Republic of the Philippines

Surigao del Sur State University

Tagbina Campus
Tagbina, Surigao del Sur 8308
Email address: sdssutc2010@yahoo.com Website:
www.sdssu.edu.ph

MODULE
IN

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

(BIO. 4)

NAME: _ _

PROGRAM / YEAR LEVEL: _ _

INSTRUCTOR: _

SEMESTER:

SCHOOL YEAR:

Compiled by:

SHERYL C. PATIÑO

For internal purposes only

Bio 4- Anatomy and Physiology

Lesson 2
Physiology Overview

Introduction
Anatomy is the study of body structure, which includes size, shape, composition, and perhaps even
coloration. Physiology is the study of how the body functions. The physiology of red blood cells, for
example, includes what these cells do, how they do it, and how this is related to the functioning of the rest
of the body. Physiology is directly related to anatomy. For example, red blood cells contain the mineral
iron in molecules of the protein called hemoglobin; this is an aspect of their anatomy. The presence of
iron enables red blood cells to carry oxygen, which is their function. All cells in the body must receive
oxygen in order to function properly, so the physiology of red blood cells is essential to the physiology of
the body as a whole.

Discussion
The human body has different levels of structural organization. Atoms (ex: oxygen) combine to
form molecules (ex: water). Very large molecules called macromolecules (ex: carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins, nucleic acids) are the building blocks used to form any cell (ex: cardiac muscle cell). A group of
similar cells working together is called a tissue (ex: cardiac muscle tissue). A variety of different tissues
working together forms an organ (ex: the heart), and a group of organs working together forms a complex
organ system (ex: cardiovascular system = heart and the blood vessels). These complex organ systems
all working together form an organism (ex: human organism). For convenience, teachers and textbook
authors sometimes discuss each organ system independent of the others. But it should be emphasized
that no organ system exists as an island unto itself because they are all interdependent. Substances such
as water, nutrients, and waste products have to move between organ systems to maintain homeostasis
for the entire organism. Keep in mind when studying physiology that it is common to jump back and forth
between these different levels of structure when learning about physiological mechanisms.
The following ten organ systems are shown in the illustration on the facing page: integumentary
system, musculoskeletal system, nervous and endocrine systems, cardiovascular system, lymphatic/
immune system, respiratory system, digestive system, urinary system, and reproductive systems. This
schematic illustration attempts to show the interrelationships between organ systems. The white rectangular
band around the periphery represents the integumentary system. This includes the skin and all its
components such as hair follicles, oil glands and a host of other structures. Our skin functions as a thin mantle
to protect us from our external environment. The musculoskeletal system provides an internal framework
for support and allows for body movements. Consider that movement would be impossible without muscles
acting on bones as a kind of lever system.
Two organ systems work together to act as the regulators of body function—the nervous and
endocrine systems. Because they both serve a similar purpose, they were placed together in the same box.
Without the nervous system we would have no way to detect stimuli from either our external or internal
environments, no way to process this information, and no way to respond to it. The endocrine system is
composed of glands (ex: pancreas) that release chemical messengers called hormones (ex. insulin), which travel
through the bloodstream to target a particular structure such as an organ to induce a response. Working
together, these two systems help maintain the vital activities that keep us alive.
The cardiovascular system consists of the heart and all the blood vessels (ex. arteries, veins, arterioles,
venules, and capillaries). The heart functions as a pump to constantly circulate blood throughout the body. The
blood vessels must connect to all the other organ systems to deliver nutrients (ex. oxygen) to all the body cells
via the bloodstream.
The following four (4) organ systems contain organs/structures that are hollow: respiratory system,
digestive system, urinary system, and reproductive systems. Structurally speaking, all of these systems have an
internal chamber called a lumen that extends to the external environment. Any substance within this

