Chapt 8: Development and Quality of LIfe

Words to know:

What is development?
Development is a progressive process. Its aim is to achieve economic growth for the
country. With economic growth, the country will enjoy a high standard of living and quality
of life.

Standard of living refers to the goods and services available to people in the environment
they live in. if you have access to education, health care and basic amenities, you can be
said to enjoy a high standard of living.

Quality of life refers to the degree of personal satisfaction/ dissatisfaction with your
lifestyle and living conditions. This looks beyond the basic needs of the people. It may
refer to factors such as political and religious freedom, environment and non-material
things.

Quality of life is harder to measure because it involves the perception of people.

Characteristics of Development

a. it is a continuous process. There is no ceiling to development. No country can say that it

has achieved the highest level of development possible.

b. the pace of development varies from country to country. It is possible for some
countries to be held back because of uncertainties such as political instability and
environmental disasters.

c. The result of development can be both positive and negative. For example,
industrialisation which brings about higher standard of living can increase the pollution in
the country.

Classification of Countries

The most common classification is to group countries into Developed Countries (DCs) or
Less Developed Countries (LDCs)

Why do countries develop unevenly?

The Core-Periphery Model

This model by John Friedmann attempt to explain the differences in regional development.

Core countries are richer and developed countries while periphery refers to the poorer and
less developed countries.

The theory proposes that development was initially brought about by natural advantages
such as presence of natural resources, good natural harbour and plentiful supply of cheap
labour. These advantages stimulate development and over time , the region is able to
establish a reputation for growth. Infrastructure becomes better and skills of the labour
increase. This attracts more and more investments. Eventually, the development of these
countries outpace the surrounding areas. They become the core countries.

The periphery countries have less employment opportunities and poorer infrastructure
than the core. They lack the skill and technology to manufacture finished products. Hence,
core countries buy raw materials , processed them and sell the finished products back to
the periphery countries at a higher price.

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At the same time, skilled labour tend to go to core countries for better jobs and std of
living. Hence the periphery is drained of labour and wealth.
In the core-periphery relationship, the core develops at the expense of the periphery.
While the core attains higher standard of living, the economic growth in the periphery is
slowed down or stagnated.

In the past, colonised countries were often the peripheries and become exploited. They
become dependent on core for trade and development.

Uneven development within countries (on national level)

Within a country, the core is usually the capital city. It is the most developed part of the
country with the best infrastructure like CBD, banking etc. and the highest std of living.
It therefore attracts the most capital and talent.

The periphery becomes the areas outside and surrounding the city. As the distance from
the city increases, the periphery becomes poorer.

As a core develops, the effects of development may spread and stimulate development in
the periphery regions. This is called the spread effect.
However, it may also lead to a backwash effect such as draining of investment, labour
and raw materials from the periphery to the core.

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Indicators of Development
To compare levels of development, one needs to identify common indicators to track
progress over periods of time.
There are several categories of indicators

