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IB Biology 2009 Syllabus Almost Complete Set of Notes
IB Biology 2009 Syllabus Almost Complete Set of Notes
Scale Bars: images often carry a scale bar which is a horizontal line drawn on
the image. The scale bar shows how long the line is in the real specimen.
• This example shows a plant cell.
• The scale bar indicates the length of 10 microns = 10um
• Notice that 10 um is about the vertical length of the diameter of the nucleus.
• All other measurements from the image are made relative to this scale bar.
Cell Theory:
1. All organisms are made of one or more cells
2. Cells are the smallest units of life
3. Cells only arise from pre-existing cells
4. Cells form the building blocks of living things
5. Cells contain inherited info which controls their actions (DNA)
6. Given suitable conditions cells are capable of independent existence. (ex. heart
transplant)
• When vacuole is full it pushes itself towards cell membrane and against cell
wall, until inward moment of water is equal to amount being pressed out by
cell wall. This is called turgur pressure & is important for cell support.
• Plant cell walls made of cellulose micro fibrils – these are polysaccharides
which form long, straight chain with few covalent bonds from one chain to the
next. They also contain calcium and pectin.
• Animal cells secrete glycoprotein's that form the extracellular matrix. This
functions in support, adhesion and movement.
Diffusion – movement of
molecules from high
concentration
to low concentration.
• Happens
naturally, no
energy needed
• 3 different
molecules that diffuse into cells are oxygen, water, and CO2
Osmosis – the diffusion of a solvent across a particularly permeable membrane
from region of low conc. To high conc.
• Low solute concentration means high water concentration
• High solute concentration means low water concentration.
Facilitated diffusion – is passive movement of a substance in or out the cell,
along a concentration gradient through a carrier protein molecule.
• Facilitate
•to help small molecules
•to help carry glucose
Functions of proteins:
1. Hormone binding sites: (binding site with a specific shape that fits the shape of
a chemical messenger, hormones – cause a chare in the protein which then
sends the message to the inside of the cell.
2. Immobilized proteins: (stationary proteins are built into the membrane; active
site exposed to substances in the adjacent solution.
3. Cell adhesion: (membrane proteins of adjacent cells may be hooked
Cell Division
Stages:
1. Interphase – growth and replication (G1, S, G2)
2. Mitosis – division of nucleus (P, M, A, T)
3. Cytokenisis – cell division (after T)
2. Mitosis:
Prophase
• chromosomes coil and super coil to become visible
• Centrioles move to opposite poles
• Spindle fibers from spindle apparatus
• Nucleolus becomes invisible
• Nuclear membrane disappears
Metaphase: middle
• Chromosomes move to middle of cell
• Spindle fibers attach to Centromere of each chromosome
Anaphase: away
• Centromeres are split and chromatids are pulled to opposite poles
Telophase:
• Phase begins when chromatids have reached opposite poles
• Spindle apparatus disappears
• Centrioles replicate
• Nuclear membrane appears
• Nucleolus reappears
• Chromosomes uncoil & become less visible (thin)
Treatment
• Surgery (removal)
• Radiation therapy (break chromosomes of dividing cells, killing them)
• Chemotherapy (destroying all rapidly dividing cells)
Why is mitosis necessary?
• Tissue growth and repair
• Asexual reproduction – involves the production of identical cells by mitosis which
are identical to the parent (ex. It’s a means of rapid & significant increase in #’s
of individual; bacteria & weeds)
Topic 3: The Chemistry of Life
Saturday, January 24, 2009
11:43 AM
Sulphur - In some amino acids - In some amino acids and - In some amino acids and
and proteins. protein. proteins.
- In some vitamins. - In some vitamin. - In some vitamins.
Calcium - Cell wall formation - Constituent of bones - Co-factor for certain enzymes.
between dividing plant - Reacts in muscle fibre - Contributes to heat resistance of
cells. contraction, blood clotting, bacterial endospores.
- Co-factor for certain and synapses.
enzymes - Co-factor for certain
enzymes.
Sodium - involved with Potassium - involved with Potassium in - involved with Potassium in
in membrane function membrane function and nerve membrane function
impulse transport
• Because hydrogen bonds must be broken to separate molecules and make
move further apart.
• Solvent Properties of Water
• Is a universal solvent.
• Substance (polar) can dissolve in water (hydrophilic) if its attractive forces are
equal to or stronger than the attractive forces of water.
• Substances cannot dissolve in water (hydrophobic) if its properties do not allow it
to overcome water’s strong attractive forces.
• Cohesive and Adhesion Properties of Water
• Cohesion refers to the ability of water to stick to itself.
• Due to polarity and subsequent attractions of water molecules to one
another.
• Results in high surface tension
• Adhesion refers to the ability of water to stick to other things.
Properties of Water
• Remains liquid over a wide temperature range, including temps where most
small molecules are gases.
• Dissolves most substances involved in living processes such as oxygen, carbon
dioxide, glucose, amino acids, and sodium chloride.
• Changes temperature gradually when heated or cooled
• It protects cells from rapid temperature changes and provides a stable
environment for cell reactions
• Is one of the only pure substances that expand when it becomes solid, which
makes it float when frozen.
• Transparent. Plants need for photosynthesis.
• Molecules with uneven charge distribution are polar (have oppositely charged
poles)
• (Even distribution of charges makes it nonpolar)
• Charge of water molecule is 0 (neutral).
• Water is a coolant
• Makes up sweat. Takes a lot of energy to turn into gas. It takes heat energy
from body cooling body.
• Electrical insulation
• Myelin lipid in the membrane of Schwann cells (neurons), forms the sheath
(protective covering) along nerve cells. Their function is to electrically isolate
the cell plasma membrane and to aid in the conduction of the nerve impulse
there.
Comparison of Lipids and Carbohydrates as energy sources:
Lipids Role Carbohydrates
More energy/gram Energy store Less energy/gram
Much metabolic water Metabolic water Less metabolic water is produced in
is produced in source oxidization
oxidization.
Insoluble so osmotic Solubility Sugars are highly soluble in H2 causing
water uptake is not osmotic water uptake.
caused.
Not quickly ‘digested’ Ease of More easily hydrolysed energy transferred
breakdown quickly.
Topic
3.4: DNA
Replication
Saturday, January 24, 2009
12:52 PM
DNA Replication:
1. DNA double helix unwinds:
• Hydrogen bonds are broken
o Enzyme helicase aids in breaking bonds which allows strands to
separate.
o Single strand binding proteins (SSB's) keep strand from joining back
together.
o Replication bubble formed.
