2.

3 SPECIALIZED CELLS
2.3 Specialised Cells
❖ Outline the structures, functions & distribution
of unspecialised cells found in plants
(meristematic cells)
❖ Outline the structures, functions & distribution
of specialised plant cells found in epidermal,
ground & vascular tissue
❖ Describe the structures, functions &
distribution of specialised animal cells found
in connective, nervous, muscular & epithelial
tissues, including the formation of endocrine &
exocrine glands
TISSUE – a group of cells, including substances between
cells that carry out a specific function. These cells have the
same embryonic origin as well as the same structure &
function.
E.g. – muscle , epithelium, nerve, parenchyma, vascular.
ORGAN – larger functional unit made up of several types of
tissue that are coordinated to carry out several functions.
E.g. – stomach (epithelium, muscle, nerve tissue)
SYSTEM – made up of several organs that are
interconnected via ducts, sinuses or channels.
E.g. – digestive system (mouth, esophagus, stomach, liver
& intestines)
HISTOLOGY – study of tissue. Aided by light & electron
microscope

Organisms - Organisms -
Cell to Organisms Cell to Organisms
Cell Cell Cell Cell Cell Cell Cell

System System
Tissue Tissue Tissue

Organ Organ
Organism
System System

Organisms Organisms

Cell - Different cells carry

out different jobs.
A group of cells doing
similar jobs form a tissue.
Muscle Tissue

Organisms Organisms

Epithelial Tissue Protect structure

beneath it. Nerve Tissue
 Organisms Organisms

Connective Tissue Join all parts of the Epidermal Tissue Protect plant from
organisms. injury or drying up.

Organisms Organisms

Vascular tissue transport food and

water to various part of the plant. Supporting Tissue give support

Organisms Organisms

Organs are different

tissues working
together to do a
Photosynthetic Tissue to carry out particular job.
photosynthesis.

Organisms Organisms
Stomach Epithelial,
Muscle and Connective Heart Muscle, Blood,
Tissue : and Connective Tissue:
To digest food Pumps blood around
the body
 Organisms Organisms
Brain Nerve and A System comprises
Connective tissues : different organs
Controls and working together to do
coordinates the various a particular job.
systems in the body

Organisms Organisms
Digestive System
Circulatory System

Organisms Organisms
Other Important Systems Division of Labour
in body : In multicellular organisms,
•Nerve system different cells, tissues,
•Skeletal system organs and systems are
•Respiratory system specialised in carrying
•Reproductive system particular tasks.
Organisms Organisms

Red blood cells carry O2 around the

body Fat cells to store fat
 Organisms Organisms

Plant guard cells to control size

of the openings Nerve cells to carry messages

2.3.1 PLANT CELLS (i) MERISTEM

PRIMARY MERISTEM – originates directly from embryonic
meristem.
PLANT TISSUE SECONDARY MERISTEM – formed from a permanent
tissue e.g. parenchyma.
MERISTEM TISSUE PERMANENT TISSUE
Interfasicular cambium develops from parenchyma tissue
found between vascular bundles in a dicot. stem.
PRIMARY SECONDARY EPIDERMAL GROUND TISSUE VASCULAR TISSUE
MERISTEM MERISTEM TISSUE
Phellogen (cork cambium) forms from epidermis tissue.
EPIDERMIS PARENCHYMA XYLEM
DISTRIBUTION : shoot apex, root apex & tip of lateral
PERIDERM
COLLENCHYM
PHLOEM
shoot/bud.
A
In vascular bundles between xylem & phloem (k.a. vascular
SCLERENCHY
MA
CAMBIUM cambium). Exists as a separate strip between permanent
tissue e.g. at internode region.
ENDODERMIS

STRUCTURE : Cell size small.

Shape cuboid, cubical or spherical. Plant Tissue Types
Cytoplasm dense with organelles. Nucleus large in • Meristematic Tissues are comprised of group
comparison with overall cell size. Vacuoles are small of meristematic cells that retain the ability for
or non-existent. cell division. The cells are usually small with thin
Cells are arranged closely with little or no space between primary cell wall and few vacuoles.
cells.
• Apical meristematic tissue is found in the
Primary cell wall only – thin & composed of cellulose,
growing tip of shoots and roots.
hemicellulose & pectin.
• Lateral meristems give rise to secondary growth
FUNCTIONS : of tubers, storage roots and woody stems.
(1) Formation of other tissues in plant i.e. epidermal, • Intercalary meristems are found in the growing
vascular & ground tissue.
stems of monocot
(2) Causes growth esp. elongation of shoot, root &
internodal region (primary/apical meristem).
(3) Causes increase in girth ( secondary/lateral meristem).