GNP
Economic
Indicators
Employment Structure

Indicators of
Development
Population Structure

Life Expectancy

Infant Mortality
Demographic
Indicators
Urban Population

Access to water &

sanitation
Social
indicators
Adult Literacy Rate

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 Indicators of Development and how to interpret them
Economic Indicators
Type of Indicator Description of Indicators
1. Gross GNP refers to the total value of
National goods and services produced by the 1.A high GNP tells us that the people
Product citizens of a country in a given year, enjoy a high standard of living. They are
locally or abroad.
GNP per capita refers to how much
income each citizen generates. This 2.It is also an indication that the country
takes into consideration the size of
the population. Hence it is a better
measurement.
It is obtained by calculating as
follows:
GNP = A +(B- C)
Population size
A- income from all goods and
services produced in a year
B- income produced by citizens
investing and working abroad
C- income from foreigners working
in the country
2.Employment It shows the proportion of the
structure workforce in the 3 main economic
sectors: primary industry, secondary
and tertiary industry.
Each sector contributes different
amount of wealth to the country.
Primary industry contributes
relatively little to the country’s
wealth because activities that
extract natural resources directly
from the earth do not generate
much income.
How to interpret indicators
able to afford luxuries and have things
that make life more comfortable.
can spend more on improving the living
conditions of the people.
3.It also tells us that the country has a
higher proportion of secondary and
tertiary industries which bring in a higher
amount of income as it is more value
added.
4. A low GNP tells us that the country has
a larger primary industry. Primary goods
generate less profits because they a low
value added.
Limitations of GNP
1. GNP per capita does not show
individual differences. It is an average
figure. For eg. In the same country, some
people are extremely rich and some are
extremely poor. GNP per capita does not
show this.
2. Data from informal economic activities
are not reflected as they are not
registered with the government.
3. some countries do not have any
accurate data available. Hence it is
difficult to calculate.
DCs have the largest proportion of their
workforce in tertiary sector and the
smallest in primary sector.
Because of mechanisation, machines
take over the work of people. Hence less
people are needed for this activity. Also,
primary resources have become
exhausted and is imported.
There is also a lower proportion in
secondary sector because fewer people
are needed to work in factories as
robots/machines are taking over jobs.
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Secondary and tertiary industries
generate more income. Processing
raw materials make it more
profitable. Services , especially
specialised services generate the
most wealth.
Employment structure is shown in 2
ways:
1. pie graph
2. triangular graph
Demographic Indicators
Description of Indicators
1. Population It shows the distribution of age-sex DCs have a smaller percentage of its
structure. ratio of a population.
It can be divided into 3 groups:
• dependent young
• active population
• dependent aged
2. Life Refers to how long a person is
Expectancy expected to live.
It is a reflection of the standard of
health and quality of medical care
and the quality of life in the country.
3. Fertility Rate It refers to number of live births a
year per 1000 women between ages
of 15 to 44
The tertiary sector is the main growth
area. With literacy at a high level,most
people work in hospitals, schools, offices
and financial services.
The employment opportunities in a DCs
are higher. With higher income, people
are able to demand more goods and
services ( like leisure and entertainment)
because they want a better lifestyle.
More employment opportunities will be
created in these areas.
How to interpret indicators
population below the age of 15 and a
larger percentage above 60.
Age 15 and below is small because they
have better family planning and low BR.
Age 60 and above is larger because Life
expectancy is high.
Active population is more than
dependents, hence the dependency
burden is less.
LEDCs have a large percentage of aged
15 and below and a small percentage of
above 60.
A developed country has long life
expectancy . this tells us that the country
is able to provide a high standard of
sanitation and quality of medical care .
The infrastructure of the countries is
good. People would have access to safe
water and there is sufficient food. As a
result , people live longer.
A developing country has low life
expectancy. The country is unable to
provide enough medical facilities and
doctors. The low standard of hygiene and
sanitation suggests that there may be
prevalence of diseases. People do not
have access to medical services.
DCs have lower fertility rate because:
• people have higher education,
they are more concerned with
careers and delay marriages.
• Women have better knowledge of
contraception and birth control
• People are aware of the
advantages of having small
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4. Infant Refers to the no of deaths among
Mortality Rate children aged one and below for
every 1000 babies born alive.
5. Urban This refers to the percentage of
Population people living in urban areas.
The % is higher in DCs than LEDCs.
Social Indicators
Description of Indicators
1. Access to Safe drinking water is essential as it DCs have better access to clean water.
families
LDCs have higher fertility rates because:
• They lack knowledge of birth
control
• sees children as assets on their
farms and work
• cultural /traditional thinking eg
preference for males
DCs have low infant mortality rate is. It
tells us that there is:
• good sanitation facilities
• good healthcare systems
• good access to medical services
like doctors and hospitals.
• good diet & nutrition
• high income-can afford proper
health care
LEDCs have high infant mortality rate. It
tells us that there may be:
• occurance of war or political
instability
• drought causing famine and
malnutraition
• poor sanitation and hygiene
leading to spread of diseases.
DCs have higher percentage because:
• they have the financial resources
to develop cities with modern
infrastructure
• more people work in secondary
and tertiary industries which are
located in urban areas .
LEDCs have lower percentage because:
• a large percentage of people are
involved in primary activities like
farming and mining. These are
practised in rural areas.
However, urban population is not entirely
accurate because of the emerging
counter urbanisation trend. In some DCs,
people are relocating back to the suburbs
due to increasing congestion and levels of
pollution in the cities.
Also in urban areas, areas of slums and
squatters are increasing. These areas
have no access to water and electricity
supply, have make shift shelters.
How to interpret indicators
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safe drinking affects the health of the people. Water is treated to remove bacteria and
water and impurities before being piped to homes.
sanitation In addition waste is disposed of
hygienically.

