Trends in Food Science & Technology 18 (2007) 599e608

Review

Biologically active
components and and nutraceuticals in sesame that could be used in the preven-
tion, controlling and even the management of illnesses such as
cancer, oxidative stress, cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis
nutraceuticals in

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and other degenerative diseases. This paper also briefly
discusses the biological activity of anti-nutritional factors in
sesame.
sesame and related

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products: a review Introduction
Sesame is a plant specie of Sesamum indicum L., and her-
baceous annual plant belonging to the Pedaliaceae family
and prospect (Sugano & Akinmoto, 1993). Sesame seed is one of the
world’s important and oldest oilseed crops known to man
(Sontag, 1981). Sesame has different names according to
Philip John Kanua,b, Kerui Zhua,
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the region of production, in some areas it is known as Sesa-
Jestina Baby Kanub, Huiming mum (China, Mexico, South and Central America), gingelly
(South India, Burma), benniseed (Sierra Leone, Guinea in
Zhoua,*, Haifeng Qiana West Africa), sim-sim (Middle East) and till (East and North
Africa). It has been cultivated for centuries, particularly in
and Kexue Zhua Asia and Africa, for its high content of edible oil and protein
a (Salunkhe, Chavan, Adsule, & Kadam, 1991). China, India,
State Key Laboratory of School of Food Science and
Sudan, Mexico and Burma are the major producers of ses-
Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Road,
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ame seeds in the world by contributing to approximately

Wuxi 214122, PR China (Tel.: D86 510 85913539; fax:
60% of its total world production. In Burma, it is the major
D86 510 85329037; e-mails: philipkanu@yahoo.com,
source of edible oil for local consumption (USDA, 2004).
hmzhou@sytu.edu.cn)
b
Sesame is an important source of food worldwide and consti-
Milton Margai College of Education and tutes an inexpensive source of protein, fat, minerals and
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TechnologydAffiliated to the University of Sierra
Leone, Goderich Campus, Freetown, Sierra Leone
Sesame is one of the oldest oilseed in the world that also con-
tains very good nutritional value that has been reported. They
contain unique oil which is very easily digested and is stable to
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vitamins in the diets of rural populations, especially children
(El-Shafei, 1990; Namiki, 1995).
The chemical composition of sesame shows that the seed
is an important source of oil (44e52.5%), protein (18e
23.5%). It was also reported to have carbohydrate
(13.5%) and ash (5.3%) moisture (5.2%) (Johnson, Sulei-
man, & Lucas, 1979; Kahyaoglu & Kaya, 2006). The edible

oxidative stress and for these reasons they are useful and
parts of sesame seeds consist of the embryo. The embryo of
healthy for consumption. Sesame not only contained an oil
the sesame seeds are used to make sesame butter-like that is
that has the ‘‘good’’ fat (monounsaturated fat), but they are
called ‘‘tehineh’’ (a popular food in the Middle East),
also high in a variety of helpful antioxidants or chemicals
‘‘Ogerie’’ in Sierra Leone West Africa, used in bakeries,
that protects the human being from the damaging effects of
confectionaries, in the formulation of baby food, and ses-
free radicals when sesame oil is consumed because of the
ame oil (Basim, Kamal, & Hesham, 2002).
presence of sesamin and sesamolin in sesame seed. Sesame
Literatures have reported many health benefits associated
is also a source of helpful biologically active components
with the consumption of sesame including, weight gain con-
found in plant foods, such as phytochemicals and it is a
trol (Budowski, 1964; Kang, Kawai, Naito, & Osawa, 1999),
functional food. This article discusses bioactive compounds
prevention against cardiovascular diseases (Fremont, 2000;
Hsu & Liu, 2002), protection against ageing, smoothing of
* Corresponding author. the skin and Alzheimer disease and cancer inhibition (Bhide,
0924-2244/$ - see front matter Ó 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2007.06.002
600 P. John Kanu et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 18 (2007) 599e608
Azuine, Lahiri, & Telang, 1994). Sesamin from sesame
seeds has also been reported to possess in vivo hypocholes-
terolemic activity and suppressive attributes activity against
chemically induced cancer, lipopolysaccharide (Kee, Jenga,
Rolis, Hou, & Ling, 2005) and human low-density lipopro-
tein (LDL) (Kee et al., 2005). Studies have also shown that
including sesame in the diet can reduce the risk of heart dis-
ease (Kang et al., 1999; Sugano et al., 1990).