2. Replication of Leading Strand (5" - 3")
• RNA primase synthesis the first nucleotides of the new strand in 3" to 5"
direction and RNA primer builds on RNA primase in 5" to 3". (adds a short
RNA primer)
• DNA polymerase III then turns RNA primer into DNA
• Replication of Lagging Strand (3" - 5")
• RNA primase builds section in 3" to 5" direction till it hits the RNA primer.
• RNA primase builds another and process continues creating
discontinuous sections called 'okasaki fragments'
• DNA polymerase III works in 5" to 3" direction adding succeeding free
nucleotides by complementary base pairing.
• DNA polymerase I changes RNA into DNA
• Ligase joins segments of DNA together
Semi-Conservative vs. Conservative:
• At end of DNA replication, each new pair of double strands winds up into a
double helix. One strand of each new double helix came from the original
chromosome and one is a newly synthesized strand.
• Arrangement known as semi-conservative replication because half
the original molecule is kept the same.
• If an entirely new double helix were formed alongside the original, then
one DNA double helix molecule would be conserved without unzipping, in
the next generation. (conservative replication.)
Significance of Base Pairing:
• Chargaff discovered significance of patterns in 1935.
o The numbers of purine bases (adenine and guanine) always equaled
the number of pyrimidine bases (thymine and cytosine)
o The number of adenine bases equaled the number of thymine bases,
and the number of guanine bases equaled the number of cytosine
bases.
• Means organic bases found in DNA are of two distinct types with
contrasting shapes:
o Cytosine and thymine are pyrimidines or singe-ring bases (smaller
structure)
o Adenine and guanine are purines or double-ring bases (bigger
structures)
• Only a purine will fit with a pyrimidine between the sugar-phosphate
backbones, when base pairing occurs. (one small structure with one big
structure)
• Because of the process of base pairing, the sequence of bases in one
strand exactly determines the sequence of bases in the other strand. This
makes the two strands complimentary.
Topic 3.5: Transcription and Translation
Saturday, January 24, 2009
1:13 PM
DNA Transcription (Formation of mRNA):
Initiation: Preparation
• A promoter (15-300 base pairs long) serves a site where transcription takes
place, A TATA box helps in recognition.
• Transcription factors bind to box and help RNA Polymerase recognize and bind
to promoter.
• RNA polymerase II binds to promoter. It with the help of transcription factors
unwind this section of DNA.
2. Elongation: Creation of PremRNA
• RNA Polymerase II add base pairs. It uses Uracil instead of thymine. (sense
strand)
• Newly synthesized RNA strand separates from template. (antisense strand)
• Termination: Pre-mRNA released and DNA re-winds
• RNA polymerase II encounters a terminator (sequence of nucleotides that
signals end of transcription)
• Pre-mRNA strand released, DNA re-forms.
RNA Processing (Pre-mRNA to mRNA and release through nucleus):
• Mentholated Guanosine attached to 5" end
• Poly (A) Polymerase adds 100-200 adenine nucleotides to 3" end
• Introns are cut out by splicasomes and exons come together
o Introns - waste material, exons - wanted material
• mRNA released through nucleus
Translation (mRNA leaving Nucleus):
• Initiation: Preparation
• Small ribosomal sub unit binds to mRNA transcript
o Supports framework and is site for enzymes
• tRNA molecule attached to start codon "AUG"
• Larger ribosomal subunit binds to mRNA transcript, has "EPA" site
• Elongation: Forming polypeptide chain
• 3 nucleotides form a codon. Incoming tRNA contain a anti-codon
• Hydrogen bonds hold 2 together
• Peptide bond form between 2 amino acids held at the ribosome
• Used tRNA released from E (Exit) site, new tRNA molecule moves to P site
• Repeats forming long polypeptide chain
o Peptidyl transferase bonds formed by condensation reaction between
amino acids in chain.
• Termination: Releasing polypeptide chain and dismemberment of unit
• Stop codon reached
• Release factor binds and releases water through hydrolysis reaction
• Polypeptide chain released.
Structure of DNA vs. RNA:
DNA Feature RNA
Very long strands, several Length Relatively short strands, 100 to several
million nucleotides thousand nucleotides
Deoxyribose Sugar Ribose
C, G, A, and T Bases C, G, A, and U (not T)
Consists of two Forms Consists of single strands and in three
polynucleotide strands of functional units. Messenger RNA (mRNA)
complementary base pairs. Transfer RNA (tRNA) Ribosomal RNA
(C with G and A with T) held
by hydrogen bonds in the
form of a double helix
Nucleus Locatio Mostly Ribosomes in cytoplasm, some in
n nucleus
Theories:
• In 1940, Beadle and Tatum worked with a fungus which turned bread moldy. The
organism was cultured on laboratory agar plates containing minimal medium of
sugar, mineral ions, vitamin biotin, and a source of nitrogen. The fungus
naturally manufactured other organic compounds required, including all amino
acids.
• They exposed some of their cultures to x-rays that caused the formation of
mutants. A mutant organism has altered genetic material.
• Further investigation showed that the mutants most needed only one particular
amino acid added to minimal medium in order to grow and reproduce. Resulting
in the mutants to lose the ability to synthesize one particular enzyme.
• Results and discovery:
o A range of mutants were produced, each deficient in one of
Enzyme Immobolisation:
It is possible to make the process more efficient
by immobilising the lactose on a recoverable
surface such as alginate.
• Vertebrate muscle tissue can respire anaerobically, too, but in this case it
involves the formation of lactic acid rather than ethanol. Once again, under
conditions in the cytoplasm, lactic acid is weakly ionized, and therefore exists as
the lactate ion.
• Lactic acid fermentation occurs in muscle fibers, but only when the demand for
energy for contractions is very great, and cannot be fully met by aerobic
respiration. In lactic acid fermentation the sole waste product is lactate
• In summary:
Glucose -------> lactate + ENERGY
• The equation simply gives the inputs and outputs however it does not mention
pyruvate:
• If oxygen is available to cells and tissues, the pyruvate is completely oxidised to
carbon dioxide, water and a large quantity of ATP. Before these reaction take
place, the pyruvate first passes into mitochondria by facilitated diffusion. This is
because it is only in mitochondria that the required enzymes are found
• In summary: (enzymes in mitochondria)
Pyruvate -----------------------------------> Carbon dioxide + water + large
amounts of ATP
What is light?
• Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation produced by the sun. Visible light
forms only a part of the total magnetic radiation reaching the Earth. When the
visible 'white' light is projected through a prism, we see a continuous spectrum
of light - a rainbow of colors, from red to violet. Different colors have different
wavelengths.
• The significance of the spectrum of light in photosynthesis is that not all the
colors of the spectrum present in white light are absorbed equally by
chlorophyll. Some are even transmitted (or reflected), rather than being
absorbed.