LDCs lack access to clean water. Some

water is obtained from wells. People are
hence more prone to water-borne
diseases such as cholera.
If sanitation is poor, people are exposed
to bacteria present in the waste which can
cause contamination ot water.

2. Literacy It refers to the % of adults (15 yrs Developed countries have a high literacy
and above) in the country who can rate.
read and write. • The govt has the financial
Literacy is important because resources to build schools, train
without the skills , people cannot teachers and subsidise the cost of
contribute to economic education.
development. • The people, with their higher
income can afford to send their
In a DC, workforce is technologically children to school.
skilled. They are likely to be
involved in the tertiary industry LDCs have low literacy rate. This may
which generate more wealth. reflect
• its citizens’ inability to afford an
Education determines the education
productivity of the country’s • children needed on farms
population.
• social customs such as
restricting females from attending
schools lack of schools and
trained educators.
Unmeasurable Indicators
• safe working conditions
• freedom to choose jobs, practise religion
• freedom of speech and movement
• freedom from violence, oppression
• sense of satisfaction and belonging etc.
HDI
To have a better idea of the level of development of each country, the UN introduced the
Human Development Index. This index is obtained by combining 3 components- life
expectancy, educational attainment and income into a single index. It indicates both the
standard of living and the quality of life in a country. The scale varies from 0 to 1.

This index is only a guideline and not completely accurate because:

 Many of the statistics are average figures. Eg GDP per capita. It does not reflect
the distribution of wealth in the country and it does not show inequalities of income.
 A high GDP also does not show quality of life. The country may have accumulated
wealth but the wealth may not be used to improve people’s lives.
 Indicators also cannot reflect the pace of development in all parts of the country.
Cities or more accessible areas could be more developed than the rest of the
country.
 It is difficult for the HDI to reflect quality of life or level of satisfaction of the people
as this is harder to measure.

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  Data is not accurate for some indicators like GDP per capita. Income from informal
sectors (eg hawkers) cannot be captured.

Changes in Employment Structure

How do employment patterns differ between countries?

Primary: decreases Secondary: increases at Tertiary: increases

first, then decreases
Less Economically Developed Newly Industrialised
More Economically Developed Countries
Countries Countries
• Mechanisation of farms • Industrialisation initially • Large and growing informal service sector
reduces need for farm requires a large in urban areas of LEDCs as workers migrate
• workers.
High primary
Rural(farming)
workers • Strong
secondary manufacturing
workforce from• the
Farming mechanised
countryside
migrate to the urban areas sector
• Little mechanisation on farms • Factory jobs eventually • As•aAutomation of manufacturing
country develops, or
level of income
• Raw materials become • Many
replaced by automation transfer of manufacturing to
also rise creating a demand for servicesNICs
• exhausted
Little manufacturing
leading to loss transnationals/MNCs such as health, education and tourism
of mining jobs move to NICs to take • Very strong tertiary sector with large
• Manufacturing
advantage of cheap numbers employed in health,
• In early stages of economic industries increasingly • Strong growth in MEDCs of jobs education
in the
development labour and land and tourism
Rural depopulation of move from MEDCs to knowledge economy based on the
farmers in MEDCs. NICs where land and processing of knowledge and information
• Workers
Informalprefer the
service better
sector labour are cheaper
in the • Growth
using of jobs in the This
telecommunications. knowledge
is possible
paid is
cities and lessstrong
quite physically economy
as the level of based
literacyonand
theskill
processing
has of
demanding jobs in the knowledge and information using
increased.
tertiary sector telecommunications
• Industries become more hi-tech and
How do employment patterns change over time?
require specialised labour which are more
value added.

