Table 1: Properties of the Continuous-Time Fourier Series

+∞

+∞
jkω0 t
x(t) = ak e = ak ejk(2π/T )t
k=−∞ k=−∞
 
1 −jkω0 t 1
ak = x(t)e dt = x(t)e−jk(2π/T )t dt
T T T T

Property Periodic Signal Fourier Series Coefficients


x(t) Periodic with period T and ak
y(t) fundamental frequency ω0 = 2π/T bk

Linearity Ax(t) + By(t) Aak + Bbk

Time-Shifting x(t − t0 ) ak e−jkω0 t0 = ak e−jk(2π/T )t0
Frequency-Shifting ejM ω0 t = ejM (2π/T )t x(t) ak−M
Conjugation x∗ (t) a∗−k
Time Reversal x(−t) a−k
Time Scaling x(αt), α > 0 (periodic with period T /α)
 ak
Periodic Convolution x(τ )y(t − τ )dτ T a k bk
T


+∞
Multiplication x(t)y(t) al bk−l
l=−∞
dx(t) 2π
Differentiation jkω0 ak = jk ak
 dt t   T 
(finite-valued and 1 1
Integration x(t)dt ak = ak
−∞ periodic only if a0 = 0)  jkω0 ∗ jk(2π/T )

ak = a−k


e{ak } = e{a−k }
Conjugate Symmetry
x(t) real m{ak } = −m{a−k }
for Real Signals 


|a k | = |a−k |

<) ak = −<) a−k
Real and Even Sig-
x(t) real and even ak real and even
nals

Real and Odd Signals x(t) real and odd ak purely imaginary and odd

Even-Odd Decompo- xe (t) = Ev{x(t)} [x(t) real] e{ak }

sition of Real Signals xo (t) = Od{x(t)} [x(t) real] jm{ak }

Parseval’s Relation for Periodic Signals



+∞
1 2
|x(t)| dt = |ak |2
T T k=−∞
 Table 2: Properties of the Discrete-Time Fourier Series



x[n] = ak ejkω0 n = ak ejk(2π/N )n
k=<N > k=<N >

1
1

ak = x[n]e−jkω0 n = x[n]e−jk(2π/N )n
N n=<N >
N n=<N >

Property Periodic signal Fourier series coefficients

 
x[n] Periodic with period N and fun- ak Periodic with
y[n] damental frequency ω0 = 2π/N bk period N

Linearity Ax[n] + By[n] Aak + Bbk

Time shift x[n − n0 ] ak e−jk(2π/N )n0
Frequency Shift ejM (2π/N )n x[n] ak−M
Conjugation x∗ [n] a∗−k
Time Reversal x[−n] a−k  

viewed as
x[n/m] if n is a multiple of m 1
Time Scaling x(m) [n] = ak periodic with
0 if n is not a multiple of m m period mN
(periodic with period mN )


Periodic Convolution x[r]y[n − r] N ak bk
r=N 


Multiplication x[n]y[n] al bk−l
l=N 
First Difference x[n] − x[n − 1] (1 − e−jk(2π/N ) )ak

n   
finite-valued and 1
Running Sum x[k] ak
periodic only if a0 = 0 (1 − e−jk(2π/N ) )
k=−∞ 

ak = a∗−k


e{ak } = e{a−k }
Conjugate Symmetry
x[n] real m{ak } = −m{a−k }
for Real Signals 


|ak | = |a−k |

<) ak = −< ) a−k
Real and Even Signals x[n] real and even ak real and even

Real and Odd Signals x[n] real and odd ak purely imaginary and odd

Even-Odd Decomposi- xe [n] = Ev{x[n]} [x[n] real] e{ak }

tion of Real Signals xo [n] = Od{x[n]} [x[n] real] jm{ak }

Parseval’s Relation for Periodic Signals

1


|x[n]|2 = |ak |2
N
n=N  k=N 
 Table 3: Properties of the Continuous-Time Fourier Transform
 ∞
1
x(t) = X(jω)ejωt dω
2π −∞
 ∞
X(jω) = x(t)e−jωt dt
−∞