Investigating Chlorophyll:
• Chlorophyll is the main photosynthetic pigment. This is where light energy is
trapped and turned into chemical energy.
• Some plant pigments are soluble in water, but chlorophyll is not. Chlorophyll
cannot be extracted from the leaves with water, but can be extracted by
dissolving in an organic solvent like propanone (acetone).
• With chlorophyll in solution, the colors of light it absorbs can be investigated. It
is known that white light consists of a roughly equal mixture of violet, blue,
green, yellow, orange, and red light. When these different colors are projected
through the chlorophyll solution in turn, the greatest absorption occurs in the
blue and red parts or the spectrum, whereas green light is transmitted or
reflected.
• The chemical structure of chlorophyll molecules allows absorption of the energy
of blue and red light.
Topic 4: Genetics
Sunday, March 22, 2009
5:37 PM
Topic 4.1: Chromosomes, genes, alleles, and
mutations
Sunday, March 22, 2009
5:38 PM
Basics of Chromosomes
When the cell divides, the chromosomes are thick, compact structures, coiled
tightly. At all other times, the chromosomes are long, thin, uncoiled threads. The
granular appearance at this point means the chromosomes are called chromatin.
Review of DNA
• double helix, paired strands
• DNA runs the full length of the chromosome, supported by protein (histones)
• 50% built of protein
• some proteins are enzymes involved in copying and repair
• bulk of chromosome protein has a support and packaging role for DNA
Genetics – the study of inheritance and of variation of inherited characteristics
that chromosomes control.
Chromosomes hold the genetic blueprint, DNA (coded instructions) for the
organization and activities of cells and for the whole organism in the form of
genes.
Gene –
• a heritable factor that controls a specific characteristic.
Allele –
• one specific form of a gene, differing form other alleles by one or a few bases
only and occupying the same gene locus as other alleles of that gene.
Genome –
• the whole genetic information of the organism.
If only one base is changed, it may not have any effect. The reason is that
amino acids are coded for three bases. If the change only takes place in the
third (or second base), the AA may not change or change may not affect the
structure, since the genetic code is degenerate.
Also, with point mutations, the part of the DNA involved might not be used by
that cell, or may involve part of the sense strand that is not transcribed.
With insertion and deletion, the codon is definitely altered. An extra base is
deleted from a gene or is added. This causes the AA to change from this point
on, which causes major changes in the protein.
The only way to get genes that are not identical is to have a mix of genetic
material. This is done by crossing over, or synapsis.
Cross Over
• During Prophase I, the chromatids of the bivalent are close together. During the
coiling and shortening process, breakages of the chromatids occur frequently.
Breakages are common in non-sister chromatids.
Summary – It takes one cell that is diploid and creates 4 haploid cells –
this is a reduction division.
Karyotyping
Karyotyping is a “map” of chromosomes that have been paired up according to
their structures.
The chromosomes can be dyed to show banding, and the arranging can be done
easier.
Multiple Alleles
• The genes introduced so far have two forms, or alleles. For example, tall or
dwarf, red or white, wrinkled or smooth. This is what Mendel identified.
• When the gene for one trait exists as only two alleles, and the alleles play
according to Mendel’s Law of Dominance, there are 3 possible genotypes and 2
possible phenotypes.
• If you remember from earlier, if there are only 2 alleles, but three possible
phenotypes, there must be co-dominance or incomplete dominance occurring.
• With some genes, there are more than two possible alleles. Then there are 4 or
more possible phenotypes for a particular trait. These are called multiple alleles.
BUT, VERY IMPORTANT: There may be multiple alleles within a population, but
individuals have only two of the alleles. WHY?
GENOTYPES PHENOTYPES
IAIA / IAi Type A / Type A
IBIB / IBi Type B / Type B
IAIB Type AB
ii Type O
Genotype - The alleles possessed by an organism
Phenotype - All of the characteristics of an organism.
Homozygous - Having the two identical alleles of a gene.
Heterozygous - Having two different alleles of a gene.
Dominant Allele - An allele which has effect on a phenotype wherever present.
Recessive Allele - An allele which only has partial effect on the phenotype when
present.
Co-dominant Allele - Individual that has partial effect on the phenotype present in
heterozygous and homozygous.
Carrier - An individual that had a recessive allele of a gene that has no effect on the
phenotype.
Test Cross – testing a heterozygous genotype versus a homozygous genotype, by
theoretically mating them, called crossing over.
Locus - The particular position on homologous chromosomes of a gene.
Introduction and Monohybrid Crosses:
• Based upon how organisms look, we can deduce what genes the zygote
developed from. In theory, each organism should have a set of genes from the
male and a set of genes from the female.
Test Crosses in Theoretical Genetics:
How do we get the above? We need to cross the gametes and see what we get.
We will use Mendel’s Monohybrid Cross for pea plants as an example.
Monohybrid – investigation of the inheritance of single contrasting characteristic
There are several parts to a test cross. As we saw earlier, in our definitions, the
terms will be used now.
1. Constructing a Punnett Grid
• A Punnett Grid or Square, is used to find the ratio of the offspring, given
parental phenotypes.
• It is like the multiplication tables you did way back when.
Example 2 – Haemophilia
Existing XH for normal blood Normal but a Xh for
Alleles clotting carrier haemophilia
A female can XH XH XH Xh Xh Xh
be:
A male can XHY XhY
be:
Genetic Code:
• The genetic code is universal.
• All known organisms use the same genetic code.
• Therefore in principle if we transfer a gene from one species to another it should
still be transcribed and translated into the same protein.
Gene Cloning Using Plasmids:
• Gene cloning is a process of making large quantities of a desired piece of DNA
once it has been isolated.
• The purpose of the process is to yield a large quantity of either an individual
gene or its protein product.
• Methods have been developed to insert a DNA fragment of interest into the DNA
of a vector, resulting in a recombinant SNA molecule or molecular clone.
• A vector is a self-replicating DNA molecule used to transmit a gene from one
organism Into another. All vectors must be able to replicate inside their host
organism, they must have one or more sites at which a restriction enzyme can
cut, and they must have some kind of genetic marker that allows them to be
easily identified. (plasmid or viral DNA)
• The hose (bacterium) may go on to express the gene and produce the desired
protein after gene is replicated inside.