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Bio 4- Anatomy and Physiology

lumen is still considered part of the external environment until it crosses the wall of that structure and enters
body tissues. The major function of the respiratory system is to exchange the respiratory gases, oxygen and
carbon dioxide, between the body and the external environment. Oxygen is brought in from the external
environment, transferred to the blood, and delivered to body cells. Carbon dioxide is a normal waste product
made by body cells. It is transferred to the blood, then sent back to the respiratory system, where some of it
is released to the external environment.
The digestive system functions to take in nutrients, break them down to their simplest components,
and absorb them into the blood. Then they are delivered to cells. In addition, the digestive system eliminates
waste products from the body. The urinary system constantly filters and processes the blood to eventually
form urine, which contains nitrogen wastes.
The lymphatic and immune systems typically are grouped together (even though they are not illustrated
that way). One major function of the lymphatic system is to take the interstitial fluid found between cells and
to cleanse it of debris and possible pathogens, then to deliver it back to the bloodstream. The immune system
functions to protect the body from foreign pathogens such as bacteria and viruses. For example, when a break
in the skin occurs, pathogens may enter the body and the immune system must launch a response akin to
soldiers going to war. It accomplishes this by making antibodies and other substances that help fight off these
invaders.

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Bio 4- Anatomy and Physiology

Lesson 2- Physiology Overview

Activity 2
Name: Princess May Danao _ Course and Level: BSED 3B
Professor: Sheryl Patino Date:

Complete Me!
Direction: Complete the table below by providing the needed information about the Body System.
Interactions-
System Funct Diagram Major Working with
ion Organs Other
Systems
Integumentary this system performs include skin, The skin and
many intricate hair, nails, other parts of
functions such glands, and the
as body temperature sensory integumentary
regulation, cell fluid nerves. system work
maintenance, with other organ
synthesis of Vitamin systems to
D, and detection of maintain
stimuli. homeostasis .
The skin works
with the immune
system to
defend the body
from pathogens
by serving as a
physical barrier
to
microorganisms
. Vitamin D is
needed by the
digestive
system to
absorb calcium
from food.
Muscular The muscular system The muscular The muscular
is composed of system is an system uses the
specialized cells organ system heart muscles
called muscle fibers. consisting to pump the
Their predominant of skeletal, now Oxygen
function is smooth, and rich blood to the
contractibility. cardiac arteries that
Muscles, attached to muscle. It carry the blood
bones or internal permits to the bodies
organs and blood movement of cells. The
vessels, the body, circulatory
are responsible for maintains system powered
movement. Nearly all posture, and by the heart
movement in the body circulates carries the
is the result of muscle blood Oxygen rich
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Bio 4- Anatomy and Physiology

contraction. throughout the blood to the

body cells.

Skeletal The skeletal system bones, The skeletal

works as a support cartilage, system helps
structure for your ligaments, maintain
body. It gives the and tendons. mineral
body its shape, allows homeostasis
movement, makes by regulating
blood cells, provides the level of
protection for organs calcium and
and stores minerals. other minerals
in the blood by
storing or
releasing them
from bones as
needed. This
process also
helps maintain
homeostasis in
blood pH
because the
minerals are
basic.
Circulatory The circulatory Your heart is the respiratory
system delivers the only and circulatory
oxygen and nutrients circulatory systems work
to cells and takes system organ. together to
away wastes. The provide the
heart pumps body with
oxygenated and oxygen and to
deoxygenated blood rid the body of
on different sides. carbon dioxide.

Nervous The nervous The nervous The nervous

system transmits system system controls
signals between the consists of various organs
brain and the rest of the brain, of the body
the body, including spinal cord, directly. The
internal organs sensory brain also
organs, and receives
all of the information from
nerves that many organs of
connect these the body and
organs with adjusts signals
the rest of the to these organs
body. to maintain
proper
functioning.

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Bio 4- Anatomy and Physiology