Comparing Stages of Development

All countries undergo various stages of development. In an attempt to compare level of

development among countries, the Rostow’s model is used as a guide.

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 According to Rostow, all countries have the potential to develop through 5 stages.
How do we recognise these stages?

Traditional Preconditions Economic Drive to High

Society for Take Off take-off Maturity Mass
(Start of Secondary Consumption
Industries)
.

Stages of Growth : characteristics

Traditional Preconditions for Take Take-off Drive to Maturity High Mass

society Off consumption

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-Mainly -agriculture becomes -actual change -greater use of - high standards of
agricultural commercialized occurs modern living achieved
-Subsistence -improvements in -agriculture starts technology -increased production
farming infrastructure and to decline - more production of consumer goods
-Traditional technolovy -secondary of consumer -tremendous growth in
lifestyles -secondary industry industries expand goods service industry
-Resistance to develops eg production of -decline in -increased
change steel, production importance of employment in tertiary
of machines primary industry industry, decreased
-greater -types of employment in
mechanization of secondary secondary industry.
agriculture industries expand
-transport -rapid
facilities urbanization
improved (people moving
to cities
-transport
network expand
-standard of living
improves

Limitations of the Model

1 Not all countries go through the 5 stages eg Singapore . thus it is difficult to compare.

2.Not all countries use the same indicators to measure aspects of development.
Countries might obtain data from different sources eg. For literacy level, Some countries
might choose to focus on those aged between 15 to 24 yrs while others might focus on
those aged 15 yrs and above.

3.Countries are also allowed to substitute indicators.

Problems of Development
Every country faces problems in pursuing development goals. These problems or
obstacles vary from country to country. Common problems include:

a. Changes in population structure

Development brings about increase in food supply (because of Green Revolution) and
improvements in hygiene, sanitation, health facilities. Death rate declines and
people live longer. Population grows rapidly.
In countries like China and India, the large population is a problem for governments trying
to improve std of living.

How can population hinder development?

A fast growing population places great pressure on amenities like transport, housing,
hospitals etc. It drains the country’s resources, using up money for food , health care and
education. The govt must keep pace with the needs of the growing population; otherwise
there will be malnutrition, food shortages etc. Facilities become overused and quality of
life drops.
A lot of resources are channelled to meet the basic needs of the people so that less
resources are available for development.

b. Food Insufficiency
As a result of population growth and expansion of cities, farm land is converted for
housing, transport, industries , and other purposes. Less land is available for agriculture.

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In addition, land is being used continuously to grow food for the increasing population. The
fertility of the land is affected. soil erosion causes the land to become bare and useless
after a long period of time. The amount of food produced becomes less.
Countries which are unable to grow enough of their own food will need to import food
and pay for it with its national reserves. It is difficult for these countries to become self-
sufficient.
In Many developing countries such as Africa, a large percentage of people are
malnourished and undernourished

c. Rapid Urbanisation and Overcrowding

Developing countries may face the problem of large-scale rural-urban migration. Cities are
thought of as places where job opportunities can be found because most industries are
located there. As a result, people from the countryside flocked to cities.

Cities become overcrowded. There is not enough housing and many people end up living
in squatter settlements with poor water supply and sanitation. Many homes are makeshift
shelters made of mud or scraps of metal or discarded materials such as cardboard or
planks These houses are fire hazards.
The cramped living conditions also encourage the spread of contagious diseases. Some
set up homes on steep slopes and mountainsides which are prone to mudslides.

d. Depletion of Natural Resources

Many countries use industrialisation to promote economic growth and development.
However, the tremendous amount of raw materials extracted for these industries has
resulted in depletion of earth’s natural resources. One such resource is the rainforest
.Future development will be hindered by lack of resources.
Developing countries extract and export natural resources because it can earn revenue
quickly and it does not require skilled labour. As a result, these countries are left with little
natural resources for their own development.

e. Environmental Degradation
In the process of development, countries neglect to care for and protect their environment.