Studies have shown that sesamol in sesame is an inhib-
itor of several steps in the generation of neoplasia. This is
so because sesamol has been shown to inhibit the excessive
production of nitric oxide in the lipopolysaccharide/
gamma-interferon stimulated C6 astrocyte cells (Soliman
& Mazzio, 1998). It was also reported to inhibit the forma-
tion of mutagenic/carcinogenic imidazoquinoxaline type
heterocyclic amines through the unstable free radical mail-
lard intermediates (Kato, Harashima, Moriya, Kikugawa, &
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Hiramoto, 1996). Furthermore, sesamol has also been
shown to be a classical inhibitor of lipid peroxidation
(Uchida, Nakajin, Toyoshima, & Shinoda, 1996), all of
which are involved in the initiation stage of carcinogenesis.
Its anti-tumor promoting potentials have been demon-
strated in which sesamol inhibited the development of
pre-neoplastic hepatocytic foci formation in rats (Hagiwara
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et al., 1996).
These benefits are mainly attributed to the fact that some
natural agricultural products, which include sesame, do not
contain trans-fatty acids, while being rich in mono- and
poly-unsaturated fatty acids (Kris et al., 1999), micronu-
trients such as vitamin E, folate, minerals (potassium,
magnesium, and zinc), fiber, and health-promoting phyto-
chemicals, particularly resveratrol (Fremont, 2000; Wang,
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Jin, & Ho, 1999) and other phenolic compounds can be
found in sesame.
Different articles on specific and different biologically
active components in sesame have been written by various
authors (Ahmad et al., 2006; Govind et al., 2002; Shahidi,
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Liyana, & Wall, 2006; Uchida et al., 1996), but so far no
one has tried to put all those different biologically active
components and functional attributes of sesame in one arti-
cle to give a more balanced approach that addresses both
the positive and negative aspects of sesame. The biological
activity of most components in sesame is desirable but that
of a few components is undesirable (in the area of allergy)
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and often makes sesame unacceptable to some individuals
in society. The main objective of this review is to discuss
sesame as a potential source of nutraceuticals, antioxidants
and bioactive compounds that could be used in the preven-
tion, control and management of diseases such as cancer,
cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis and other degenerative
illnesses that are caused by oxidative stress from eating
unhealthy fatty foods. The paper also briefly discusses
the biological activity of some anti-nutritional factors
such as allergens, trypsin and chymotrypsin in sesame that
often give it negative publicity in some societies in the
world.
Ethyl protocatechuate
Chang, Yen, Huang, and Duh (2002) isolated and iden-
tified an antioxidant, ethyl protocatechuate (EP) from the
sesame seed coat. Hsieh, Yen, Yen, and Lau (2001) noted
that EP was a major source of the inhibitory effect against
human low-density lipoprotein (LDL) oxidative modifica-
tion induced by Cu2þ ions. Previously, EP has been demon-
strated to be an effective antioxidizing agent in different
tissues, for example in the liver against diethylnitrosamine
(Tanaka, Kojima, Kawamori, Yoshimi, & Mori, 1993), in
the oral cavity against 4-nitroquinoline-1-oxide (Tanaka
et al., 1994), in the colon against azoxymethane (Kawamori
et al., 1994), in the glandular stomach tissue against
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N-methyl-N-nitrosourea (Tanaka, Kojima, Kawamori, &
Mori, 1995), and in the bladder against N-butyl-N-
(4-hydroxybutyl)nitrosamine (Hirose, Tanaka, Kaeamori,
Ohnishi, & Mori, 1995). Hence, EP protects these organs
against the damaging effect of free radicals.
