BIO 200N

Anatomy and
Physiology
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO
ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
LECTURER:
Jonnafe G. Gayatin,
RMT, RN, MAN

Reference Textbook:
Marieb, E. & Keller, S. (2018).
Essentials of human anatomy &
physiology (12th ed.). Pearson
Education Limited.
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Anatomy

– Anatomy
– Study of the structure and shape of
the body and its parts
– Observation is used to see sizes
and relationships of parts

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 Oral cavity
Gross
Esophagus
Anatomy
Stomach

Small
intestine

Large
intestine –Gross anatomy
Rectum

– Large structures
–Easily observable

(i) Digestive System

Breaks food down into absorbable
nutrients that enter the blood for
distribution to body cells; indigestible
foodstuffs are eliminated as feces.
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Microscopic Anatomy
Gastric pits

Gastric pit
Surface
epithelium
– Microscopic anatomy
Pyloric
sphincter Mucous – Structures are too small
Gastric gland

neck cells
to be seen with the
Parietal cells
naked eye
Gastric – Cells and tissues can be
glands viewed only with a
Chief cells
microscope
(c)
Microscopic Anatomy of the stomach.

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Figure 14.4d Anatomy of the stomach.

Pepsinogen Pepsin
HCl

Parietal cells

Chief cells

Enteroendocrine
(d) cell

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Physiology

–Physiology
–Study of how the body
and its parts work or
function

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 Structure
determines what
functions can
occur

Physiology
For example, the air
sacs of the lungs have
very thin walls, a
feature that enables
them to exchange
gases and provide
oxygen to the body

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Levels of Structural
Organization

– Six levels of structural organization

1. Atoms
2. Cells
3. Tissues
4. Organs
5. Organ systems (System)
6. Organism

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Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization. Slide 1

Smooth muscle cell

Atoms
1 Chemical level Molecules
Atoms combine to 2 Cellular level
form molecules. Cells are made up
of molecules.

Smooth
muscle
tissue
3 Tissue level
Blood Tissues consist of
vessels similar types of
cells.
Heart

Epithelial
tissue
Smooth
muscle
tissue Blood
vessel
(organ)
Cardio– Connective
vascular tissue
system
4 Organ level
Organs are made up of
5 Organ system level
6 Organismal level different types of tissues.
Organ systems consist of
Human organisms are
different organs that work
made up of many organ
together closely.
systems.
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 – INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
– Forms the external body covering
(skin) and includes hair and fingernails
– Waterproofs the body
– Cushions and protects deeper tissue
Organ System from injury
Overview
– Produces vitamin D with the help of
sunlight
– Excretes salts in perspiration
– Helps regulate body temperature
– Location of cutaneous nerve receptors

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Figure 1.2a The body’s organ systems.

Hair

Skin

Fingernails

(a) Integumentary System

Forms the external body covering;
protects deeper tissue from injury;
synthesizes vitamin D; location of
sensory receptors (pain, pressure,
etc.) and sweat and oil glands.
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 – SKELETAL SYSTEM
– Consists of bones, cartilages,
ligaments, and joints
– Provides muscle attachment
Organ System
Overview for movement
– Protects vital organs
– Site of blood cell formation
– Stores minerals

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Figure 1.2b The body’s organ systems.

Cartilages

Joint

Bones

(b) Skeletal System

Protects and supports body
organs; provides a framework the
muscles use to cause movement;
blood cells are formed within
bones; stores minerals.
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 – MUSCULAR SYSTEM
– Skeletal muscles contract (or
Organ System shorten)
Overview – Produces movement of bones

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Figure 1.2c The body’s organ systems.

Skeletal
muscles

(c) Muscular System

Allows manipulation of the
environment, locomotion, and
facial expression; maintains
posture; produces heat.
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 – NERVOUS SYSTEM
– Fast-acting control system
– Consists of brain, spinal cord, nerves,
and sensory receptors
– Responds to internal and external
stimuli
Organ System
– Sensory receptors detect changes
Overview
– Messages are sent to the central
nervous system
– Central nervous system assesses
information and activates effectors
(muscles and glands)

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Figure 1.2d The body’s organ systems.