I. Vascular Plant Body

http://www.pe.ipw.agrl.ethz.ch/pages/roots/home.htm

Root system- generally underground and obtains water

and dissolve nutrient minerals for the plant; anchorage
III. Plant Growth growth is localized to specific
areas called meristems, where cell division, cell
elongation, and cell differentiation take place.
Basswood sections
made after one,
two, and three
years of growth.
2) Secondary Growth- is an increase in stem and
root girth (thickness); woody plants have both primary
and secondary growth, herbaceous plants have only
primary growth; the two lateral meristems responsible
for this growth are the vascular cambium and the
cork cambium
Plant Growth (continued)
• Primary growth—an increase in the
length/height of a plant : apical meristem
• Secondary growth—an increase in the
width/diameter of a plant : lateral meristem
• All plants have primary growth; only woody
plants have secondary growth
• Herbaceous (& monocot) plants have only
primary growth
Plant Growth (continued)
• Vascular cambium—produces new xylem,
phloem, and inner bark
• Cork cambium—produces new outer bark
1) Primary Growth- is an increase in stem and root
length; occurs in all plants; results in activity of
apical meristems that are localized at the tips of
roots and the buds of stems.
Plant Growth
• Plants contain zones of unspecialized cells,
called meristems, whose only function is to
divide
• Each time one of these cells divides into two,
one of the cells remains in the meristem and the
other differentiates into one of the 3 main plant
tissues i.e. dermal, ground & vascular
• Growth of a plant is an increase in cell number
and/or an increase in cell size
• There are two types of growth in plants :
primary growth and secondary growth
Plant Growth (continued)
• Primary growth occurs because of cell
division within apical meristem, which is
located at the tips of roots and
stems/shoots
• Secondary growth occurs because of cell
division within lateral meristem, which is
located on the sides of roots and stems
• There are 2 types of lateral meristem :
vascular cambium and cork cambium
Division of meristem cells causes plant growth
 Meristems
Direction of
Type Location
Growth
Apical
Meristem Tips of shoot Increase in
(primary and root Height
meristem)
Lateral
Cylinders
Meristem Increase in
within plant
(secondary Width
body
meristem)

EPIDERMIS
DISTRIBUTION : Outermost layer of plant organs except
for woody stems & roots with periderm.
STRUCTURE : Usually single layer of cells.
Shape elongated cuboid. Primary cell wall but that on
outer side of plant is slightly thicker for better
protection.
Without chloroplasts & transparent/translucent so that
light can penetrate.
Epidermal cells on organs above ground level secrete
waterproof layer of wax & lipid (cutin) on surface, k.a.
cuticle.
Stoma present on epidermis of leaves, flowers & stems for
exchange of gases & for water loss.
Epidermal tissues can have hair k.a. trichome, which have
many functions, e.g. root hairs (unicellular) [vs hairs on
stems – multicellular].

FUNCTIONS :
(1) Protection from mechanical injuries & pathogen
attacks.
(2) Epidermis with root hairs for absorption of water &
minerals.
(3) Stomata on epidermis for gaseous exchange
between plant & atmosphere.
(4) Cuticle on epidermis prevents water evaporation from
plant.
(5) Trichomes protect plants from being eaten by
animals. Some also secrete gum, resin or oils.
(6) Trichomes important in regulating temperature & for
water balance in leaves.
(7) Epidermis also stores water & food.
(8) Cutin found in cuticle acts to prevent pathogen
growth.
ENDODERMIS
DISTRIBUTION : Border between cortex & vascular
bundles (innermost layer of cortex) of roots.
STRUCTURE : Cuboid shaped. Each cell has a Casparian
strip (suberine/wax deposits) surrounding the cell on
the 4 sides that do not come in contact with either
cortex cells or vascular cells.
FUNCTION : To control types of ions transported from
roots. Water & ions absorbed by roots must pass
through the endodermis before entering xylem to enter
the stem. Endodermal cells are selective & only
selected ions needed by the plant are allowed to enter
the xylem tissue.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRUCTURE & FUNCTION :

80% of water in roots moves through cell wall, k.a.
apoplast pathway. Casparian strip prevents water from
moving in apoplast in endodermis.
So water forced to enter cytoplasm (symplast pathway) of
endodermal cells. Endodermal cells are selective only
allow certain ions to enter xylem.