In addition, EP may be utilized in food preservation par-
ticularly foods with high fatty content, it protects lipids
against oxidation. However, an overdose of EP (500 mg/kg)
enhanced tumorigenesis, induced contact hypersensitivity
in mouse skin and disturbed the detoxification of ultimate
carcinogens (Nakamura, Torikai, & Ohigashi, 2001).
Therefore, if EP is to be used as a food additive or phyto-
chemical in any food formulation, the safety and toxicology
of EP have to be distinguished in detail and extensively
studied, but it can be utilized from sesame at an approved
dose for it benefits.
In fact, natural phytochemicals present in our diet have
been shown to protect LDL oxidation and atherosclerosis
progression (Campbell, Efendy, Smith, & Campbell,
2001). For example, sesame, an important edible oil source
in the world, has been suggested to decrease blood
pressure (Sankar, Sambandam, Ramakrishna, & Pugalendi,
2005) and lower the cholesterol level in blood (Sankar
et al., 2005).
Numerous studies have indicated that vitamin E present
in sesame contributes to these healthy benefits as tocoph-
erols derivatives of vitamin E has been found to be present
in sesame EP, these tocopherols are lipid-soluble natural
antioxidants which have been reported to possess the abil-
ity to bring most of the above health benefits mentioned
above (Kajimoto, Kanomi, Kawakami, & Hamtani, 1992;
Liebler, 1993; Yamashita, Nohara, Katayama, & Namiki,
1992).
Sesame oil
Sesame oil is considered to be a health-promoting food
because it contains a higher proportion of monounsaturated
fatty acids (MUFA) than saturated fatty acids (SFAs) and it
also contains bioactive compounds such as tocopherol and
phytosterols (Yamashita et al., 1992). Sesame oil generally
contains fatty acids, in the following percentages 45.3e
49.4% oleic, 37.7e41.2% linoleic and 12e16% SFAs
 P. John Kanu et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 18 (2007) 599e608
(Weiss, 1983). Sesame oil is composed of various fatty
acids, as shown in Table 1 of which good percentages ac-
counted for by only oleic and linoleic acids (LA) (Weiss,
1983). Oleic acid, with one double bond in its chain, be-
longs to the group of MUFAs while linoleic acid with
two double bonds, belongs to the group of PUFAs.
The fatty acid composition of sesame may also have
beneficial effects on blood lipid profiles. Substitution of
SFAs with MUFAs leads to increased high-density lipopro-
tein (HDL) cholesterol and decreased LDL cholesterol, tri-
acylglycerol (TAG), lipid oxidation, and LDL susceptibility
to oxidation (Nakao, Iwai, Kalil, & Augusto, 2003). Dietary
MUFAs particularly from vegetable oils have also been
shown to elicit a smaller postprandial lipemic response
(Weiss, 1971), with lower chylomicron remnant concentra-
tion. Sankar et al. (2005) reported that addition of sesame
oil or other MUFA-rich nuts to the diet significantly im-
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proves the blood lipid profile.
Sesamin and sesamolin
Sesamin and sesamolin in the sesame seed oil also re-
duced LPS-activated p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase
(MAPK) and nuclear factor (NF)-kB activations.
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Microglia, a resident macrophage-like population of brain
cells, is involved in inflammatory cytokine mediated central
nervous system (CNS) diseases, such as multiple sclerosis,
Parkinson’s disease, and Alzheimer’s disease (Aloisi, 1999).
Nitric oxide (NO) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) released
from activated microglia and other glial cells may also partic-
ipate in the neurodegenerative process (Wang et al., 2002).
Nitric oxide has pleiotropic effects in the CNS (Verity,
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1994), and excessive NO production in the CNS can be toxic
to many different cell types, including astrocytes and neurons
(Wang et al., 2002). Sesame lignan can correct such problems
since it has the antioxidant properties that have been reported.
