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Radar Radio Detection and Ranging Part 1 of 2: Applications
Radar Radio Detection and Ranging Part 1 of 2: Applications
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Introduction
Applications: Detection and Ranging of ground, sea and air targets
Air Traffic Control (ATC)
Guidance
Tracking
Meteorological applications
Collision avoidance
Speed measurement
Remote sensing
2. Antenna sizes
Types of radar
TX RX TX
RX
• can detect objects, measures velocity from Doppler shift, but cannot measure range
4. Pulsed radar includes MTI (moving target indicator) and Pulsed Doppler
• detects, measures range and velocity, but has blind speeds and ranges
CW radar
TX RX TX
RX
fo
Vr
TX
⎛ 2.vr ⎞
fo + ⎜ ⎟ fo
⎝ c ⎠
Doppler shift
⎛ 2v ⎞ ⎛ 2v ⎞
fD = f0 + ⎜ ⎟ f0 − f0 = ⎜ ⎟ f0
⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠
Using homodyne detection, where the Rx and Tx signals are mixed directly to give
the Doppler frequency problems arise due to flicker noise in the detectors and
amplifiers because the noise power is proportional to 1/f and flicker noise is large at
low frequencies such as 200Hz.
B.W
A solution is to use heterodyne detection in which the Rx signal is mixed with a local
oscillator (LO) with a frequency which differs from the Tx frequency by, for example,
30MHz. The received signal + LO generate an IF (intermediate frequency) output at
30 MHz which contains the same information - ie Doppler frequency shift - as the Rx
signal. After amplification the Doppler frequency shift can be extracted by further
mixing.
→ RX
amplify without flicker noise
LO
fLO
Velocity ambiguity is the inability to distinguish between approaching and receding targets.
Velocity ambiguity can be removed by splitting the received signal into two equal
components. A 90° phase change is applied to one of the components. After further mixing
the relative phases of the two components gives the sign of the Doppler frequency. Thus
approaching and receding targets are distinguished.
A system that achieves the removal of velocity ambiguity is shown in Figure 6. The outputs
are called the I (In phase) and Q (Quadrature phase) outputs.
FM-CW radar
• the range is found from the frequency difference between the transmitted and the
returned signal - see figure 7 for a stationary target
For an approaching target the frequency of the returned signal is increased. For m
positive (m is the rate of change of frequency with time for the transmitted signal) the
range frequency is decreased by the Doppler frequency, whereas for m negative the
range frequency is increased by the Doppler frequency. Using both measurements
both the range and radial velocity of the target can be obtained - see figure 8.
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TX
fo
CW Tx
LO at IF
fo
LO
fIF
90
RX fo-fIF degrees
Amplifier
fo+fd
3dB
fd+fIF fIF
(Approachin (fo-fd)-(fo-fIF)
g target)
= fd+fIF fd < 0
degrees
Figure 6
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FM-CW Radar
Tx Rx
F2
Frequency
∆f
∂f T
m=
∂t
F1
2R
C
time
Figure 7
⎛ ∂f ⎞
f T = f1 + ⎜ T ⎟t = f1 + m.t
⎝ ∂t ⎠
Rx signal lags Tx signal by time to target and back
TX
R
2R
TR =
C
∆f ⎛ 2R ⎞
=m ∴ ∆f = f R = m⎜ ⎟
2R ⎝ C ⎠
C
Range frequency
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Tx Rx
F2
fD
fD
Frequency Approaching target
∆fr
F1
time
fr – fD = ∆fr
Figure 8
• ambiguity can arise between very close fast moving targets and slow moving distant
targets. It may not be possible to decide whether the difference frequency is f R − f D or
f D − f R.
Pulsed radar
• short pulses (pulse length ∼ 1µs) of RF radiation are transmitted with relatively long
intervals ( T(PRF)) ∼ ms) between them. PRF is the pulse repetition frequency
Τ ~ 1us
Echo E1
TX
T R = (2R)/C
T/R
T (PRF) ~ 10-3s
RX
• the time delay between the transmitted and reflected signal TR gives the range to the
target
TX
2R 1
TR = R= CTR
RX C 2
• a T/R cell is connected between the transmitter and the receiver to protect the sensitive
receiver from the high power pulses from the transmitter. This disables the receiver
during pulse transmission
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• the maximum unambiguous range of the radar occurs when TR = T ( PRF ) . For longer
ranges the echo returns after the transmission of the next pulse.