Endocrine The endocrine • - The endocrine

system's main hypothalamu system works
function is to regulate s. with the nervous
short-term and long- system and the
• pituitary.
term activities by immune
sending hormones • thyroid. system to help
throughout the body. • parathyroids. the body cope
The relationship with different
• adrenals.
between homeostasis events and
and the endocrine • pineal body. stresses.
system is that the • the ovaries.
glands in the body
• the testes.
produce specific
hormones that help
the body maintain a
balance.
Lymphatic Your lymphatic The key The lymphatic
system, part of your primary system works
immune system, has lymphoid with the
many functions. They organs of the cardiovascular
include protecting immune system to return
your body from system are body fluids to
illness-causing the thymus the blood. The
invaders, maintaining and bone lymphatic
body fluid levels, marrow, and system and the
absorbing digestive secondary cardiovascular
tract fats and lymphatic system are
removing cellular tissues such often called the
waste. Blockages, as spleen, body's two
diseases or infections tonsils, lymph "circulatory
can affect your vessels, systems."
lymphatic system's lymph nodes,
function. adenoids, and
skin and liver.
Immune This system works include The immune
together to protect the thymus system is like a
you from foreign and bone small police
invaders (bacteria, marrow, force that
viruses, parasites, lymph nodes constantly
and fungi) that cause and vessels, patrols every
infection, illness and spleen, and organ and
disease. skin. tissue in your
body. It works
closely with the
circulatory
system for
transportation
needs and the
lymphatic
system for
production of
lymphocytes.
Respiratory The respiratory The main The respiratory
system's main job is organ of the system works
to move fresh air into respiratory with the
your body while system is the circulatory
removing waste lungs. system to
SHERYL C. PATINO gases. provide this 5
oxygen and to
remove the
Bio 4- Anatomy and Physiology

waste products
of metabolism.
It also helps to
regulate pH of
the blood.
Respiration is
the sequence of
events that
results in the
exchange of
oxygen and
carbon dioxide
between the
atmosphere and
the body cells.
Digestive The digestive the mouth, Digestive
system breaks down esophagus, System gets
food into nutrients stomach, nutrients (good)
such as small from food and
carbohydrates, fats intestine, hands it over to
and proteins. They large the blood and
can then be absorbed intestine, Circulatory
into the bloodstream rectum and System then
so the body can use anus. carries those
them for energy, nutrients where
growth and repair. they need to
go.
Filters out waste
from food and
pushes it
through
intestines and
out the body
(and you know
how and where
it gets out).

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Bio 4- Anatomy and Physiology

Urinary The urinary system's The organs of The urinary

function is to filter blood the urinary system works as
and create urine as a system a filter, removing
waste by-product. include toxins and
the kidneys, wastes from
renal pelvis, your body
ureters, through urine. It
bladder and uses a series of
urethra. tubes and ducts
to pass this
waste. These
tubes are
connected to
your blood
vessels and
digestive
system. Your
urinary system
helps the rest of
your body work
properly.
Reproductive The human reproductive In women, The reproductive
system functions the system works
to produce human reproductive together with the
offspring, with the male system nervous,
providing sperm and the includes the endocrine,
female providing the ovaries, the excretory, and
ovum. fallopian circulatory
tubes, the systems. The
uterus, the circulatory
cervix, and system controls
the vagina. In some of the
men, it erectile tissues
includes the of the
prostate, the reproductive
testes, and system.
the penis.
Excretory The function of the Organs of All of them
excretory system to excretion excrete wastes,
remove wastes from the include and together
body. These wastes the skin , liver they make up
include water, CO2, , large the excretory
nitrogen, salts, and heat. intestine , system. The skin
Metabolism: The process lungs , and plays a role in
of the body coverting kidneys excretion
food into energy. As a through the
result of metabolism, production of
there are waste products. sweat by sweat
glands.
Sweating
eliminates
excess water
and salts, as
well as a small
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Bio 4- Anatomy and Physiology
amount of urea,
a byproduct of
protein
catabolism

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Bio 4- Anatomy and Physiology