Modern agricultural systems for example destroy large habitats of flora and fauna because
areas of forests are flooded to create reservoirs. The increased use of fertilizers
(phosphates and nitrates) causes water pollution and contaminate water supply.

Industries release pollutive gases into the atmosphere and discharge of untreated
industrial waste into rivers and seas.Pollution of air , land and water drive away potential
developers and investors and lower the quality of life of their citizens.

Obstacles to Development
Every country faces problems in pursuing development goals. These problems or
obstacles vary from country to country. Common problems include:

1.Population

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Size of population
In countries like China and India, the large population is a problem for governments trying
to improve the quality of life (health, education, housing) for their citizens.
How can population hinder development?
A lot of resources are also channelled to meet the basic needs of the people so that less
resources are available for development.
In many developing countries, there are not enough classrooms and teachers to meet the
no of school-going children. This has led to a large number of uneducated children who
may have problems finding jobs.
.
Rate of growth of population
A fast growing population places great pressure on amenities like transport, housing,
hospitals etc. the govt cannot build fast enough to cope with the increase in population.
Facilities become overused and quality of life drops.

2.Dwindling Arable Land

As a result of population growth and expansion of cities, farm land is converted for
housing, transport, industries , and other purposes. Less land is available for agriculture.
In addition, soil erosion is affecting many areas of fertile lands.
Countries which are unable to grow enough of their own food will need to import food and
pay for it with its national reserves.
Countries wish to be self-sufficient because they do not have to depend on other
countries.

3. Natural Hazards
Many developing countries are affected by natural events which hinder development.
The Philippines, Indonesia, Bangladesh are countries which are affected periodically by
typhoons and volcanic eruptions. Such natural hazards result in floods, famines,
destruction of lives and properties. Governments spent millions recovering from such
natural disasters.

The Case for Sustainable Development

It is obvious that development is necessary to improve the lives of millions of people. But
it brings with it an endless list of negative effects.

Development should take place such that the natural environment is able to meet the
needs of not only the present generation but also those of the future generations.
This is called sustainable development. It is development that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Case Study: Development in Singapore

Factors affecting Development of Singapore

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 Size of country:
Spore is an extremely small country,
648 sq km with no natural resources.
How does this hinder devt?
o Because of limited space, land
use has to be carefully planned
and monitered for various
purposes.
o Limited space for expansion of
heavy industries
Space must be efficiently used.
How does it help?
o Small size makes it easier to
build facilities and
infrastructure
Location:
How it helps development?
o Strategic location along major
land and sea routes-well linked to
other countries- helped
established Spore as trading
centre
o Centrally located in the SE Asian
region- helped trade
o Major regional airport – well
connected by air
o Away from major earthquakes
and volcanic zones- free from
natural disasters
The Surrounding Region/ Hinterland:
How it helps devt:
o SE Asia has provided Spore with
necessities such as water (Johore)
food, and other raw materials
Population:
How it hinders devt?
o Small population means less labour for
country
o With falling birth rates, there may be
shortage of labour- less attractive to
investors
o Small population also means smaller
market- less attractive to investors
How it helps devt?
o Population is educated and has skills-able
to enter knowledge based industries
o Attractive to hi-tech industries
o Good working culture- people are
hardworking
Infrastructure:
How it helps devt.
o It is well planned and efficient
o Good air cargo centre
o Good port facilities
o Good telecommunication network-
satellites, facsimile machines, internet
access
o Good internal transport system- few
traffic jams and congestion
All helped established Spore as trading,
financial, industrial centre.
Regional and Global Trends:
How it helps devt:
o Spore has to continually change to adapt to
global trends in order to progress.
o It has ensured that Spore remains
competitive. Spore has to keep diversifying
its economic activities eg from trading to
manufacturing then banking and services.
Now the country is moving into
information technology and KBE.
How it hinders devt:
o Spore is affected by changes which occur
in other parts of the world eg the economic
downturn in the late 1990s which affected
the growth in Spore.
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