Frei Otto and the Institute of
lightweight structures reinvented tent architecture and
developed techniques for building light weight, with tensile
cables and membranes. It was their work that really
introduced the architectural world to the possibilities of
lightweight tensile construction. In the 1970‟s the
popularity topped with tensile membrane architecture and
pneumatic buildings springing up across the world. The
subsequent work and collaboration with Arup, Happold
Peter Rice caused a huge advancement of this
technology.
The advancement of computer technology changed
tensile architecture for ever. The possibilities of accurately
calculating form and values for ever more complicated
project proposals opened the door to an architectural
language which we are still embracing and expanding to
this day. ETFE technology has also really opened up a
new way of building which, is enabling the visions of the
futurists like Buckminster Fuller, to be realized
It has to be said that this type of structural engineering is
extremely challenging for the architects, engineers and
technicians involved. It is not an easy construction type to
plan. There are however many specialists who thrive from http://www.ims-institute.org
such challenges and enjoy working with complex forms http://www.materia.nl
and nonlinear problems. Fortunately many expert http://www.solarnext.eu
companies and individuals have dedicated most of their http://www.tensinet.com
carriers to this form of architecture. Companies like Arup, http://www.vector-foiltec.com
Foster & Partners, Happold, SBP, Grimshaw & Partners, http://www.birdair.com
Birdair, Hightex and Vector foiltec, etc. are continuing to http://www.forten32.com
conduct their long experience and expertise in the field of http://www.seele.com/membrane-foil-architecture
membrane architecture. They continue to surprise the http://www.denardis.com
architectural world with their ever advancing, incredible http://www.ferrari-textiles.com
and fantastical membrane buildings. http://www.wikipedia.org
I hope that this technical paper has opened up some of http://www.bfi.org .
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which is a subject that I otherwise would have known very http://www. redskyshelters.com
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