Chapter 4 Basic Principles of Animal Form and Function

Basic Principles of Animal
Form and Function
PowerPoint® Lecture Presentations for
Biology
Eighth Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece
Lectures by Chris Romero, updated by Erin Barley with contributions from Joan Sharp
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Overview: Diverse Forms, Common Challenges
• Anatomy is the study of the biological

form of an organism
• Physiology is the study of the
biological functions an organism
performs
• The comparative study of animals
reveals that form and function are
closely correlated
1
Fig. 40-1
Animal form and function are correlated at all levels

of organization
• Size and shape affect the way an

animal interacts with its environment
• Many different animal body plans have
evolved and are determined by the
genome
2
Physical Constraints on Animal Size and Shape
• The ability to perform certain actions

depends on an animal’s shape, size, and
environment
• Evolutionary convergence reflects different
species’ adaptations to a similar
environmental challenge
• Physical laws impose constraints on animal
size and shape
Fig. 40-2
(a) Tuna
(b) Penguin
(c) Seal
3
Exchange with the Environment
• An animal’s size and shape directly affect how
it exchanges energy and materials with its
surroundings
• Exchange occurs as substances dissolved in
the aqueous medium diffuse and are
transported across the cells’ plasma
membranes
• A single-celled protist living in water has a
sufficient surface area of plasma membrane to
service its entire volume of cytoplasm
Fig. 40-3
• Multicellular organisms
Exchange
with a sac body plan
have body walls that
are only two cells
thick, facilitating
diffusion of materials
0.15 mm
(a) Single cell
4
Fig. 40-3
Mouth
• More complex Gastrovascular

cavity
organisms have highly
folded internal surfaces Exchange
for exchanging
materials
Exchange
1.5 mm
(b) Two layers of cells
Fig. 40-4
External environment
CO2
Food O2
Mouth
Animal
body
Respiratory
50 µm
system
0.5 cm Lung tissue

Nutrients Cells
Heart
Circulatory 10 µm
system
Interstitial
Digestive fluid
system
Lining of small intestine Excretory

system
Kidney tubules
Anus
Unabsorbed Metabolic waste products

matter (feces) (nitrogenous waste)
10
5
• In vertebrates, the space between cells is filled
with interstitial fluid, which allows for the
movement of material into and out of cells
• A complex body plan helps an animal in a
variable environment to maintain a relatively
stable internal environment
11
Hierarchical Organization of Body Plans

• Most animals are composed of specialized
cells organized into tissues that have different
functions
• Tissues make up organs, which together make
up organ systems
12
6
Table 40-1
13
Tissue Structure and Function
• Different tissues have different structures that

are suited to their functions
• Tissues are classified into four main
categories: epithelial, connective, muscle, and
nervous
14
7
Epithelial Tissue
• Epithelial tissue covers the outside of the

body and lines the organs and cavities within
the body
• It contains cells that are closely joined
• The shape of epithelial cells may be cuboidal
(like dice), columnar (like bricks on end), or
squamous (like floor tiles)
15
• The arrangement of epithelial cells may be

simple (single cell layer), stratified (multiple
tiers of cells), or pseudostratified (a single layer
of cells of varying length)
16
8
Fig. 40-5a
Epithelial Tissue
Cuboidal Simple Pseudostratified
epithelium columnar ciliated
epithelium columnar
epithelium
Stratified
squamous
epithelium
Simple
squamous
epithelium
17
Connective Tissue
• Connective tissue mainly binds and

supports other tissues
• It contains sparsely packed cells
scattered throughout an extracellular
matrix
• The matrix consists of fibers in a liquid,
jellylike, or solid foundation
18
9
• There are three types of connective tissue
fiber, all made of protein:
– Collagenous fibers provide strength and
flexibility
– Elastic fibers stretch and snap back to
their original length
– Reticular fibers join connective tissue to
adjacent tissues
19
• Connective tissue contains cells,

including
– Fibroblasts that secrete the protein
of extracellular fibers
– Macrophages that are involved in
the immune system
20
10
• In vertebrates, the fibers and foundation
combine to form six major types of connective
tissue:
– Loose connective tissue binds epithelia to
underlying tissues and holds organs in place
– Cartilage is a strong and flexible support
material
– Fibrous connective tissue is found in tendons,
which attach muscles to bones, and
ligaments, which connect bones at joints
21
– Adipose tissue stores fat for

insulation and fuel
– Blood is composed of blood cells
and cell fragments in blood
plasma
– Bone is mineralized and forms
the skeleton
22
11
Fig. 40-5c
Connective Tissue
Collagenous fiber
Loose Chondrocytes
connective Cartilage
120 µm
tissue
100 µm
Elastic fiber Chondroitin
sulfate
Nuclei Fat droplets