Metabolism is a collective noun; it is all of the chemical reactions and physical processes that take
place within the body. Metabolism includes growing, repairing, reacting, and reproducing—all the
characteristics of life. The pumping of the heart, the digestion of food in the stomach, the diffusion of gases
in the lungs and tissues, and the production of energy in each cell of the body are just a few of the
thousands of aspects of metabolism. Metabolism comes from a Greek word meaning “change,” and the
body is always changing in visible ways (walking down the street), microscopic ways (cells dividing in
the skin to produce new epidermis) and submicroscopic or molecular ways (RNA and enzymes
constructing new proteins). A related concept, metabolic rate, is most often used to mean the speed at
which the body produces energy and heat or, put another way, energy production per unit of time, such as
24 hours. Metabolic rate, therefore, is one aspect of metabolism.
A person who is in good health may be said to be in a state of homeostasis. Good health is a product
of normal metabolism, and homeostasis reflects the ability of the body to maintain a relatively stable
metabolism and to function normally despite many constant changes. The changes that are part of normal
metabolism may be internal or external, and the body must respond appropriately.
Eating breakfast, for example, brings about an internal change. Suddenly there is food in the
stomach, and something must be done with it. What happens? The food is digested or broken down into
simple chemicals that the body can use. The protein in a hard-boiled egg is digested into amino acids, its
basic chemical building blocks; these amino acids can then be used by the cells of the body to produce
their own specialized proteins.
An example of an external change is a rise in environmental temperature. On a hot day, the body
temperature would also tend to rise. However, body temperature must be kept within its normal range
of about 97° to 99°F (36° to 38°C) to support normal functioning. What happens? One of the body’s
responses to the external temperature rise is to increase sweating so that excess body heat can be lost by
the evaporation of sweat on the surface of the skin. This response, however, may bring about an
undesirable internal change, dehydration. What happens? As body water decreases, we feel the sensation
of thirst, and we drink fluids to replace the water lost in sweating. Notice that when certain body
responses occur, they reverse the event that triggered them. In the preceding example a rising body
temperature stimulates increased sweating, which lowers body temperature, which in turn decreases
sweating. Unnecessary sweating that would be wasteful of water is prevented. This is an example of a
negative feedback mechanism, in which the body’s response reverses the stimulus (in effect, turning it
off for a while) and keeps some aspect of the body metabolism within its normal range.
Look at Fig. 1–3 for another negative feedback mechanism, one in which the hormone thyroxine
regulates the metabolic rate of the body. As metabolic rate decreases, the hypothalamus (a part of the
brain) and the pituitary gland detect this decrease and secrete hormones to stimulate the thyroid gland
(on the front of the neck, just below the larynx) to secrete the hormone thyroxine. Thyroxine stimulates
the cellular enzyme systems that produce energy from food, which increases the metabolic rate. The rise
in energy and heat production is detected by the brain and pituitary gland. They then decrease secretion
of their hormones, which in turn inhibits any further secretion of thyroxine until the metabolic rate
decreases again. Metabolic rate does rise and fall, but it is kept within normal limits.
You may be wondering if there is such a thing as a positive feedback mechanism. There is, but
such mechanisms are rare in the body and quite different from negative feedback mechanisms. In a
positive feedback mechanism, the response to the stimulus does not stop or reverse the stimulus, but
instead keeps the sequence of events going until it is interrupted by some external event. A good example
is childbirth, in which the sequence of events, simply stated, is as follows: Stretching of the uterine cervix
stimulates secretion of the hormone oxytocin by the posterior pituitary gland. Oxytocin stimulates
contraction of the uterine muscle, which causes more stretching of the cervix as the baby is pushed
through, which stimulates the secretion of more oxytocin and, hence, more contractions. The mechanism
stops with the delivery of the baby and the placenta. This is the “brake,” the interrupting event.
Any positive feedback mechanism requires an external “brake,” something to interrupt it. Blood
clotting is such a mechanism, and without external controls, clotting may become a vicious cycle of
clotting and more clotting, doing far more harm than good. Inflammation, the body’s response to damage
of any sort, is beneficial and necessary for tissue repair to begin, but the process may evolve into a cycle
of damage and more damage, and it requires an external control to stop it. The rise of a fever may also

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Bio 4- Anatomy and Physiology