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Several sesame lignans including pinoresinol, piperitol,
sesamolinol, sesaminol, sesamin and sesamolin have been iso-
lated and their chemical structures as shown in Fig. 1. These
lignans have been characterized as a novel type of lipid-
soluble antioxidant that exerts strong antioxidative effects in
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Table 1. Fatty acid composition of sesame oil
Fatty acid Percentage
Oleic 45.3e49.4
Linoleic 37.7e41.2
Palmitic 7.8e9.1
Stearic 3.6e4.7
Arachidic 0.4e1.1
Hexadecenoic 0.0e0.5
Myritic 0.1
Saturated fatty acids 12e16
Adapted from Weiss, E.A. (1983).
601
foods and in biological systems (Kato, Chu, Davin, & Lewis,
1998; Yoshida, Shigezaki, Takagi, & Kajimoto, 1995).
Bioactive components of sesame
Tocopherol
Tocopherols, derivatives of vitamin E, are lipid-soluble
natural antioxidants produced only by plants like sesame
and other oilseeds (Kajimoto et al., 1992). Sesame seeds
are a good source of tocopherols. The tocopherol content
of sesame varies with variety and production location. Ses-
ame oil mainly contains a-tocopherol (50e373 ppm) and
g-tocopherols (90e390 ppm) (Firestone, 1999; Weiss,
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1971), their chemical structures are shown in Fig. 2. Their
difference is a-tocopherol regulates protein transfer to the
plasma tissue, while g-tocopherols lower lipid contents in
the blood to the rate at which tissue concentration reaches
it equilibrium so that excess lipids will not be allowed to
stay in the plasma tissue (David, Blatt, Scott, Leonard, &
Maret, 2001).
The health benefits of tocopherol as a bioactive com-
pound are well documented. a-Tocopherol, the principal
form of vitamin E, is a lipid-soluble antioxidant and it func-
tions as a chain-breaking antioxidant for lipid peroxidation
(LP) in cell membranes and also as a scavenger of reactive

oxygen species (ROS) such as singlet oxygen (O ) (Liebler,
1993). It is considered to serve as the first line of defense
against LP, and it protects PUFAs in cell membranes from
free radical attack through its scavenging activity in bio-
membranes at early stages of LP (Lu, Shimura, Kinukawa,
Yoshida, & Tamai, 1999). a-Tocopherol also exerts an
anti-inflammatory action by inhibiting the production of
the superoxide radicals in activated neutrophils, adhesion
of neutrophils to endothelial cells, and transendothelial mi-
gration of neutrophils (Rocksén, Ekstrand, Johansson, &
Bucht, 2003). Animal studies showed that a-tocopherols
and g-tocopherols were able to prevent cerebral ischae-
mia-induced brain damage in mice (Mishima et al., 2003),
while Sen, Khanna, Roy, and Packer (2000) showed
that a-tocopherols can inhibit glutamate-induced apoptosis
also.
Phytosterols
Plant sterols (phytosterols) are minor components of all
vegetable oils constituting major portions of the unsaponi-
fiable fraction of the oil (Fremont, 2000). Sesame oil con-
tains 900e3000 ppm total phytosterols, (Choi & Kim,
1985). Major phytosterols in sesame oil are b-sitosterol
(>80% of total phytosterols), campesterol (about 10%)
and stigmasterol (<5%) (Choi & Kim, 1985). Phytosterols
may occur in the free form but also esterified to free fatty
acids, sugar moieties or phenolic acids. Free phytosterols
of both black and white colour type sesame seeds
consisted of about 65% of the total sterols in the oil as
reported by Normén, Ellegård, Brants, Dutta, and Andersson
(in press).
602 P. John Kanu et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 18 (2007) 599e608
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Fig. 1. The chemical structures of sesame lignans.
The cholesterol-lowering properties of phytosterols were
first demonstrated about 55 years ago by Peterson (1951) who
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fed chicks with plant sterols in their diet. Weststrate and
Meijer (1998) also demonstrated the plasma cholesterol-
lowering effect of a phytosterol ester (PE) contained in
margarine in human. Consumption of 1.8e2.0 g/day of plant
sterols has been shown to lower both total LDL and choles-
terol concentrations by 10e15% in a variety of different
population groups (Katan et al., 2003). Several authors re-
ported that phytosterols (esters), and especially b-sitosterols,
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have (phyto) oestrogenic potential and act as an effective
oestrogen-like agonists (Malini & Vanithakumari, 1993;
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Fig. 2. Chemical structure of a-tocopherols and g-tocopherols.