• Process:
1. A gene of interest (DNA fragment) is isolated from cells that have been grown in
laboratory culture. Process of preparing a gene for cloning is as follows:
a. Double stranded DNA of a gene from eukaryotic contains introns is
collected.
b. As a normal part of the cell process of gene expression, transcription
created a primary RNA molecule.
c. The introns are removed by splicing enzymes to form a mature mRNA (now
excluding the introns) that codes for the making of a single protein.
d. The mRNA is extracted from the cell and purified
e. Reverse transcriptase is added which synthesizes a single stranded DNA
molecule complementary to the mRNA.
f. The second DNA strand is made by using the first as a template, and
adding the enzyme DNA polymerase.
2. An appropriate plasmid vector is isolated from a bacterium cell.
3. Both the human DNA and the plasmid are treated with the same restriction
enzyme to produce identical sticky end.
4. The restriction enzyme cuts the plasmid DNA at its single recognition
sequences, disrupting the tetracycline resistance gene.
5. The DNA fragments are mixed together and the complementary sticky ends are
attracted to each other by base-pairing. The enzyme DNA ligase is added to
bond the sticky ends.
6. The recombinant plasmid, or molecular clone, is introduced into a bacterial cell
by adding the DNA to a bacterial culture. Under the right conditions, some
bacteria will take up the plasmid from solution by the process of transformation.
7. The actual gene cloning process (making multiple copies of the human gene)
occurs when the bacterium with the recombinant plasmid is allowed to
reproduce.
8. Colonies of bacteria that carry the recombinant plasmid can be identified by the
fact that they are resistant to ampicillin but sensitive to tetracycline.
Example of GMOS:
• Genetic manipulation are now widely applied in food and enzyme technology,
modern biotechnology, and in agriculture and horticulture.
1. Extending shelf life
• Some fresh produce, ex tomatoes, have been genetically engineered to have an
extended keeping quality. In the case of tomatoes, the gene for ripening has
been switched off, delaying the natural process of softening in the fruit.
2. Livestock improvement using transgenic animals
• Transgenic sheep have been used to enhance wool production in flocks. The
keratin protein of wool I is largely made of a single amino acid, cysteine.
Injecting developed sheep with the genes for the enzyme that generated
cysteine produces woollier transgenic sheep. In some cases, transgenic animals
have been used as biofactoires. Transgenic sheep carrying the human gene for
a protein, alpha-1-antitrypsin produce the protein in their milk. The antitrypsin is
extracted from the milk and used to treat hereditary emphysema.
Ethics of GMO Technology:
Issue Problem Solution
Accidental Recombinant DNA Legislation to control the
release of may be taken up by production and release of
GMO's into bon-target,, GMOs varies in different
the organisms. e.g. countries. These controls are
environmen weeds may take up usually rigorous and strictly
t a gene for enforced. GMOs may have
herbicide specific genes deleted so
resistance. These that their growth
unintended GMOs requirements can only be
may have the met under particular
potential to laboratory environments.
become pests or
cause disease.
Greenhouse Effect
• The greenhouse effect is exactly what it says. The atmosphere behaves the
same as a greenhouse.
The heat is caught inside the greenhouse because its radiation cannot travel out
through the glass, and is reflected back into the greenhouse. Therefore on a
bright, sunny winter day, your greenhouse will be a lot warmer than the outside
temperature, even without additional heating systems.
• The atmosphere, like the glass of the greenhouse, holds in the radiant energy of
the sun. The radiant energy from the sun reaches the Earth in the form of visible
light, ultraviolet light (UV) and infra-red radiation, which warms up the sea and
the land. As it is warmed, the Earth radiates infra-red radiation back towards
space. However, much of this heat does not escape from our atmosphere. Some
is reflected back by clouds and much is absorbed by gases, in the atmosphere
which, are warmed. Keep in mind, that normal levels of greenhouse gases are
important, as the greenhouse effect keeps the surface temperature at a level
that can sustain life.
• The higher the concentration of gases, the more heat is prevented from leaving
the Earth. Greenhouse gases include:
• Carbon dioxide – complete combustion
• Carbon monoxide – incomplete combustion
• Water vapour - precipitation
• Nitrogen oxides – burning fossil fuels/ refining processes
• Methane – gas/farming
• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s) and ozone in the troposphere. – Coolant
1. Fossil Records
• Fossil – any form of preserved remains from a living organism.
• Some examples are:
o Mammoths frozen in Siberia
o Mummies in acidic swamps in Scandinavia
o Insects in amber
o Bones in rock
• Fossils are only formed in some circumstances. Most individuals do not
leave a fossil after death.
• A fossil has to be formed when an organism dies and gets buried in
sedimentary silt. It will decay slowly and leave a space in the silt. The
gap becomes solid and is filled the exactly the same as the organism
left behind. The silt may solidify, becoming sedimentary rock and in it
is the fossil.
• To see how old fossils are and their forms, carbon dating is used,
usually Carbon 14 and potassium 40, which are isotopes.
• Palaeontologists have discovered the following:
o Overall, life, which existed more than 500 million years ago, was
very different from life today.
o Although the planet Earth has had extensive oceans for most of its
existence, fish fossils have only been found in rocks 500 million
years old or younger (less than 15 % of the history of life)
o Although most of the top predators today are mammals such as
bears, orca whales, big cats wolves and the like, none of them
existed at the time of the dinosaurs or before
o Apart from organisms such as certain types of sharks, cockroaches
or ferns, many living organisms today have no identical form in
the fossil record.
• One conclusion that can be drawn from observing fossils is that life on
Earth is constantly changing. For example, in some cases, as for the
example of the horse, we see macroevolution. The first fossils of the
ancestors of the modern horse are 53 million years old. They had 4
toes on the front foot and 3 toes on the back. Their eyes were halfway
up their head, between the nose and ears and the teeth structure
showed it ate leaves, not grass. This early horse was known as
Eohippus, which means dawn horse.
• Fossils in the upper strata of sedimentary rocks (younger fossils) show
the horse grew larger, one of its toes grew bigger and the others
reduced. We also see that the vegetation changes from thick forests to
grasslands, due to fossils of early vegetation. The eyes grew closer to
the back of the head, closer to its ears, to improve its peripheral vision
to be able to watch for predators while they grazed. The teeth also
became bigger and stronger to promote grazing.
• Many fossils of horses that do not have these features have been
found, but the evidence is that they became extinct (ie. they could not
outrun predators, attain food, etc.). They were eventually replaced by
species that were better suited to the environment. The only line that
continued into our time, was Equas, the modern horse.
2. Artificial Selection
• The fossil record is not complete, but breeding domesticated animals
provides a good record of recent changes in heritable characteristics.
• By watching mating of males and females, and the offspring, breeders
select the desirable traits they want. After practicing selective
breeding for hundreds of dozens of years, certain varieties of animals
had unique combinations of traits not seen before. The evidence is
that small changes are occurring over time, which is driven by humans
or is artificial. If evolution can be controlled artificially, then it could
also be natural.