• the blind range of the radar occurs when the echo signal arrives back when the next
pulse is being transmitted and the receiver is disabled - ie TR = T ( PRF ) . This is the
same as the maximum unambiguous range.
• to avoid the blind range and to distinguish targets that are beyond the maximum
unambiguous range a variable PRF should be used.
If we combine the reflections from several pulses, targets with R < R(unambiguous) will
all have the same time delay with respect to the transmitted signal, but those will appear
to have a variable delay, because they actually originated from an earlier transmitted
pulse.
T1 T2 T3 T
Will move if
R > R (unambiguous)
E1 E2 E1 E2
combine
Figure 11 Use of variable PRF to distinguish targets beyond the unambiguous range
• the radar range resolution is the ability of the radar to distinguish two targets with similar
ranges. The resolution is determined by the pulse duration τ . The smallest time interval
that the radar can resolve is τ which gives a range resolution of cτ 2 . If τ = 1µs the
range resolution is 150m.
T1 T2
τ
R = ½.CTR
AR = ½.C(A.TR)
• the angular resolution of the radar is determined by the beamwidth of the antenna, which
is in turn set by the frequency of operation and the antenna diameter θ (radians)≈ λ/D.
If the frequency of the echo signal is measured the target radial velocity can be determined as
well as its range.
The sketches below show the time domain and the frequency domain forms of the transmitted
pulses.
τ 2
⎛ sin(x) ⎞
sin x 2 = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ x ⎠
Time P(f)
Domain
Line spectrum
1
∆f1 = = PRF
T(PRF )
PRF
fo
f
1
fo − fo 1 Frequency domain
Transmitted Waveforms τ fo +
τ
In the frequency domain the pulse contains frequency components with spacing
∆f 1 = ( PRF ) from the transmitted frequency f 0 . If the Doppler-shifted echo signal falls on
one of these frequency components it cannot be distinguished, and so the radar is 'blind' to
the corresponding radial velocities - ie to velocities that give f D = n∆f1 =n( PRF ) where n =
1, 2, 3, etc.
Blind speeds
⎛ 2.v r ⎞ c.n(PRF)
f D = n(PRF) = ⎜ ⎟ fo ; v r (blind) =
⎝ c ⎠ 2 fo
3x108 x n x 103
eg fo = 10GHz; PRF= 1KHz vr = 10
= 15n....15ms −1 ; 30ms −1 ; 45ms −1
2x10
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For a pulsed radar with a frequency of 10GHz which transmits pulses at millisecond intervals
-1 -1 -1 -1
(PRF = 1kHz) the blind speeds are 15 ms , 30 ms , 45 ms etc. 15 ms is about 30mph,
so in some applications there would be many blind speeds within the speed range of interest
eg aircraft.
To avoid problems due to blind speeds the radar must be operated so that they do not fall into
the range of interest. This can be achieved by increasing the PRF. However, this reduces
the unambiguous range and so a compromise must be reached.
-1
Example: Blind speeds less than 1500mph ( 670 ms ) are to be avoided. For a
radar operating at 10GHz this corresponds to a Doppler shift, and hence
a PRF of 45kHz. This PRF gives an unambiguous range of only 3.3km.
The value of the Doppler frequency, and hence the PRF, could be reduced by operating the
radar at a lower frequency -eg 2GHz -but this might mean using a larger antenna to give the
same angular resolution.
• distinguishes moving targets from the stationary background by Doppler shift. Only
those echoes with a frequency shift are displayed. The reflections from the
background are known as clutter.
• MTI uses a low PRF to avoid range ambiguity, and gives a large range
• the blind range is small because the receiver is only disabled for a small % of the time
• the low PRF reduces the number of hits per target as the radar beam is scanned.
This reduces the radar sensitivity.
Note: Hits per target gives the number of pulses that hit the target as the radar beam is
scanned. The signal at the receiver is averaged over several pulses to average out the
effects of noise. The radar sensitivity increases with the number of hits per target. If a beam
with width 2° is scanned at 36° per second a target will be in the beam for 1/18 seconds.
With a PRF of 300Hz the number of hits per target will be 300/18 = 15.