Fibrous
connective Adipose
150 µm
tissue tissue
30 µm
Osteon White blood cells

Bone Blood
700 µm
55 µm
Central canal Plasma Red blood
cells
23
Muscle Tissue
• Muscle tissue consists of long cells called

muscle fibers, which contract in response to
nerve signals
• It is divided in the vertebrate body into three
types:
– Skeletal muscle, or striated muscle, is
responsible for voluntary movement
– Smooth muscle is responsible for involuntary
body activities
– Cardiac muscle is responsible for contraction
of the heart
24
12
Fig. 40-5j
Muscle Tissue
Multiple
nuclei
Muscle fiber
Sarcomere
Skeletal Nucleus Intercalated
100 µm 50 µm
muscle disk
Cardiac muscle
Smooth Nucleus
muscle
Muscle
fibers
25 µm
25
Nervous Tissue
• Nervous tissue senses stimuli and
transmits signals throughout the animal
• Nervous tissue contains:
– Neurons, or nerve cells, that transmit
nerve impulses
– Glial cells, or glia, that help nourish,
insulate, and replenish neurons
26
13
Fig. 40-5n
Nervous Tissue
40 µm
Dendrites
Cell body
Axon
Glial cells
Neuron
Axons
Blood vessel
15 µm
27
Coordination and Control

• Control and coordination within a body depend
on the endocrine system and the nervous
system
• The endocrine system transmits chemical
signals called hormones to receptive cells
throughout the body via blood
• A hormone may affect one or more regions
throughout the body
• Hormones are relatively slow acting, but can
have long-lasting effects
28
14
Fig. 40-6
Stimulus Stimulus
Endocrine
cell
Neuron
Axon
Signal
Hormone
Signal travels
Signal travels along axon to
everywhere a specific
via the location.
bloodstream.
Blood
vessel Signal
Axons
Response Response
(a) Signaling by hormones (b) Signaling by neurons
29
• The nervous system transmits information

between specific locations
• The information conveyed depends on a
signal’s pathway, not the type of signal
• Nerve signal transmission is very fast
• Nerve impulses can be received by neurons,
muscle cells, and endocrine cells
30
15
Concept 40.2: Feedback control loops maintain the
internal environment in many animals
• Animals manage their internal

environment by regulating or
conforming to the external environment
31
Regulating and Conforming
• A regulator uses internal control

mechanisms to moderate internal
change in the face of external,
environmental fluctuation
• A conformer allows its internal
condition to vary with certain external
changes
32
16
Fig. 40-7
40
River otter (temperature regulator)
30
Body temperature (°C)
20
Largemouth bass
(temperature conformer)
10
0 10 20 30 40
Ambient (environmental) temperature (ºC)
33
Homeostasis
• Organisms use homeostasis to

maintain a “steady state” or internal
balance regardless of external
environment
• In humans, body temperature, blood
pH, and glucose concentration are
each maintained at a constant level
34
17
Mechanisms of Homeostasis
• Mechanisms of homeostasis moderate

changes in the internal environment
• For a given variable, fluctuations above or
below a set point serve as a stimulus;
these are detected by a sensor and trigger
a response
• The response returns the variable to the set
point
35
Fig. 40-8
Response:
Heater
turned
off
Room Stimulus:
temperature Control center
decreases (thermostat)
reads too hot
Set
point:
20ºC
Stimulus:
Room Control center
temperature (thermostat)
increases reads too cold
Response:
Heater
turned
on
36
18
Feedback Loops in Homeostasis
• The dynamic equilibrium of homeostasis is
maintained by negative feedback, which helps
to return a variable to either a normal range or
a set point
• Most homeostatic control systems function by
negative feedback, where buildup of the end
product shuts the system off
• Positive feedback loops occur in animals, but
do not usually contribute to homeostasis
37
Alterations in Homeostasis
• Set points and normal ranges can