• Homologous Structures
• Comparative Anatomy concentrates on studying homologous
structures. Two structures are homologous if they come form the same
origin though they may look different now and have different
functions.
• Analogous structures are those that have the same functions, but
come from differ origins. For example, the wing of a bird and a wing of
an insect are both used for flying, but the wing of the bird used to be a
limb and the wing of the insect comes from a fold in the skin. This tells
us that there is not a common ancestor.
• Examples of homologous structures are the arm of a human, the wing
of a bat and flipper of a seal. They all have the same pentadactyl limb.
This means they have the same basic patterns of bones, including five
digits. The pentadactyl limb is used differently in different mammals,
but the common structure could lead to the conclusion that there is a
common ancestor.
• We can also look at physiological evidence, by looking at the functions
of parts of organisms or rudimentary structures (ie. pelvis in a whale).
• We have seen that the wastes from birds and reptiles have the same
chemical makeup and the hormones from sheep and pigs are also
present in humans!!
• We can also look at Embryology, which is the study of organisms in
early stages of development.
• Scientists have discovered a similarity between the embryos of
different species and it is theorized that this similarity is due to their
evolution from a common ancestor. There is also a theory that every
organism repeats its own evolutionary development as the embryo
develops.
Examples of Evolution in response to Environmental Change
• If a species cannot adapt to the changing environment, then the species will die
out. As the dinosaurs did not find a way to deal with the climate becoming
colder, they did not survive. Their place was taken by the homeothermic, or
warm-blooded mammals.
Types of Digestion:
Digestion generally involves two phases:
• Mechanical phase - teeth or other structures physically break down large pieces
of food into smaller pieces.
• Chemical phase - digestive chemicals called enzymes break apart individual
molecules of food to yield molecules that can be absorbed and distributed
throughout the body. These enzymes are secreted (produced and released) by
glands in the body.
o Digestive enzymes are protein catalysts produced in specialized cells in
glands.
o Action of enzymes greatly speed up the breakdown of insoluble food
substances.
• Work efficiently at relatively low temperatures the body is maintained
at
o To complete digestion processes enzymes secreted onto the food work
together with those held in the plasma membranes of cells of the gut lining.
Small Intestine
• Most digestion, as well as absorption of digested food, occurs in the small
intestine. Over a period peristalsis moves chyme through the duodenum into the
next portion of the small intestine, the jejunum, and finally into the ileum, the
last section of the small intestine.
• During this time, the liver secretes bile into the small intestine through the bile
duct. Bile breaks large fat globules into small droplets "emulsification", which
enzymes in the small intestine can act upon.
• Pancreatic juice, secreted by the pancreas, enters the small intestine through the
pancreatic duct. Pancreatic juice contains enzymes that break down sugars and
starches into simple sugars, fats into fatty acids and glycerol, and proteins into
amino acids.
• Glands in the intestinal walls secrete additional enzymes that break down
starches and complex sugars into nutrients that the intestine absorbs. Structures
called Brunner’s glands secrete mucus to protect the intestinal walls from the
acid effects of digestive juices.
• The small intestine’s capacity for absorption is increased by millions of fingerlike
projections called villi, which line the inner walls of the small intestine. Each
villus is covered with a single layer of cells. Even tinier fingerlike projections
called microvilli cover the cell surfaces. This combination of villi and microvilli
increases the surface area of the small intestine’s lining, multiplying its capacity
for absorption. Beneath the villi’s single layer of cells are capillaries (tiny
vessels) of the bloodstream and the lymphatic system. These capillaries allow
nutrients produced by digestion to travel to the cells of the body. Simple sugars
and amino acids pass through the capillaries to enter the bloodstream. Fatty
acids and glycerol pass through to the lymphatic system.
Absorption:
• Soluble products of digestion absorbed into blood circulation system. (into
lymphatic system if fat droplets)
Assimilation:
• Products of digestion absorbed from blood into body cells and used and stored.
Stomach:
• The stomach, located in the upper abdomen just below the diaphragm, is a
saclike structure with strong, muscular walls.
• The stomach can expand significantly to store all the food from a meal for both
mechanical and chemical processing. The stomach contracts, churning the food
and mixing it with gastric juice. This fluid, secreted by thousands of gastric
glands in the lining of the stomach, consists of water, hydrochloric acid, an
enzyme called pepsin, and mucin (the main component of mucus). Hydrochloric
acid creates the acidic environment that pepsin needs to begin breaking down
proteins. It also kills microorganisms that may have been ingested in the food.
• Mucin coats the stomach, protecting it from the effects of the acid and pepsin.
• After a meal, food processed by the stomach, called chyme, begins passing a
little at a time through the pyloric sphincter into the duodenum, the first portion
of the small intestine.
Large Intestine
• A watery residue of indigestible food and digestive juices remains unabsorbed.
This residue leaves the ileum of the small intestine and moves by peristalsis into
the large intestine. The large intestine forms an inverted U over the coils of the
small intestine.
• The large intestine serves several important functions. It absorbs water daily—as
well as dissolved salts from the residue passed on by the small intestine.
• In addition, bacteria in the large intestine promote the breakdown of undigested
materials and make several vitamins, notably vitamin K, which the body needs
for blood clotting.
• The large intestine moves its remaining contents toward the rectum. The rectum
stores the feces—waste material that consists largely of undigested food,
digestive juices, bacteria, and mucus—until elimination.
• Then, muscle contractions in the walls of the rectum push the feces toward the
anus. When sphincters between the rectum and anus relax, the feces pass out of
the body.
Alveoli features:
• Film of moisture on the surface so that oxygen can dissolve (lipoprotein based
lubricating film)
• Thin membrane (alveoli) - single layer of flattened cells (1 cell thick)
• Dense capillary network (site of exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide and
transport in blood)
• Large total surface area; concentration gradient
Topic 6.5: Nerves, Hormones, and Homeostasis
Saturday, January 24, 2009
8:21 PM
The Nervous System consists
of the Central Nervous System
(spinal cord, brain) and the
peripheral nerves, called
neurons. Their function is to
transport messages in the form
of electrical impulses to
specific sites. For example,
breathing rate is controlled by
the Nervous System.
Thermoregulation is one of the
processes carried out by the Nervous System and the Endocrine System.
The Motor Neuron
• The Motor Neuron is a nerve cell, which transmits impulses from the brain to a
muscle or gland.
• The cell body contains a nucleus, rough ER, smooth ER, Golgi bodies, ribosomes,
lysosomes, mitochondria, which are also found in the axon.