Brain

Sensory
receptor

Spinal
cord

Nerves

(d) Nervous System

Fast-acting control system of the
body; responds to internal and
external changes by activating
appropriate muscles and glands.
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 – ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
– Secretes chemical molecules,
called hormones, into the blood
– Body functions controlled by
Organ System hormones include:
Overview – Growth
– Reproduction
– Use of nutrients

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 – ENDOCRINE SYSTEM (continued)
– Endocrine glands include:
– Pituitary gland
– Thyroid and parathyroids
– Adrenal glands
Organ System – Thymus
Overview – Pancreas
– Pineal gland
– Ovaries (females) and testes
(males)

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Figure 1.2e The body’s organ systems.

Pineal gland

Pituitary gland

Thyroid gland
(parathyroid glands
on posterior aspect)

Thymus gland
Adrenal glands
Pancreas

Testis (male)

Ovary (female)

(e) Endocrine System

Glands secrete hormones that
regulate processes such as growth,
reproduction, and nutrient use by
body cells.
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 – CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
– Includes heart and blood vessels
– Heart pumps blood
– Vessels transport blood to
tissues
– Blood transports:
Organ System
– Oxygen and carbon dioxide
Overview
– Nutrients
– Hormones
– Blood also contains white blood
cells and chemicals that provide
protection from foreign invaders

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Figure 1.2f The body’s organ systems.

Heart

Blood
vessels

(f) Cardiovascular System

Blood vessels transport blood,
which carries oxygen, nutrients,
hormones, carbon dioxide, wastes,
etc.; the heart pumps blood.
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 – LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
– Includes lymphatic vessels, lymph
nodes, and lymphoid organs
– Complements the cardiovascular
Organ System system by returning leaked fluids
Overview back to bloodstream
– Lymph nodes and other lymphoid
organs cleanse the blood
– Houses white blood cells, which
are involved in immunity

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Figure 1.2g The body’s organ systems.

Lymph
nodes

Lymphatic
vessels

(g) Lymphatic System

Picks up fluid leaked from blood
vessels and returns it to blood;
disposes of debris in the
lymphatic stream; houses white
blood cells involved in immunity.
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 – RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
– Includes the nasal passages,
pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi,
and lungs
Organ System – Gases are exchanged with the
Overview blood through air sacs in the lungs
– Supplies the body with oxygen
– Removes carbon dioxide

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Figure 1.2h The body’s organ systems.

Nasal
cavity
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchi
Lungs

(h) Respiratory System

Keeps blood constantly supplied
with oxygen and removes carbon
dioxide; the gaseous exchanges
occur through the walls of the air
sacs of the lungs.
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 – DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
– Includes the oral cavity (mouth),
esophagus, stomach, small and
large intestines, rectum, and
accessory organs
Organ System – Breaks down food
Overview – Allows for nutrient absorption into
blood
– Eliminates indigestible material as
feces

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Figure 1.2i The body’s organ systems.

Oral cavity

Esophagus

Stomach

Small
intestine

Large
intestine

Rectum

(i) Digestive System

Breaks food down into absorbable
nutrients that enter the blood for
distribution to body cells; indigestible
foodstuffs are eliminated as feces.
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 – URINARY SYSTEM
– Includes the kidneys, ureters,
urinary bladder, and urethra
– Eliminates nitrogenous wastes
Organ System
– Maintains acid-base balance
Overview
– Regulates water and electrolyte
balance
– Helps regulate normal blood
pressure

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Figure 1.2j The body’s organ systems.

Kidney

Ureter

Urinary
bladder

Urethra

(j) Urinary System

Eliminates nitrogen-containing
wastes from the body; regulates
water, electrolyte, and acid-base
balance of the blood.
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 – REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
– For males, includes the testes,
scrotum, penis, accessory glands,
and duct system
– Testes produce sperm
– Duct system carries sperm to
Organ System exterior
Overview – For females, includes the ovaries,
uterine tubes, uterus, and vagina
– Ovaries produce eggs
– Uterus provides site of
development for fetus

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Figure 1.2k-l The body’s organ systems.