EXODERMIS
DISTRIBUTION : Outermost layer of cortex; situated below
epidermis.
STRUCTURE : Can have Casparian strip, but most have
lamella with suberine & protected by thick cellulose cell
wall.
 PERIDERM
Replaces epidermis when stems, roots & leaves of
woody plants increase in girth as a result of
secondary growth.
Outermost layer of stem of woody plants.
Complex tissue comprising :
(i) phellem (cork) – dead tissue, protective function,
with suberine thickening on cell walls. Lumen with air
spaces. Cork cells arranged compactly making cork
tissue impermeable to water, except at lenticels.
(ii) phellogen (cork cambium) – secondary meristem,
originating from several parenchyma layers from
cortex near epidermis.
(iii) phelloderm (secondary cortex) – live parenchyma
tissue.

FUNCTIONS :
(1) Cork gives mechanical protection, prevents water
loss, provides insulation & protection against entry
of pathogens.
(2) Presence of lenticels enables gaseous exchange &
transpiration to take place.
(3) Phelloderm can store food.

3. Dermal Tissue System is

the outer protective
covering of the plant
body
A) Epidermal cells cover
the herbaceous plant
body; the epidermal
layer secretes a waxy
cuticle to minimize
water loss; gas exchange
occurs through
specialized dermal cells
known as stomata
B) Periderm covers the
woody parts of the plant
body in woody species

(ii) PARENCHYMA
Most widely distributed ground tissue (tisu asas).
DISTRIBUTION : Cortex of stems & roots, in pith, in leaves
as mesophyll layer, in vascular bundles as xylem &
phloem parenchyma, and in fruit & flower tissues.
STRUCTURE :
Many shapes – spherical (spongy mesophyll), cuboid
(palisade mesophyll), uneven.
Have large vacoule.
Primary cell wall built from cellulose, hemicellulose &
pectin. In some plants, cell wall strengthened with lignin.
Active metabolism, live when mature.
Chloroplasts present in mesophyll cells in leaves (a.k.a.
chlorenchyma).
Cells usually arranged loosely with large intercellular
spaces.
Aquatic plants have parenchyma tissue k.a. aerenchyma
with large air spaces between cells (to help in floating).
 FUNCTIONS :
(1) Main packing tissue in plants. Cells are large & with
cytoplasm.
(2) Those with chloroplasts can carry out
photosynthesis. Mesophyll cells in leaves.
(3) Give support turgidity of parenchyma cells provide
main support to non-woody plants. Presence of large
vacoule with high osmotic pressure helps cell stay
turgid.
(4) Acts as tissue for storage of water, starch grains, fat
droplets & also salts in stems, roots & leaves.
(5) Parenchyma cells found between vascular bundles
convert to interfasicular cambium/meristem.
(6) Can be thickened with lignin for support.
(7) Some maintain ability to divide important in
secondary growth & repair of injured tissue.

(iii) COLLENCHYMA FUNCTIONS :

Support tissue for plants undergoing growth; in
non-woody stems & in leaves.
DISTRIBUTION : Outer layer of cortex, i.e. below epidermis
(hypodermis) of young stems. Below mid vein of leaf
& probably above too.
STRUCTURE : Elongated, polygon shaped cells with
tapering cell wall ends. Corners of cell wall thickened
with cellulose & pectin, no suberine & lignin cells
are live. Simple pits usually present on cell wall. Some
have chloroplasts. Walls rich with water because
pectin is hydrophilic.
Collenchyma tissue tough but flexible, enabling
surrounding tissues to elongate easily.
(1) Main function to give mechanical support to
young organs, esp. root & stem, without
suppressing growth.
(2) Provides protection.
Corners of collenchyma cells thickened with
cellulose. This strengthens, but also gives
support & protection, while allowing for
elongation. Therefore, important as support
tissue without preventing growth.
(3) Those with chloroplasts can carry out
photosynthesis.
(4) Some used to store food.

(iv) SCLERENCHYMA
Support tissue, stronger than collenchyma. Consists of
mature cells which are dead due to lignin deposits. Two
types i.e. sclereids (spherical) & fibers (elongated).

DISTRIBUTION : (1) FIBERS Pericycle of dicot stems

forming cover on vascular bundles, hypodermis (below
epidermis) of roots & stems, in xylem & phloem tissues,
in skin & pulp of fruits & seeds, and below vascular
bundles of leaves.
(2) SCLEREIDS Widely distributed in body of
plant; in stems, skin & pulp of fruits, leaves & seeds.

STRUCTURE : (1) FIBERS Long, polygon (1 mm – 50 cm)

with tapering ends. Walls with lignin thickening. Simple
pits present in cell wall.