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Normén et al., in press). Therefore, phytosterols can
also be used as major components of oral contraceptives
(Kamel & Appelpvist, 1994).
Phospholipids
Phospholipids, which are derivatives of phosphatidic
acid and phosphatidylcholine (lecithine), are generally use-
ful as syngerists in reinforcing the antioxidant activity of
phenolic compounds (Wu & Sheldon, 1988). Phospholipids
also contribute to the smoothness, texture, and mouth feel
of foods and improve the stability of the product because
of their inherent antioxidant properties. Phospholipids in
sesame is the major constituents of cell membranes, and
has a high degree of unsaturation, (Sugano et al., 1990).
Hany, Abou, Adel, and Fereidoon (2000) reported that ses-
ame comprised 38e48% of the total phospholipids present
in it. It is one of the bioactive compounds with several ben-
eficial effects including improved learning and memory in
rats (Ahmad et al., 2006), which might be applicable to hu-
man beings as well when sesame is consumed.
Polyphenols
Polyphenols are a group of chemical substances found in
plants, characterized by the presence of more than one phe-
nol group per molecule (Shahidi et al., 2006). Research
suggests that polyphenols are antioxidants with potential
health benefits. They may reduce the risk of cardiovascular
disease and cancer (Arts & Hollman, 2005).
Elleuch, Besbes, Roiseux, Blecker, and Attia (2007)
reported that different polyphenols were found in sesame
seed coat, including phenolic acids (caffeic acid, chloro-
genic acid, ferulic acid and coumaric acid), flavonoids (cat-
echins and procyanidins), and stilbene (resveratrol). A
 P. John Kanu et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 18 (2007) 599e608
study by Shahidi et al. (2006) found that the seed coat of
sesame particularly the black colour contains about
150 mg total polyphenols per gram of defatted dry seed
coat. Lee, Wen, Shiow, and Pin (2002) in their study iden-
tified A-type procyanidins in sesame seed coat. This com-
pound was found to inhibit the activity of hyaluronidase,
an enzyme that is responsible for the release of histamine,
which causes inflammation. These few studies have shown
the potential of sesame as a potentially rich and inexpensive
source of nutraceutical and functional ingredients such as
phenolics.
Elleuch et al. (2007) reported that the compounds
found in sesame seed coats are considered potent antioxi-
dants, particularly, flavonoids and resveratrol. In addition
to antioxidant activity, phenolic acids and flavonoids appear
to have antimicrobial, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, anti-
allergic and anticancer activities (Kahkonen et al., 1999).
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It is important to realize that in addition to the positive bi-
ological effects in humans consuming them, plant phenolic
compounds can be used as potent natural antioxidants in
food systems. Mohamed and Awatif (1998) reported that
the phenolic compound extracted from sesame could signif-
icantly reduce the oxidation of food to extend their storage
stability. It also contains some good derivatives which have
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good health effects; they are resveratrol and flavonoids.
Resveratrol
Resveratrol (3,5,40 -trihydroxystilbene) shown in Fig. 3
with sesamol is a phytochemical occurring naturally in var-
ious spermatophytes and present in sesame particularly the
brown colour on the skin after the seed coat has been re-
moved (Namiki, 1995), grapes (Landcake & Price, 1976)
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and wine (red wine produced from grapes) (Siemann &
Creasy, 1992). The American Heritage Dictionary defines
resveratrol as a natural compound found in grapes, mul-
berries, peanuts, and other oilseed plants or food products,
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especially red wine, that may protect against cancer and
cardiovascular disease by acting as an antioxidant, anti-
mutagen, and anti-inflammatory (Landcake & Price, 1976).