Mammary
glands
(in breasts)
Prostate
Seminal gland Uterine
vesicles tube

Ovary

Uterus

Penis
Testis
Vagina
Scrotum

(k) Male Reproductive System (l) Female Reproductive System

Overall function of the reproductive system is production of offspring. Testes
produce sperm and male sex hormone; ducts and glands aid in delivery of viable
sperm to the female reproductive tract. Ovaries produce eggs and female sex
hormones; remaining structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of
the fetus. Mammary glands of female breasts produce milk to nourish the newborn.
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NECESSARY
LIFE
FUNCTIONS
 Boundaries
Maintaining separate the
“inside” from
boundaries the “outside”

Locomotion
Movement Movement of
substances

Necessary
Responsiveness Ability to
sense changes Life
(Irritability) and react
Functions

Breakdown
and
Digestion absorption of
nutrients
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Metabolism—chemical
reactions within the body
• Breaks down complex molecules
into smaller ones
• Builds larger molecules from
smaller ones Necessary
• Produces energy (ATP) Life
• Regulated by hormones Functions
Excretion
• Eliminates excreta (waste) from
metabolic reactions
• Wastes may be removed in urine,
feces, or sweat

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Reproduction

• Occurs on cellular level or organismal

level
• On cellular level—new cells are used Necessary
for growth and repair
• On organismal level—the
Life
reproductive system handles the task Functions
Growth

• Increases cell size or body size (through

increasing the number of cells)
• Hormones play a major role

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SURVIVAL
NEEDS
 Survival Needs
Nutrients
Chemicals used for energy and cell
building
Include carbohydrates, proteins,
lipids, vitamins, and minerals
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Oxygen
Required for chemical reactions
Made available by the cooperation of
the respiratory and cardiovascular
systems
Survival Needs
Water
60 to 80 percent of body weight
Most abundant chemical in the
human body
Provides fluid base for body
secretions and excretions
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Normal body temperature
37ºC (98.6ºF)
Below this temperature, chemical
reactions slow and stop
Above this temperature, chemical
reactions proceed too rapidly
Survival Needs

– Atmospheric pressure
– Must be appropriate for gas exchange

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Figure 1.3 Examples of interrelationships among organ systems that illustrate life functions.
Digestive system Respiratory system
Takes in nutrients, digests them Takes in oxygen, which is
(part of metabolism), and excretes required for metabolism, and
unabsorbed matter (feces) excretes carbon dioxide
Food O2 CO2

Cardiovascular system
Via the blood, distributes oxygen
and nutrients to all body cells and
delivers wastes and carbon dioxide
to disposal organs

Blood
CO2
O2

Heart
Urinary system
Nutrients Excretes nitrogen-
containing wastes
and excess ions
Interstitial fluid

Nutrients and wastes pass

between blood and cells
via the interstitial fluid

Integumentary system
Feces are Protects the body as a whole Urine is
excreted from the external environment excreted
by maintaining boundaries
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HOMEOSTASIS
Homeostasis
Maintenance of relatively stable internal
conditions

• A dynamic state of equilibrium, or balance

• Necessary for normal body functioning and to sustain life

Main controlling systems

• Nervous system
• Endocrine system

Homeostatic imbalance

• A disturbance in homeostasis results in disease

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Maintaining Homeostasis

All homeostatic control mechanisms have at

least three components:
• receptor, control center, and effector

Receptor

• Responds to changes in the environment

(stimuli)
• Sends information to control center along an
afferent pathway

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Maintaining Homeostasis

Control center

• Determines set point

• Analyzes information
• Determines appropriate response

Effector

• Provides a means for response to the stimulus

• Information flows from control center to effector along
efferent pathway

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Figure 1.9 The elements of a homeostatic control system. Slide 1

3 Input: Information 4 Output: Information

is sent along afferent Control is sent along efferent
pathway to control Center pathway to effector.
center. Afferent Efferent
pathway pathway
Receptor Effector
2 Receptor
detects change. 5 Response
of effector feeds
back to reduce
1 Stimulus the effect of
produces stimulus and
change in returns variable
VARIABLE (in homeostasis) to homeostatic
variable.
level.

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 • Includes most
homeostatic control
mechanisms
Feedback Negative • Shuts off the original
Mechanisms stimulus or reduces
feedback its intensity
• Works like a
household
thermostat

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 • Rare in the human body
• Increases the original
stimulus to push the
variable farther
Feedback Positive • Reaction occurs at a
Mechanisms
feedback faster rate
• In the body, positive
feedback occurs in blood
clotting and during the
birth of a baby

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Activity
Case Analysis # 1. A mother is breastfeeding an infant
at the health care center while waiting for a regular
check-up. What homeostatic mechanism is
associated with the hormone oxytocin and milk
ejection?

Case Analysis # 2. An athlete has been jogging for

two hours as part of his intensive training for a sports
competition. He has not had anything to drink since
his breakfast this morning and has been sweating
during his exercise. As a result, the Antidiuretic
Hormone (ADH) was released by his body in order to
help maintain fluid balance.
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