(2) SCLEREIDS Varied shapes & sizes :

endocarp of pear – sphere, endocarp of apple – long.
Cell wall thickened with layers of lignin. Mature cells
are dead without cytoplasm. Branched pits can be
present in cell wall.
FUNCTIONS :
(1) Most important role support. Sclerenchyma fibers
provide support to woody plant.
(a) Cell wall thickened with lignin, so sclerenchyma
cells are strong.
(b) Sclerenchyma fibers are clumped together &
arranged end to end, parallel to length of stem/root,
thus enabling fibers to withstand compression
(mampatan).
(2) Sclereids strengthen structures where they are found.
(3) Also play a protective role.
1. Ground Tissue consists of
threes cell types having a
variety of functions:
A) Parenchyma- living cells
with thin primary CW;
functions include PS,
storage, and secretion
B) Collenchyma- living cells
with unevenly thickened
primary CW; offer flexible
structural support
C) Sclerenchyma- often dead
at maturity, sclerenchyma
cells (sclereids and fibers)
have thickened primary and
secondary CW; offer rigid
structural support

SIMPLE PITS & BORDERED PITS

PIT areas on cell wall where secondary thickening does

not take place.
At pit region, cell wall composed of primary cell wall only.
Pit in one wall always formed opposing pit in
neighbouring wall. This is known as a pit pair, which is
separated by the pit membrane, i.e. primary wall &
middle lamella.

Simple pit pit with pore that has uniform width.

Bordered pit secondary wall curves above the pit to

form borders. In most of these pits, a spherical lignified
structure k.a. a torus, exists in the center. The torus
functions as a valve.

(v) XYLEM
DISTRIBUTION : In vascular bundles
STRUCTURE : Xylem is a compound tissue, i.e. made up of
several types of cells :
(i) TRACHEIDS – elongated, polygon, with tapering ends.
Cell wall thickened with lignin (dead cells with no
cytoplasm) in many patterns, i.e. annular, spiral or
pitted (bordered pits). Connected end to end, forming
long tubes. End walls have pits or pores to connect
lumen of neighbouring cells (for easy passage of
water).
(ii) XYLEM VESSELS – long tubes made up of cells
connected end to end with no end wall, so lumen forms
a continuous tube. A single cell k.a. vessel element. Cell
wall also thickened with lignin in many patterns, i.e.
annular, spiral, reticulate, scalariform or pitted.
Generally shorter & wider than tracheids.

(iii) XYLEM PARENCHYMA – live cells. Function to store

food for xylem.
(iv) SCLERENCHYMA FIBERS – longer with thicker walls &
smaller lumen than tracheids.
** In protoxylem (vessel elements that are formed first),
lignification pattern is annular or spiral. This allows for
cell elongation when plant grows. Annular lignification
before plant lengthens causes wall between rings to
curve inwards during cell elongation.
** Thickening in metaxylem (xylem tissue formed later) is in
scalariform, reticulate or pitted patterns. Lumen of
metaxylem is bigger than in protoxylem. This is
because the water needs of plant are greater when
metaxylem is formed.
Functions of lignin thickening :
(1) To form empty lumen for transport of water (lignification kills
vessel elements).
(2) To strengthen vessels so that walls do not collapse during
transport of water.
 FUNCTIONS :
(1) To transport liquid in plants. (i) Primary xylem – protoxylem &
Modifications in structure of tracheids & xylem metaxylem, formed during growth of
vessels include: (a) large, empty lumen to carry plant & formed from apical
large amount of water.
meristem. [Increase in length of
(b) lignification of walls for strengthening so
that walls do not collapse during water
plant]
transport.
(ii) Secondary xylem/secondary wood –
(c) pores & pits on end walls to connect lumen formed during secondary thickening,
of neighbouring cells.
as a result of division of vascular
(2) To provide mechanical support to plants.
cambium, i.e. lateral meristem.
(a) presence of sclerenchyma fibers in xylem
tissue.
[Increase in girth of plant]
(b) lignification of tracheid & vessel walls.

Plant Tissue Types

• Vascular Tissue provides the conduits for
movement of water and nutrients in the plant. It
consists of xylem which functions primarily for
water conduction, support and storage. Xylem has
several types of cells which include tracheids and
vessel elements.