Choi and Kim (1985) reported that sesame is one of the
limited number of plant species that synthesize resveratrol,
which is both a phytoalexin (an antibiotic produced by
a plant that is under attack) with antifungal activity and
a photochemical associated with reduced cancer risk and
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Fig. 3. The structure of resveratrol and sesamol.
603
reduced cardiovascular disease. Resveratrol has been used
for the treatment of hyperglycemia, arteriosclerosis and al-
lergic and inflammatory diseases (Siemann & Creasy,
1992). Findings have reported that sesame seeds are a source
of resveratrol and phytochemical with human health bene-
fits. It has been associated with reduced human pathological
processes such as atherosclerosis (Shahidi et al., 2006), and
carcinogenesis (Jang, Cai, Udeani, Slowing, Thomas, &
Beecher, 1997).
Over the years, the health protecting properties of resver-
atrol have been well described as an antioxidant (Frémont,
Belguendouz, & Delpal, 1999), modulator of lipoprotein me-
tabolism (Soleas, Diamandis, & Goldberg, 1997), inhibitor
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of platelet aggregation (Pace, Hahn, Diamandis, Soleas, &
Goldberg, 1995) and vaso-relaxing agent (Jäger & Nguyen,
1999). The most important beneficial effect of resveratrol
is its cancer chemopreventive activity as it is involved in
the inhibition of tumor initiation, promotion and progression
(Jang et al., 1997). Nonetheless, Govind et al. (2002) re-
ported that comparatively sesame resveratrol was the most
potent followed by other resveratrols like sunflower. When
the chemoprotective capabilities of these products (sesame
resveratrol and resveratrol from sunflower) were compared
and observed, the in vivo, 7,12-dimethylbenz-anthracene,
which is part of sesame resveratrol, prevented the develop-
ment of mouse skin carcinogenesis (Govind et al., 2002).
Sesame and its products might help in preventing the devel-
opment of carcinogenesis in human beings.
Flavonoids
Flavonoids are a class of plant secondary metabolites
based around a phenylbenzopyrone structure as shown in
Fig. 4. Flavonoids are most commonly known for their an-
tioxidant activity and are also commonly referred to as
bioflavonoids since all of them are biological in origin
(Answers, 2004).
Procyanidins, ()-epicatechin, guercint and (þ)-catechins
are some of the well studied flavonoids in sesame so far. Ac-
cording to Lee et al. (2002), limited studies suggest that ses-
ame seed coat may contain potent procyanidin compounds.
Catechins, A-type procyanidin dimers, procyanidins trimers,
O
Flavone
Fig. 4. Molecular structure of flavone.
604 P. John Kanu et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 18 (2007) 599e608
tetramers, and oligomers with higher degrees of polymeriza-
tion were also reported to be present in sesame (Lazarus,
Adamson, Hammerstone, & Schmitz, 1999).
Human studies also show that diet rich in procyanidins
decrease/inhibit lipid peroxidation of LDL cholesterol and
increase free radical scavenging capacity (Fuhrman, Lavy,
& Aviram, 1995; Natella, Belelli, & Gentili, 2002). Procya-
nidins have affinity for vascular tissue and they play a role
in the protection of collagen and elastin, two critical pro-
teins in the connective tissue, by strongly inhibiting several
enzymes involved in degradation of collagen, elastin, and
hyaluronic acid. Procyanidins were reported to selectively
inhibit protein kinase C (Takahashi, Kamimura, Shirai, &
Yokoo, 2000), and intensively promote hair growth by en-
hancing proliferation of mouse hair epithelial cells in vitro
and activating hair follicle growth in vivo. Procyanidins
were also found to slow the proliferation and decrease ap-
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optosis of pancreas b-cells induced by hydrogen peroxide,
and promote proliferation of normal pancreas b-cells
(Zhong, 2003). Even though the presence of procyanidins
found in sesame was reported to be small (20 ppm), that
amount was reported to be enough to exact the health ben-
efit to the human system as 15e17 ppm is needed by the
human body (Zhong, 2003).