change with age or show cyclic
variation
• Homeostasis can adjust to changes in
external environment, a process called
acclimatization
38
19
39
40
20
Concept 40.3: Homeostatic processes for
thermoregulation involve form, function, and
behavior
• Thermoregulation is the process by which
animals maintain an internal temperature
within a tolerable range
41
Endothermy and Ectothermy

• Endothermic animals generate heat by
metabolism; birds and mammals are
endotherms
• Ectothermic animals gain heat from external

sources; ectotherms include most
invertebrates, fishes, amphibians, and non-
avian reptiles
42
21
• In general, ectotherms tolerate greater
variation in internal temperature, while
endotherms are active at a greater range of
external temperatures
• Endothermy is more energetically expensive
than ectothermy
43
Fig. 40-9
(a) A walrus, an endotherm
(b) A lizard, an ectotherm
44
22
Variation in Body Temperature
• An animal whose body temperature

varies with its environment is called a
poikilotherm (from the Greek poikilos,
varied).
• In contrast, a homeotherm has a
relatively constant body temperature.
45
Balancing Heat Loss and Gain
• Organisms exchange heat by four

physical processes: conduction,
convection, radiation, and evaporation
46
23
Fig. 40-10
Radiation Evaporation
Convection Conduction
47
48
24
Fig. 40-11
Heat regulation in mammals often involves the

integumentary system: skin, hair, and nails
Hair
Epidermis
Sweat
pore
Dermis Muscle
Nerve
Sweat
gland
Hypodermis
Adipose tissue
Blood vessels Oil gland

Hair follicle
49
• Five general adaptations help animals

thermoregulate:
– Insulation
– Circulatory adaptations
– Cooling by evaporative heat loss
– Behavioral responses
– Adjusting metabolic heat production
50
25
Insulation
• Insulation is a major thermoregulatory
adaptation in mammals and birds
• Skin, feathers, fur, and blubber reduce
heat flow between an animal and its
environment
51
Circulatory Adaptations
• Regulation of blood flow near the body surface
significantly affects thermoregulation
• Many endotherms and some ectotherms can
alter the amount of blood flowing between the
body core and the skin
• In vasodilation, blood flow in the skin
increases, facilitating heat loss
• In vasoconstriction, blood flow in the skin
decreases, lowering heat loss
52
26
• The arrangement of blood vessels in many
marine mammals and birds allows for
countercurrent exchange
• Countercurrent heat exchangers transfer
heat between fluids flowing in opposite
directions
• Countercurrent heat exchangers are an
important mechanism for reducing heat loss
53
Fig. 40-12
Canada goose Bottlenose

dolphin
Blood flow
Artery Vein Vein
Artery
35ºC 33º
30º 27º
20º 18º
10º 9º
54
27
55
• Some bony fishes and sharks also use

countercurrent heat exchanges
• Many endothermic insects have
countercurrent heat exchangers that help
maintain a high temperature in the thorax
56
28
Cooling by Evaporative Heat Loss
• Many types of animals lose heat
through evaporation of water in sweat
• Panting increases the cooling effect in
birds and many mammals
• Sweating or bathing moistens the skin,
helping to cool an animal down
57
Behavioral Responses
• Both endotherms and ectotherms use
behavioral responses to control body
temperature
• Some terrestrial invertebrates have postures
that minimize or maximize absorption of solar
heat
58
29
Fig. 40-13
59
Adjusting Metabolic Heat Production

• Some animals can regulate body
temperature by adjusting their rate of
metabolic heat production
• Heat production is increased by muscle
activity such as moving or shivering
• Some ectotherms can also shiver to
increase body temperature
60
30
Fig. 40-14
RESULTS
120
O2 consumption (mL O2/hr) per kg
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Contractions per minute
61
Fig. 40-15
PREFLIGHT PREFLIGHT FLIGHT