(vi) PHLOEM FUNCTIONS :

DISTRIBUTION : Outer part of vascular bundles in stems.
STRUCTURE : Composed of 4 types of cells
(i) SIEVE TUBES – long tubes made up of sieve tube
elements connected end to end. Neighbouring
elements connected via large pits, forming sieve
plates. Cell wall of mature elements thickened with
cellulose & pectin; do not have nucleus, vacoule &
many organelles, with very thin cytoplasm. Live cell
although does not have nucleus. Strands of cytoplasm
fill sieve tube & run along its length & through sieve
plates (believed to produce translocation)
(ii) COMPANION CELLS – live cells with nucleus & other
organelles found alongside (i). Have primary wall only.
Play role in movement of food in & out of sieve tubes.
Provide metabolic needs of sieve tubes.
(iii) PHLOEM PARENCHYMA – stores food.
(iv) SCLERENCHYMA FIBERS – for support.
(1) For translocation of food/organic substances like
carbohydrates & amino acids.
(a) Presence of large space in center of sieve tubes
due to shrinking of cytoplasm & also absence of
nucleus & mitochondria in mature cells.
(b) Presence of end wall with holes (sieve plate) to
form sieve tube with continuous space.
(c) Fine strands of cytoplasm present along length of
sieve tube which are believed to be directly involved
in flow of food in sieve tubes.
(d) Companion cells found alongside sieve tubes
provide needs of sieve tubes, i.e. ATP & food.
(2) To provide mechanical support to plant.
Presence of sclerenchyma fibers.
 Plant Tissue Types
• Vascular Tissue also consist of phloem, the
photosynthate-conducting tissue of vascular plants.
Phloem, like xylem, is composed of several types of
cells; however phloem tends to be less sclerified.
Directional allocation of the photosynthate depends
on position and strength of completing sinks with
the plant.

2. Vascular Tissue System

conducts materials
throughout the plant body
& gives strength/support
A) Xylem conducts mostly
water and low amounts of
some dissolved nutrients
throughout the plant; the
actual conducting cells are
tracheids and vessel
elements
B) Phloem conducts dissolved
sugars and nutrients; the
actual conducting cells are
sieve tube members that are
assisted by companion cells

EXERCISE 1. Which of the following statements is true

1.With the aid of labelled diagrams, explain of a sclerenchyma cell?
the structure and function of the following A. The cell can retain the ability to divide &
plant tissues : differentiate into other types of plant cells.
(a) parenchyma, [5m]
B. The mature cell exists in the region of the
(b) sclerenchyma, [5m]
plant that has stopped growing in length.
(c) collenchyma. [5m]
C. The mature cell has primary wall that is
2.With the aid of labelled diagrams, describe relatively thin & flexible with most of the
the structure of the following tissues : cells lacking secondary walls.
(a) xylem, [5m] D. The cell can perform most of the
(b) phloem. [5m] metabolic functions, synthesize & store
various organic products.
 Open end
2. The diagram shows a tissue 3. The diagram shows different
made from macerated secondary
Thick, types of lignification in xylem.
lignified wall
tissue of a hardwood tree. Which of the following is true about
Pits
the types of lignification?
Which of the following is the tissue?
R S T
A. Tracheid
B. Sieve element R S T
C. Vessel element A Reticulate Scalariform Pitted
D. Xylem parenchyma cell B Reticulate Pitted Scalariform
C Pitted Scalariform Reticulate
D Scalariform Reticulate Pitted

4. Tissue X is a plant tissue which 5. Which of the following tissues are able to
possesses the following features : photosynthesize, provide support & have
cell walls which are water permeable?
❖ Consists of dead cells
❖ Walls are very lignified I Parenchyma
❖ Has a very narrow lumen II Collenchyma
III Sclerenchyma
❖ Cells are tapered at the end
IV Xylem
What is tissue X?
A. Collenchyma B. Xylem A. I and II B. III and IV
C. Parenchyma D. Sclerenchyma C. I, II and III D. I, II and IV

6. Which of the following consists of tubular cells 8. Which of the following statements are
with lignified cell walls & the cells do not true about xylem?
contain protoplast?
ICompanion cells provide nutrients to the
A. Parenchyma B. Collenchyma
xylem.
C. Xylem D. Phloem
II Xylem consists of vessel elements &
tracheids.
7. Which of the following cells have undergone
differentiation? III Mature xylem cells are dead cells.
ISieve tubes II Endodermis IV Xylem cells contain pits.
III Meristem IV Tracheid
A. I & III B. I, II & III A. I & III B. I, II & III
C. I, II & IV D. II, III & IV C. II, III & IV D. I, II, III & IV

9. Which is not true of parenchyma cells? 10. Which of the following are not true about
A. The fleshy tissue of fruits is composed collenchyma cells?
mostly of parenchyma cells. IThe cells are polygonal-shaped with
B. Parenchyma cells have thicker primary tapering ends
walls than those of collenchyma cells. II They are dead cells
C. Photosynthesis occurs within the III The cell walls are evenly thickened
chloroplast of parenchyma cells of the IV There is very little or no intercellular air
leaf. space
D. Most parenchyma cells retain the ability A. I and II B. II and III
to divide & differentiate into other types of C. I, II and III D. II, III and IV
plant cells.