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Lectins
Lectins possess a remarkable array of biological activi-
ties that have been found in sesame among other sources.
An interesting aspect of the lectins in sesame is that high
heat treatment does not destroy them (Hany et al., 2000).
Lectins are a group of proteins with the common character-
istic of reversibly binding carbohydrates including those
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found on the surfaces of cells particularly in sesame seed
(Vandamme, Peumanns, Barre, & Rougé, 1998).
Since the demonstration by Springer, Desai, and Banat-
wala (1974) that sesame agglutinin binds malignant cells in
preference to normal cells in breast glands, this lectin has
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been widely used as a probe for malignant phenotype in
several tissues. Disease-dependent polyagglutin ability of
red blood cells was also assessed using lectin (Springer
et al., 1974). A fairly stable and non-glycosylated lectin,
sesame has been proven to be a potential structure-specific
probe in glycobiology, especially as it sharply discriminates
between sialylated and non-sialylated forms of its most
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powerful inhibitor carbohydrate group, the Galb1 / 3Gal-
NAc- (T antigen), unlike the jack fruit seed lectin, jacalin
(Carvalho & Sgarbieri, 1998; El-Shafei, 1990).
For many years lectins have been considered toxic sub-
stances to cells and animals, mainly because of agglutina-
tion of erythrocytes and other cells. Some lectins isolated
from legumes and cereals have been shown to inhibit the
growth of experimental animals and reduce the digestibility
and biological value of dietary proteins (Reynoso, Gonza-
lez, & Loarca, 2003). Anti-nutritional effects are most
likely caused by the fact that some lectins impair the integ-
rity of the intestinal epithelium (Reynoso et al., 2003) and
thus also the absorption and utilization of nutrients. Pusztai
(1996) and Radberg et al. (2001) reported that administra-
tion of lectins to experimental animals can also alter the
bacterial flora. Thus dietary lectins have generally been
considered to be toxic and anti-nutritional factors.
Nonetheless, lectins are among the phytochemicals that
are being intensively studied for their role in cancer chemo-
prevention (Abdullaev & Gonzalez, 1997). Various authors
have reported that lectins are used as tools in the field of bio-
chemistry, cell biology, and immunology, as well as for diag-
nostic and therapeutic purposes in cancer research (Sharon &
Lis, 2002; Vandamme et al., 1998). Studies on laboratory an-
imals show that ingested lectins have a wide range of effects
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that might be relevant to human diseases. Some observations
suggest that sesame lectins, which exhibit growth-promoting
effects on the gut, may have interesting applications in the
formulation of new approaches regarding cancer treatment
(Govind et al., 2002).
Gonzalez and Prisecaru (2005), who reviewed in detail
the potential for lectins in cancer management, concluded
that lectins have great potential in the treatment, prevention
and diagnosis of chronic diseases, such as cancer. The infor-
mation from clinical studies using pure lectins is promising.
Additional research, including clinical trials, mechanisms of
action at the molecular level and structureefunction rela-
tionships, should help researchers continue to examine and
clearly understand the therapeutic effects, nutritional bene-
fits, and toxic consequences of lectins.
Biological activity of anti-nutritional
factors in sesame
Allergens
Sesame, peanut, milk proteins and eggs, account for ap-
proximately 80% of adverse reactions to foods in patients
with atopic dermatitis individuals particular children
(Burks, Williams, Mallory, Shirel, & Williams, 1989).
Wolffa et al. (2003) reported that the reactivity of the
14 kDa protein with most of the sera indicates that this is
the major sesame allergen, later identified as 2S albumin
precursor; and its peptide which reacted positively in the
dot blot test evidently contains an epitope(s). Some minor
sesame allergens, of higher molecular weight, were also re-
vealed. But Pastorello et al. (2001) suggested that the major
sesame seed allergen is a 9 kDa, 2S albumin. Furthermore,
Beyer, Bardina, Grishina, and Sampson (2002) reported to
have identified 10 IgE-binding proteins in sesame seeds, 4
of which were 7 kDa, 34 kDa, 45 kDa and 78 kDa as minor
sesame allergens from globulin, HPLC was used to charac-
terize these allergens from sesame seed.