• The axon is an extension of the cell body, and contains axoplasm, which is the
cytoplasm of the axon. The plasma membrane extends the entire length of the
axon.
• Around the axon, are Schwann cells, which provide a multi-layered lipid and
protein coating, called a myelin sheath. The sheath electrically insulates the
axon and increases the speed of electrical impulses.
• The nodes of Ranvier, are gaps between the myelin sheath. These help conduct
the electrical impulses.
• The axon terminates at a motor end plate, or axon terminal. These have synaptic
end bulbs that join to a muscle or gland.
• A nerve is a bundle of many nerve fibers that travel along the same path, in the
PNS. Nerve cell bodies that are clustered together form ganglia. It is along the
axon that nerve impulses travel.
• Together, the sensory neurons and motor neurons make up the peripheral
nerves. A neuron is an individual cell, which carries electrical impulses from one
point to the other very quickly. A group of neurons in a single structure is called a
nerve.
• Nerve impulses are conducted from receptors to the CNS by sensory neurons,
within the CNS by relay neurons and form the CNS to effectors by motor neurons.
The Process of Thermoregulation or Keeping Cool or Hot!:
• Body Heat is the heat produced by the biochemical reactions of the body.
• The rate at which body heat is produced is called Metabolic Rate and is
measured in kilocalories.
• The factors that affect metabolic rate are: Exercise, Nervous System – stress –
release norepinepherine, Hormones – testosterone and HGH, Body Temperature,
Ingestion of Food, Age, Others – Females, etc.
• In the body of a mammal or a bird, there are thermoreceptors in the skin. The
theromreceptors monitor the shell temperature, temperature on the skin. The
core temperature, is the body’s temperature below the skin’s surface, in the
body’s structures. The core temperature is a little higher than the shell
temperature.
• The theromreceptors monitor changes in the environment as well as changes in
the blood temperature (core). Cells in the hypothalamus, a region of the brain,
detect changes in the core temperature. If the core temperature goes too high,
the heat kills by denaturing body proteins (like frying an egg). If the core
temperature goes too low, it can cause cardiac arrhythmias (due to the slowing
down of biochemical reactions) or hypothermia.
HOT!!! :
If you get too hot, you need to cool down. This can be done in several ways:
• vasodilatation – blood vessels in the skin become wider, increasing blood flow,
causing the skin to become warmer, increasing the heat loss to the environment
• sweating – for fluid to evaporate, it requires energy, which is takes from the heat
of your skin
• decreased metabolism – all reactions produce waste heat – by slowing reactions
you decrease heat production
• behaviour adaptations – many animals change their behaviour to release heat –
e.g. birds bathe, dogs pant, then dig holes in the ground to allow heat from belly
to be absorbed by the earth, humans get into AC, put on cooler clothes
COLD!!! :
If you become cold:
• vasoconstriction – blood vessels in skin contract, decreasing blood flow and heat
loss
• *shivering – is when the muscles undergo tiny contractions. The muscle
contraction requires energy from ATP and this has to be made from cellular
respiration. Heat is produced that warms the blood.
• increased metabolism – break down of energy stores and more heat produced
• fluffing of hair or feathers – increases the insulating air layer around the
organism
• thickening of brown fat or blubber – adding insulation for those long winter
months
• special hair structure – polar bear hair absorbs UV light
• Heat is not produced or released equally from all parts of the body. Thus blood is
very important in moving heat around your body, and compensating for heat
losses in certain areas.
Nerve Impulse:
There are two main ideas to an impulse:
1. Resting Potential – an electrical impulse across a cell membrane when not
propagating an impulse.
2. Action Potential – the localized reversal and then restoration of electrical
potential between the inside and outside of a neuron as the impulse passes
along it.
the electrons will flow. In a cell, ions carry out the flow of current.
To summarize:
Blood Glucose is lowered by:
• Increased uptake into cells
• Increased conversion to glycogen in liver and muscles
• Increased conversion to fat
• Increased rate of cellular respiration
Blood Glucose is raised by:
• Increased breakdown of liver glycogen
• Synthesis of glucose from fats and amino acids
Homeostasis:
• Maintenance of a constant internal environment despite possible changes in the
external environment.
1. Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Concentrations
•
As you saw in Gr. 11, the concentrations of the two gases are maintained with
the aid of the chemo detectors in the walls of the aorta and carotid artery, along
with the medulla oblongata
2. Blood Glucose – glucagons, insulin and the pancreas play a role here.
Body Temperature – generally around 37-38oC
4. Water Balance – maintained by the kidneys and large intestine.
5. Blood pH – maintained within 7.2 – 7.6, with the average being 7.4. As you
discussed in Gr. 11, the CO2 causes fluctuations in the pH and buffers to
minimize the change. The slight decrease is good, because it causes the O2 to
be released at the cell, called Bohr Shift.
The Process and Negative Feedback
• Is the control of a process by the result or effect of the process in such a way
that an increase or decrease in the results or effects is always reversed.
• The entire process requires certain elements to be present:
1. Sensors are required to measure the current conditions.
2. The sensors need to pass on the information to a centre, which knows the
desired value (the norm) and compares the current situation to the norm.
3. If the two are not the same, the centre activates a mechanism to bring the
current value closer to the norm.
• The whole point is that the action taken, aims at changing the situation so that
the action no longer is required.
Synaptic Transmission:
Electrical synapses are where two neurons may have their membranes pressed
close together with minute pores through them (called gap junctions).
• An impulse can travel from one membrane to the other causing a second action
potential in the second neuron.
For example, vertebrate fish have electrical synapses to activate tail flip, which
is used for quick starts for escape or catch prey.
Chemical synapses are two neurons close together, but do not touch. They are
separated by a synaptic cleft. Impulses cannot jump the cleft. The impulse is
transferred by chemicals. They are slower than electrical synapses.
• In the synapse, the action potential causes a change in the membrane
permeability for Ca+2. The Ca+2 flows into the synaptic knob.
• The surface releases a neurotransmitter substance in vesicles by exocytosis. The
neurotransmitter then diffuses across the synaptic cleft (20 nm) and attaches to
receptors in the post-synaptic membrane.
• When the neurotransmitter causes depolarization, the receptor sites change and
open Na+ channels. This causes an action potential to develop in the neuron.
This is called an excitatory synapse.
• If the neurotransmitter causes K+ and Cl- to open, is called an inhibitory synapse.
The potassium moves out and the chloride moves in, increasing the polarization
of the neuron and increasing the distance from the threshold value.
• After the post-synaptic membrane has been affected, enzymes break down the
neurotransmitter, some diffuse out of the synaptic cleft, some are taken back
into the cells.
What is diabetes?