WARM-UP
40
Thorax
Temperature (ºC)
35
30
Abdomen
25
0 2 4
Time from onset of warm-up (min)
62
31
Acclimatization in Thermoregulation
• Birds and mammals can vary their

insulation to acclimatize to seasonal
temperature changes
• When temperatures are subzero, some
ectotherms produce “antifreeze”
compounds to prevent ice formation in
their cells
63
Physiological Thermostats and Fever
• Thermoregulation is controlled by a
region of the brain called the
hypothalamus
• The hypothalamus triggers heat loss or
heat generating mechanisms
• Fever is the result of a change to the
set point for a biological thermostat
64
32
Fig. 40-16
Sweat glands secrete
sweat, which evaporates, Thermostat in hypothalamus
cooling the body. activates cooling mechanisms.
Blood vessels
in skin dilate:
capillaries fill;
Body temperature heat radiates
decreases; from skin.
thermostat Increased body
shuts off cooling temperature
mechanisms.
Homeostasis:
Internal temperature
of 36–38°C
Body temperature Decreased body

increases; thermostat temperature
shuts off warming
mechanisms.
Blood vessels in skin

constrict, reducing
heat loss.
Thermostat in
hypothalamus
Skeletal muscles contract; activates warming
shivering generates heat. mechanisms.
65
Concept 40.4: Energy requirements are related

to animal size, activity, and environment
• Bioenergetics is the overall flow and
transformation of energy in an animal
• It determines how much food an animal
needs and relates to an animal’s size,
activity, and environment
66
33
Energy Allocation and Use
• Animals harvest chemical energy from food
• Energy-containing molecules from food are
usually used to make ATP, which powers
cellular work
• After the needs of staying alive are met,
remaining food molecules can be used in
biosynthesis
• Biosynthesis includes body growth and repair,
synthesis of storage material such as fat, and
production of gametes
67
Fig. 40-17
Organic molecules
External in food
environment
Animal
body Digestion and Heat
absorption
Energy lost
in feces
Nutrient molecules
in body cells Energy lost in
nitrogenous
waste
Carbon Cellular
respiration Heat
skeletons
ATP
Biosynthesis
Cellular Heat
work
Heat
68
34
Quantifying Energy Use
• Metabolic rate is the amount of energy
an animal uses in a unit of time
• One way to measure it is to determine
the amount of oxygen consumed or
carbon dioxide produced
69
Fig. 40-18
70
35
Minimum Metabolic Rate and
Thermoregulation
• Basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the metabolic
rate of an endotherm at rest at a “comfortable”
temperature
• Standard metabolic rate (SMR) is the
metabolic rate of an ectotherm at rest at a
specific temperature
• Both rates assume a nongrowing, fasting, and
nonstressed animal
• Ectotherms have much lower metabolic rates
than endotherms of a comparable size
71
Influences on Metabolic Rate

• Metabolic rates are affected by many
factors besides whether an animal is
an endotherm or ectotherm
• Two of these factors are size and
activity
72
36
Size and Metabolic Rate
• Metabolic rate per gram is inversely related
to body size among similar animals
• Researchers continue to search for the
causes of this relationship
• The higher metabolic rate of smaller animals
leads to a higher oxygen delivery rate,
breathing rate, heart rate, and greater
(relative) blood volume, compared with a
larger animal
73
Fig. 40-19a
103
Elephant
BMR (L O2/hr) (log scale)
102 Horse
Human
10 Sheep
Cat Dog
1
Rat
10–1 Ground squirrel
Shrew
Mouse
Harvest mouse
10–2
10–3 10–2 10–1 1 10 102 103
Body mass (kg) (log scale)
(a) Relationship of BMR to body size
74
37
Fig. 40-19b
8
Shrew
7
BMR (L O2/hr) (per kg) 6
3 Harvest mouse
2 Mouse Sheep
Rat Human Elephant
1 Cat
Dog Horse
Ground squirrel
0
10–3 10–2 10–1 1 10 102 103
Body mass (kg) (log scale)
(b) Relationship of BMR per kilogram of body mass to body size
75
Activity and Metabolic Rate

