OTTOMAN LITERATURE

HISTORY

Literature of the Ottoman Empire spans nearly 700 years of writing and has its roots in the
literary traditions of pre-Islamic Turkish groups living in Central Asia. From these groups emerged epic
tales that became a part of Ottoman culture in later centuries. In its early stages (in the 13 th century),
Ottoman literature consisted mostly of translations of Arabic and Persian books on religion and ethics.
The 14th century saw a development in the volume of production and the elaboration of textual language.
The 16th century heralded Ottoman literature’s golden age. From then until the close of the classical
period in the 19th century, Ottoman writers flourished in their artistry. With the Tanzimat reform, Ottoman
literature was infused with elements of the West, opening Ottoman literature to never seen forms such as
plays, novels and short stories. In the late centuries of the Ottoman Empire, traditions of classical
Ottoman literature began to fade with the advent of Westernized literary styles. Despite the change,
Ottoman literature remains a rich gem in history.

LANGUAGE

The written language of the Ottoman Empire was Ottoman Turkish, a language based off of
spoken Turkish with Persian and Arabic influences. Ottoman Turkish differed from the Turkish spoken
by common people. As a result, Ottoman high literature, such as poetry and prose, was enjoyed by mostly
the elite. However, a number of common people rose to literary prominence by excelling in oral literature.

CLASSICAL LITERATURE

Classical Ottoman literature is divided into folk literature, mystical literature and divan literature.
These are portrayed through poetry and prose.

P O ET R Y
 Poetry was the empire’s primary form of literary expression. It was composed in aruz—a pattern
of long and short syllables borrowed from Persian traditions. The basic structural unit of Ottoman poetry
was the couplet.

Chiefly lyric in nature, Ottoman poetry had three main genres: dealing with love, eulogies and
romance. A recurring theme was that of the lover, the beloved and the rival. Often, the poems served as a
eulogy to the Sultan, with the lover being read as the poet and the beloved as the Sultan.

PROSE

Prose—or writing without metrical structure—did not rise to the same prominence as poetry did
in the Ottoman Empire. Even so, it was enjoyed by many in the literary circle and had its own features
and styles. Two styles of prose were seen in the Ottoman Empire: that of plain prose and stylistic or
rhymed prose. By the 15th century, plain prose was used for religious, mystic and epic books written for
propaganda purposes while stylistic prose was used for books on medicine, astronomy, travel books,
history and the biographies of poets.

FOLK LITERATURE

While Ottoman literature is dominated by the elite, common people played a significant role in
Ottoman literature. Folk literature varies from classical Ottoman literature in that it is passed from
generation to generation and is told orally in spoken Turkish. Folk literature took three forms: in poetry;
long, interconnected stories; and theatre (Karagoz). Poetry was often sung and stories were told by master
storytellers at coffeehouses or at special occasions. Karagoz, a form of shadow puppetry performed at
coffeehouses were often used for political and social satire.

OTTOMAN MUSIC

OVERVIEW

Changing borders, migrating populations and a number of ethno-linguistic communities within its
sovereignty meant that the music of the Ottoman empire was rich in diversity. The words “Ottoman
music” however, often explicitly refer to the unique music of the imperial state and urban society of the
Ottoman Empire: including palaces, mosques, the court, lodges of the Mevlevi Order, churches and
synagogues.

FEATURES

Classical Ottoman music followed the style of chamber music, being performed in close settings
by a small group of singers and instrumentalists. Popular instruments were the tanbur (a long necked
lute), the Mevlevi ney (reed flute), cenk (small harp), miskal (panpipes), string instruments like the
kemence and percussion instruments like the bendir (vertical drum) and kudum (drums from Mevlevi
music).

IMPORTANT INFLUENCES

A r a b-Per si a n

The Ottoman courts had interactions with the music of Arab-Persian music even before its
inception. In the 16th century, after the conquest of Tabriz, Baghdad and Arab territories, Persian
musicians arrived in Constantinople and contributed Persian compositional forms and modes. A separate
Ottoman style was taking shape by the 17th century. It was defined by its poetic language and new musical
forms and modes unique to its Arab-Persian influences.

Mev lev i Or d er

The Mevlevi Order of Sufis (or Whirling Dervishes) is a group of Sufi devotees that originated in
the 13th century. By the 15th, the Order began to develop a distinct musical form call the ayin, meant to
accompany religious dancing. The Order came to influence Ottoman music as the Order’s own brand of
composers and musicians interacted with the Ottoman courts.

O T H ER G E N R E S

Mi li ta r y Ba nd s

The Ottoman Empire’s military band is the world’s oldest. The characteristics of military music
were in sharp contrast to the characteristics of classical Ottoman music, being both loud and shrill and
employing different instruments such as trumpets, cymbals and oboes. The music was performed for state
ceremonies and in battle for celebratory purposes, raising morale and as a form of intimidation.
 MUSIC THEORY

The Ottoman Empire followed the Ancient Greek system of tetrachords or pentachords—series of
four or five notes respectively. These tetrachords, when joined, formed makams which is the equivalent of
European scales. However, unlike European scales, they are different in that they can be defined by their
melody. The repertoire of Ottoman music was rich in hundreds of makams that went in and out of
fashion. Pieces might be composed in the same makam, but differ in rhythmic pattern and compositional
structure, not unlike the format of a Baroque suite or European concerto.

OTTOMAN ART

ARTS OF THE BOOK

Persia had a strong influence on Ottoman culture and artistic tastes. For one, the “arts of the
book” is a tradition borrowed from Persian and Turkoman dynasties. The term refers to art forms that
embellish written texts and includes calligraphy, miniature painting, illumination, paper marbling and
book binding among others.

Ca lli gr a phy

Calligraphy was held at the highest esteem among the book arts. The technique of ornamental
writing was used in decrees, Korans, court writings among other important texts. Calligraphy had been
important to the Islamic world long before the Ottomans. The art form however, reached its peak in the
Ottoman Empire.

Calligraphy was not an art form practiced by any and all. It was a strict discipline taught in a
master-apprentice relationship that took years to complete.

Mi ni a tur e Pa inti ng

Miniatures often accompanied books as illustrations. Bright and contrasting colors were used,
with the most common being scarlet, green and shades of blue. The colors were obtained by mixing
pigment with egg whites, and later with diluted Arabic gum. Unlike in European art, the work of creating
a miniature was often not individual as a head painter would design the composition and his apprentices
would draw in the contours and paint.

The lack of realism and perspective in miniatures is a result of underlying Ottoman philosophies.
They avoided mimesis of worldly beings, preferring to abstract and stylise them instead: they felt that
worldly beings were not permanent and therefore not worth realistic representations.

Pa per m a r bli ng

The oldest sample of paper marbling dates back to 986 CE in China. By the 15 th century, paper
marbling was seen in Central and South Asia.

Paper marbling is a technique that begins with producing patterns with dyes on liquid. Paper is
then placed over the surface of the liquid, allowing the pattern to be imprinted on the paper. The results of
paper marbling are often used as surfaces for calligraphy, endpapers or book covers.

Illum i na ti o n

Illumination refers to the non-figurative, decorative art found in books either surrounding the text
or found within it. Illuminations were full of repeating patterns and bright colors. They are highly detailed
and ornamental.