• Diabetes mellitus is a group of disorders that all lead to an elevation of glucose
in the blood. - Type I Diabetes means there is an absolute deficiency of insulin.
(Also called Insulin Dependent Diabetes.) This condition requires regular
injections of insulin. In some cases, the Immune System attacks and destroys the
b Cells (autoimmune disease). As a result insulin is not present to aid the entry
of glucose into the cell. The cells use fatty acids, which leads to the creating of
ketones as a by-product. This can lead to ketoacidosis, a build up of ketones in
the blood, which lowers the pH of the blood and can lead to death. Other
complications are artherosclerosis, heart disease, poor wound healing
(gangrene), vision loss caused by cataracts, and damage to the renal blood
vessels in the kidney.
• Type II Diabetes is more common. The disease is caused by the body’s cells
becoming less sensitive to the insulin present, due to the excess insulin in the
system, due to diet and lifestyle. There is insulin present and produced and this
is why it is called Non – Insulin Dependent Diabetes. Therefore the body cannot
process the sugars, causing an imbalance.
Biology Syllabus - HL
Saturday, January 24, 2009
8:36 PM
Topic 7 - Nucleic Acids and Proteins
Saturday, January 24, 2009
9:10 PM
Topic 7.1: DNA Structure
Saturday, January 24, 2009
9:10 PM
Structure of a Nucleosomes:
• Coiled DNA looped around protein beads
• The packaging protein of the nucleosomes, called a histone, is a basic (positively
charged) protein containing a high concentration of amino acids residues with
additional base groups (-NH2), such as lysine and arginine. In nucleosomes, eight
histone molecules combine to make a single bead. Around each bead, the DNA
double helix is wrapped in a double loop.
• Whole beaded thread is itself coiled up, forming the chromatin fiber. The
chromatin fiber is again coiled, and the coils are looped around a 'scaffold'
protein fiber, made of non-histone protein. The whole structure is folded
(supercoiled) into the much condensed metaphase chromosome.
• Nucleosomes are the key structures that facilitate supercoiling of these
phenomenal lengths of DNA that are packed in the nuclei. Also, they facilitate
access to selected lengths of the DNA (particular genes) during transcription.
2. Transpiration Pull
Transpiration controls the flow of water. But, how does water move against
gravity?
• First, in the leaf are stomata. These open and close to control the amount of
water present in the leaf. Around each stomata are guard cells, which open and
close, depending on the turgor of the cells.
• When the plant is well hydrated, the guard cells are swollen, causing them to
open, due to the pressure on the cells walls. When the plant dries out, the guard
cells sag and the stomata close. Water loss is stopped and gas exchange is
halted.
• Other external factors that affect the opening and closing of stomata are:
o Light causes stomata to open
o Low CO2 levels in the air spaces in the cause the stomata to open
o Shortage of water causes the stomata to close
• When leaves are deficient in water, they synthesize a hormone called abscisic
acid. This closes the stomata and overrides any external stimuli – the stomata
close. This allows the plant to avoid dehydration and death.
When the stomata are open, water evaporates out of the leaves, diffusing water
vapour out. This maintains a concentration gradient that requires more water.
• The water in the stem, which is connected by xylem, moves up to replace the
water lost by transpiration. As a result, the water is pulled up the plant.
Storage organs that are unloading Parts of the plant that are growing
their stores: or developing food stores:
• Storage tissues in germinating seeds • Developing fruit
• Tap roots or tubers at the start of the • Developing seeds, Growing leaves
growth season
Translocation:
• Phloem transport may occur in either direction in stem leaves and roots, and is
believed to move by mass flow. How this works is:
o Solutes are loaded into the phloem sieve tubes, requiring ATP and then the
solutes flow through the phloem from a region of high hydrostatic pressure
to low hydrostatic pressure.
o Hydrostatic pressure is high around photosynthetic cells in the light
(mesophyll of the leaf), and in the phloem sieve tubes nearby. It is the
presence of the sugars, which concentrate the fluid and creates a high
osmotic pressure. Water flows in, raising the hydrostatic pressure further.
This is called a source area.
o Hydrostatic pressure is low in cells where sugar is converted to starch and
stored. Areas of storage are the cortex of the root, stem, seeds and in the
nearby phloem tissue. Here the removal of sugars lowers the osmotic
pressure, and water flows away. These storage areas are called sink areas.
(Diagram 9)
• Sometimes sinks turn into sources and visa versa, and therefore, phloem must
be able to transport in both directions. Unlike the vessels in animals, there are no
valves or a central pump. However, they are similar because in both, fluid flows
inside tubes due to pressure gradients. Energy is needed for both, and therefore,
both are active processes. The movement of substances in phloem is called
active translocation for this reason.
Adaptations of xerophytes:
• Xerophytes are plants that have adapted to arid climates. Examples are cacti are
an example.
In order to adapt to dry climates, xerophytes must decrease water loss due to
transpiration. Therefore, the plants have adapted by:
o Small, thick leaves reducing the water loss by deceasing surface area
(needles or green stems)
o Reducing the number of stomata
o Having the stomata located in crypts or pits on the leaf surface, which
causes higher humidity near the stomata
o Having a thickened, waxy cuticle
o Having hair-like cells on the surface to trap water vapour
o Becoming dormant in the dry months
o Storing water in the fleshy stems and restore the water in the rainy season
o Using alternative photosynthetic processes called CAM photosynthesis
(Crassulacean acid metabolism) and C4 photosynthesis. CAM plants close
stomata during the day and incorporate carbon dioxide at night. C4 plants
have stomata open during the day, but take in carbon dioxide more rapidly
than non-specialized plants.
Support of Terrestrial Plants:
• Thickened Cellulose - Cellulose located in the walls
• Cell Turgor - Cells which are almost rigid because of their high pressure
• Lignified Xylem - Making it woody and hard
Long-day plants Bloom when days are longest Radishes, spinach and
and nights are shortest lettuce
(midsummer)
Short-day plants Bloom in spring, late summer Poinsettias,
and autumn when days are chrysanthemums and
shorter asters
Day-neutral plants Flower without regard to day Roses, dandelions, and
length tomatoes
The metabolic processes during the germination of a seed are as
follows:
1. The seed absorbs water.
2. Gibberellin, or gibberellic acid, is released after the uptake of water and is a
plant hormone.
3. Gibberellin triggers the production of amylase.
4. Amylase causes the hydrolysis of starch into maltose. The starch is present in
the seed’s endosperm or food reserve.
5. Maltose is then further hydrolysed into glucose that can be used for cellular
respiration or may be converted into cellulose by condensation reactions.