trigger a positive feedback mechanism. Notice in Fig. 1–3 that bacteria have affected the body’s
thermostat in the hypothalamus and caused a fever. The rising body temperature increases the metabolic
rate, which increases body temperature even more, becoming a cycle. Where is the inhibition, the brake?
For this infection, the brake is white blood cells destroying the bacteria that caused the fever. An
interruption from outside the cycle is necessary. It is for this reason, because positive feedback
mechanisms have the potential to be self-perpetuating and cause harm, that they are rare in the body.
Negative feedback mechanisms, however, contain their own brakes, in that inhibition is a natural
part of these cycles, and the body has many such mechanisms. The secretion of most hormones is
regulated by negative feedback mechanisms. The regulation of heart rate and of blood pressure involves
several negative feedback mechanisms. The result of all of these mechanisms working together is that all
aspects of body functioning, that is, of metabolism, are kept within normal limits, a steady state or
equilibrium. This is homeostasis.
In the lessons to come, you will find many more examples of homeostasis. As you continue your study of
the human body, keep in mind that the proper functioning of each organ and organ system contributes to
homeostasis. Keep in mind as well that what we call the normal values of metabolism are often ranges,
not single numbers. Recall that normal body temperature is a range: 97° to 99°F (36° to 38°C). Normal
pulse rate, another example, is 60 to 80 beats per minute; a normal respiratory rate is 12 to 20 breaths
per minute. Variations within the normal range are part of normal metabolism.

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 Bio 4- Anatomy and Physiology

Lesson 2- Physiology Overview

Activity 2
Name: Princess May Danao _ Course and Level: BSED 3B
Professor: Sheryl Patino Date:

1. Number the following events as they would occur in a negative feedback mechanism.
1_ Stimulus
3_ Stimulus occurs again
2_ Response by the body increases
_5 Response by the body decreases
_4 Stimulus is decreased

2. Explain how the physiology of a bone is related to its anatomy. Explain how the physiology of
the hand is related to its anatomy.
Anatomy and physiology are the study of the parts of the body and their relationships to
each other. Each part of a person's body is made up of one or more bones, which work
together to form structures such as hands and arms. When we think about talking about
bones in terms of anatomy, we might mention that they serve as supports for muscles.
Muscles can move bones, and this motion is what causes our bodies to move. We might also
mention that bones also protect many of the organs of our bodies, such as the brain
and heart. However, it isn't simply bones that we are interested in when we are thinking
about anatomy. The study of anatomy also includes nerves and blood vessels, which carry
information around the body. The only way for these parts of the body to work together is if
they are connected. Different types of connections allow different parts to work together at
different times.

3. Give an example of an external change and explain how the body responds to maintain
homeostasis.
External factors that disrupt homeostasis are known as stressors. For example, stressors
can come from our environment, such as extreme temperature; physical injury; chemical
exposure (i.e., pollution); or psychological stress of the absence of positive interaction with
others. The body responds to environmental stimuli and maintains equilibrium by changing
those bodily functions that are most easily disrupted in order to maintain homeostasis. For
example, if a person is exposed to extreme heat, the body may sweat to reduce body
temperature. Sweating is simply one means of many that the body has in order to maintain a
certain internal environment, whether it be thermal regulation or pH maintenance.

4. Give an example of an internal change and explain how the body responds to maintain
homeostasis.
The body does not need to store water like it does for energy. It needs to maintain homeostasis so
that many of the bodily processes can function. For example, if you have a fever and start sweating,
your mouth will dry up because fluids are drawn from other parts of the body in order to keep an
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 Bio 4- Anatomy and Physiology

even temperature throughout. The obvious external change is that more sweat is excreted through
the pores and there is an increased volume of urine being excreted from the kidneys but internally
there are many changes going on as well.
Another example of an internal change is when a person gains weight. The body will most likely
react by secreting hormones that increase one's metabolic rate in order to burn more calories for
the given amount of food consumed. The goal is maintaining homeostasis since obesity can lead to
more health problems.

5. Briefly explain how a negative feedback mechanism works and how a positive feedback
mechanism differs.

A negative feedback mechanism is when a system takes action to reduce the effects of an undesired change
or event. In contrast, a positive feedback mechanism reinforces or amplifies an undesired change or event. For
instance, if the temperature goes up in your house and you want it to go back down, that means you are
experiencing a negative feedback loop. You can close the doors, turn up the heat and turn down the air
conditioning. This is a way your house is able to fix a change that is annoying you. Now, when you are looking
to warm up your food in a microwave and it gets really hot and starts burning, this is an example of positive
feedback. You will likely open the microwave door so it stops heating; however, that generates more heat as
well as causes fire escalation.

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Bio 4- Anatomy and Physiology

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