• Activity greatly affects metabolic rate
for endotherms and ectotherms
• In general, the maximum metabolic
rate an animal can sustain is inversely
related to the duration of the activity
76
38
Energy Budgets
• Different species use energy and materials
in food in different ways, depending on their
environment
• Use of energy is partitioned to BMR (or
SMR), activity, thermoregulation, growth,
and reproduction
77
Fig. 40-20a
Annual energy expenditure (kcal/hr)
800,000 Reproduction
Basal Thermoregulation
(standard)
metabolism Growth
Activity
60-kg female human

from temperate climate
78
39
Fig. 40-20b
Annual energy expenditure (kcal/yr)

Basal Reproduction
(standard)
metabolism Thermoregulation
Activity
340,000
4-kg male Adélie penguin

from Antarctica (brooding)
79
Fig. 40-20c
Basal
(standard) Reproduction
metabolism
Thermoregulation
Activity
4,000
0.025-kg female deer mouse

from temperate
North America
80
40
Fig. 40-20d
Basal

(standard)
metabolism Reproduction
Growth
Activity
8,000
4-kg female eastern

indigo snake
81
Torpor and Energy Conservation

• Torpor is a physiological state in which
activity is low and metabolism
decreases
• Torpor enables animals to save energy
while avoiding difficult and dangerous
conditions
• Hibernation is long-term torpor that is
an adaptation to winter cold and food
scarcity
82
41
Fig. 40-21
Additional metabolism that would be
Metabolic rate
200
(kcal per day)

Actual necessary to stay active in winter
metabolism
100
0
Arousals
35
Body
30 temperature
25
Temperature (°C)
20
15
10
5
0
Outside
–5 Burrow
temperature
temperature
–10
–15
June August October December February April
83
• Estivation, or summer torpor, enables

animals to survive long periods of high
temperatures and scarce water supplies
• Daily torpor is exhibited by many small
mammals and birds and seems adapted to
feeding patterns
84
42
Fig. 40-UN1
Homeostasis
Response/effector
Stimulus:
Perturbation/stress
Control center
Sensor/receptor
85
Fig. 40-UN2
86
43
You should now be able to:
1. Distinguish among the following sets of terms:
collagenous, elastic, and reticular fibers;
regulator and conformer; positive and
negative feedback; basal and standard
metabolic rates; torpor, hibernation, estivation,
and daily torpor
2. Relate structure with function and identify
diagrams of the following animal tissues:
epithelial, connective tissue (six types),
muscle tissue (three types), and nervous
tissue
87
3. Compare and contrast the nervous and

endocrine systems
4. Define thermoregulation and explain how
endotherms and ectotherms manage their
heat budgets
5. Describe how a countercurrent heat
exchanger may function to retain heat within
an animal body
6. Define bioenergetics and biosynthesis
7. Define metabolic rate and explain how it can
be determined for animals
88
44

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Basic Principles of Animal

Form and Function

PowerPoint® Lecture Presentations for

Overview: Diverse Forms, Common Challenges

• Anatomy is the study of the biological

Animal form and function are correlated at all levels

• Size and shape affect the way an

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

• The ability to perform certain actions

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

(a) Single cell

• More complex Gastrovascular

0.5 cm Lung tissue

Lining of small intestine Excretory

Unabsorbed Metabolic waste products

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Hierarchical Organization of Body Plans

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Tissue Structure and Function

• Different tissues have different structures that

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

• Epithelial tissue covers the outside of the

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

• The arrangement of epithelial cells may be

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

• Connective tissue mainly binds and

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

• Connective tissue contains cells,

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

– Adipose tissue stores fat for

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Nuclei Fat droplets

Osteon White blood cells

• Muscle tissue consists of long cells called

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Coordination and Control

• The nervous system transmits information

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

• Animals manage their internal

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Regulating and Conforming

• A regulator uses internal control

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

• Organisms use homeostasis to

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

• Mechanisms of homeostasis moderate

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

• Set points and normal ranges can

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Endothermy and Ectothermy

• Ectothermic animals gain heat from external

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

(a) A walrus, an endotherm

(b) A lizard, an ectotherm

• An animal whose body temperature

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Balancing Heat Loss and Gain

• Organisms exchange heat by four

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Heat regulation in mammals often involves the