6. Cellulose is used to produce the cell walls of new cells.
7. The seed coat cracks and out comes the plant.
• The seedling develops and functional leaves appear. Photosynthesis takes over
and becomes less dependent on the maltose.
• The seed will eventually become a mature plant and produce seeds of its own,
starting the whole process over again.
The conditions that are essential for germination are:
1. Water – hydrates plant and activates amylase and removes the abscisic acid
2. Oxygen – for Cellular respiration
3. Period of warm temperatures as this is important for enzyme production.
• These two types of immunities can also be classified in two different ways –
natural and artificial immunity
o Natural Active – antibodies as a result of infection.
o Natural Passive – made antibodies from the placenta and passed on to the
fetus or through the colostrums
o Artificial passive – obtained from another organism through biotechnology
o Artificial active – vaccination
Vaccinations:
What is a vaccination? Why do we vaccinate?
• We need to develop immunity in individuals, but more importantly, to develop
“herd immunity”.
• Herd Immunity is when you vaccinate the majority of the people, and the rest
have a very low chance of coming in contact with the disease. After herd
immunity is achieved, society must ensure the disease is completely eradicated.
For discussion – Is this possible?
• Vaccines are basically dead viruses, weakened or a similar vaccine (cowpox for
smallpox) that is injected into the body. The T-Cells go through the whole process
and develop Memory cells to make antibodies in the case of infection. In all
cases, when someone is vaccinated, the second response is faster and stronger
than the first. Vaccines are a huge help to people because, for example the MMR
vaccine (Measles, Mumps and Rubella), vaccinates against two potentially lethal
childhood diseases, measles and mumps. They can cause blindness, loss of
hearing and mental incapacitation, if contracted. Rubella, if contracted by
pregnant mothers, can have babies born with the same conditions as mentioned
above.
• With vaccinations, there is a possible total elimination of the disease (ex.
Smallpox). Epidemics can be prevented from spreading. As a result, preventative
medicine is a cost-effective approach to health care. Lastly, as herd immunity is
developed, an individual does not have to experience the full effect of the
disease to promote immunity.
• There are some proposed dangers with vaccines. First, there are some side-
effects. Some people develop the disease as a result of exposure to the antigen.
The pathogen can be passes through feces and infect others. Some people may
not develop the antibodies, due to malnutrition and other problems (AIDS).
• The overloading of the immune system, may cause other reactions, which are
not known. Allergic reactions have been documented.
• Prior to 1999, many vaccines contained thimerosal, a mercury based-
preservative. Mercury has been shown to be a neurotoxin.
• The MMR vaccine may have a link to Autism.
• The other problem is that some diseases are changing, and the vaccine used
today, is not effective tomorrow. There are several strains of the flu, so every
year, the new vaccine is added to the shot. Now, Avian flu has mutated to not
only affect birds, but also humans. It is now possible to get chicken pox twice,
Fifth’s Disease and the common cold will keep everyone coughing for years to
come.
Functions:
1. Carbohydrate storage
• We have talked about this: see insulin and glucagon talk in homeostasis section.
• The liver maintains a healthy blood glucose level in blood. Generally it is
constant at 90 mg glucose /100 mL blood. The liver converts all
monosaccharides into glucose. Fructose and galactose are all converted. The
surplus is stored as an insoluable polysaccharide, glycogen.
• The following steps are involved in glucose metabolism.
• Glycogenesis – for storing glucose
• The liver can store up to 100 g of glycogen and muscles also store
glycogen.
• Glycogenolysis – breaking down glycogen
• Phosphorylase is activated by hormones (glucagon, adrenalin, and nor
adrenalin)
• Since muscles lack some of the enzymes to convert glycogen directly to
glucose, the muscles convert glycogen to pyruvate for respiration. We will learn
more about this in Cellular Respiration.
• Gluconeogenesis – glucose from AA and glycerol in times of stress and
hypoglycemia.
Storage of Iron
Iron is a very important component of haemoglobin, but is very hard to absorb
from foods. After the erythrocytes (RBC) have been broken down, the iron is
carefully stored.
The breakdown is done by phagocytosis in the liver by the Kupffer Cells, spleen
and bone marrow. The iron is packed and broken down into haem and globin.
Haem is an iron containing group. The iron is stored in the liver and the
remainder of the group becomes biliverdin (a green bile pigment), which
becomes bilirubin, which we talked about earlier.
Globin is a protein and is broken down to its amino acids. These are then
treated like other amino acids and can be used to make other proteins, or trans-
aminated or de-aminated for energy.
The iron will be used again to make new haemoglobin. It is stored in the liver in
the form of ferritin, a complex of iron and B-globulin. Liver contains approx 1 mg
of iron per dry gram
• Protein Metabolism
• Without the role of the liver, death would occur in a few days. The liver de-
aminates (removes the amino group NH2) amino acids, so they can be used for
ATP production or used as an energy source. It converts the resulting ammonia
(NH3) to the less toxic urea.
• It is also involved in the production of plasma proteins. The most common type
are proteins found in the blood. One is albumin, which transports a variety of
molecules, calcium, amino acids and hormones. Other examples are alpha and
beta globulin, prothrombin, and fibrinogen.
• The process of transamination is done by the liver. It is when one amine group is
transferred to convert one amino acid to another.
• Lipid Metabolism
• The liver stores some triglycerides and breaks down fatty acids to acetyl
coenzyme. The coenzyme is further broken down to ketones (called
ketogenesis). It also synthesizes cholesterol to make bile salts.
hydrophilic side which will stick out and interact with the water. This emulsifies
the fat, or makes into little fat droplets, making it easier to digest and absorb.
Too little bile salts in the bile will raise the concentration of the cholesterol and
may cause them to precipitate, forming gall stones.
Bicarbonate (HCO3-) in the bile, helps neutralize the acid of the stomach as the
food enters into the duodenum.
Regulation of Nutrients:
• A regulating mechanism, which keeps the nutrient levels in the blood constant, is
needed. This is where the liver comes in.
• The liver regulates the levels of nutrients in the blood. This is especially
important, as large spikes in levels of some nutrients (i.e. glucose) can be
harmful and in times of need, nutrients must be used.
• Since the liver receives all of the blood from the small intestine and other
organs, it can store the excess or breakdown energy stores to be used.
In the example of blood glucose, the liver, under the influence of insulin, will
store the excess as glycogen. When blood glucose levels are low, the glucagons
stimulates the breakdown of glycogen to glucose in the blood.
• Proteins are broken down by proteases and the amino acids are used to build
proteins, but also other amino acids can be made from existing ones in a process
called trans-amination. Amino acids can also be used as an energy source after
de-amination. This is done by the liver.