Products derived from sesame have been recommended
for young children in societies of the Mediterranean region
and Africa, because of their high nutritional value, as ses-
ame proteins are rich in methionine (Dalal et al., 2002).
During recent decades their use has increasingly spread to
North America as well as Europe. The increasing
 P. John Kanu et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 18 (2007) 599e608
consumption of foods containing sesame seeds and oil (e.g.,
vegetarian dishes, mid-eastern foods, bread, cakes, pastries,
appetizers, and salad dressings) seems to be paralleled by
an increase in reported sesame-induced allergic reactions
(Pajno et al., 2000). This increase in sesame-induced
allergic reactions called for additional studies on the char-
acterization and identification of the specific sesame
allergens.
IgE-mediated reactions are believed to be responsible
for most food-induced allergic reactions of the immediate
hypersensitivity type (Type 1), and the diagnosis relies on
biological and clinical specific features. The most common
allergic reactions are mediated by immunoglobulin E (IgE),
which occur in the serum and involve activation of effector
cells, mainly mast cells and basophils, leading to an inflam-
matory response and specific clinical manifestations
(Asero, Mistrello, Roncarolo, Antoniotti, & Falagiani,
TE
1999). When antigens, such as certain proteins from pollen
or foods, bind to specific preformed IgE antibodies attached
to the surface of basophils in the blood or mast cells in tis-
sues, the antigeneIgE interaction results in the release of
various mediators such as histamine, prostaglandins, leuko-
trienes and cytokines, producing an acute inflammatory
reaction (Leimgruber et al., 1991; D’Hondt, Damme,
AC
Eberlein, Rueff, & Przybilla, 1995).
With better characterization of allergens and better un-
derstanding of the immunologic mechanism, investigators
have developed several therapeutic modalities that are
potentially applicable to the treatment and prevention of
food allergy. Therapeutic options currently under investiga-
tion include peptide immunotherapy, DNA immunization,
and immunization with immunostimulatory sequences,
R
anti-IgE therapy, and genetic modification of foods (Wild
& Lehrer, 2001). These exciting developments hold prom-
ise for the safe and effective treatment and prevention of
food allergy in the next several years.
ET
Trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitors
Like most oilseeds, sesame also contains both trypsin
and chymotrypsin inhibitors (Johnson et al., 1979). These
inhibitors interfere with the process of digestion and lower
the digestibility of sesame proteins. However, Johnson et al.
(1979) also reported that heat treatment destroys their in-
hibitory activity. Heating is the most commonly used treat-
R
ment for the elimination of anti-nutritional factors such as
trypsin inhibitors although other processes are also used,
such as fermentation, precipitation, washing and filtration
during the manufacture of products for general human con-
sumption (Melcion & Colonna, 1986; Mukhopadhyay &
Bandyopadhyay, 2003).
Conclusion
Sesame contains very useful phytochemical such as re-
sveratrol, flavonoids, tocopherol, ethyl protocatechuate,
phytosterols, lectins, sesamin, sesamolin and other
605
phytochemicals which could be extracted for the purpose
of the above to be utilized as functional ingredients. It
could help in the prevention, control and management of
diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular disease, osteoporo-
sis, oxidative stress and other degenerative diseases. The
combination of functional ingredients and rich nutritional
composition of sesame makes it very unique and a very
good functional food that could be developed as food for
the children as well as for the aged.
Nonetheless, the presence of anti-nutritional factors such
as allergens, trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitors in sesame
could be tackled well so that it will not lose it functional poten-
tialities. But with lectins, sesamin, sesamolin, and tocopherols
D
having great potential in the treatment, prevention and diagno-
sis of chronic diseases, such as cancer, have greatly improved
the image of sesame as functional ingredients that could be
supplemented in the food system because it serves as both bio-
active compounds and nutraceuticals.
However, for individuals who are not allergic to sesame, it
remains a very good source of nutrients and phytochemicals.
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