Property Aperiodic Signal Fourier transform

x(t) X(jω)
y(t) Y (jω)

Linearity ax(t) + by(t) aX(jω) + bY (jω)

Time-shifting x(t − t0 ) e−jωt0 X(jω)
Frequency-shifting ejω0 t x(t) X(j(ω − ω0 ))
Conjugation x∗ (t) X ∗ (−jω)
Time-Reversal x(−t) X(−jω) 
1 jω
Time- and Frequency-Scaling x(at) X
|a| a
Convolution x(t) ∗ y(t) X(jω)Y (jω)
1
Multiplication x(t)y(t) X(jω) ∗ Y (jω)
2π
d
Differentiation in Time x(t) jωX(jω)
dt t
1
Integration x(t)dt X(jω) + πX(0)δ(ω)
−∞ jω
d
Differentiation in Frequency tx(t) j X(jω)
 dω

X(jω) = X ∗ (−jω)


e{X(jω)} = e{X(−jω)}
Conjugate Symmetry for Real
x(t) real m{X(jω)} = −m{X(−jω)}
Signals 


|X(jω)| = |X(−jω)|

<) X(jω) = −<) X(−jω)
Symmetry for Real and Even
x(t) real and even X(jω) real and even
Signals
Symmetry for Real and Odd
x(t) real and odd X(jω) purely imaginary and odd
Signals
Even-Odd Decomposition for xe (t) = Ev{x(t)} [x(t) real] e{X(jω)}
Real Signals xo (t) = Od{x(t)} [x(t) real] jm{X(jω)}

Parseval’s Relation for Aperiodic Signals

 +∞  +∞
2 1
|x(t)| dt = |X(jω)|2 dω
−∞ 2π −∞
 Table 4: Basic Continuous-Time Fourier Transform Pairs

Fourier series coefficients

Signal Fourier transform (if periodic)

+∞

+∞


jkω0 t
ak e 2π ak δ(ω − kω0 ) ak
k=−∞ k=−∞
a1 = 1
ejω0 t 2πδ(ω − ω0 )
ak = 0, otherwise
a1 = a−1 = 12
cos ω0 t π[δ(ω − ω0 ) + δ(ω + ω0 )]
ak = 0, otherwise
1
π a1 = −a−1 = 2j
sin ω0 t [δ(ω − ω0 ) − δ(ω + ω0 )]
j ak = 0, otherwise
a = 1, ak = 0, k
= 0
0 
this is the Fourier series rep-
x(t) = 1 2πδ(ω)
resentation for any choice of
T >0
Periodic

square wave
1, |t| < T1 +∞

 
x(t) = 2 sin kω0 T1 ω0 T 1 kω0 T1 sin kω0 T1
0, T1 < |t| ≤ T2 δ(ω − kω0 ) sinc =
k π π kπ
and k=−∞
x(t + T ) = x(t)
+∞

+∞  
2π
2πk 1
δ(t − nT ) δ ω− ak = for all k
n=−∞
T T T

k=−∞
1, |t| < T1 2 sin ωT1
x(t) —
0, |t| > T1 ω

sin W t 1, |ω| < W

X(jω) = —
πt 0, |ω| > W
δ(t) 1 —
1
u(t) + πδ(ω) —
jω
δ(t − t0 ) e−jωt0 —
−at 1
e u(t), e{a} > 0 —
a + jω
1
te−at u(t), e{a} > 0 —
(a + jω)2
tn−1 −at
(n−1)! e u(t), 1
—
e{a} > 0 (a + jω)n
 Table 5: Properties of the Discrete-Time Fourier Transform

1
x[n] = X(ejω )ejωn dω
2π 2π

+∞
jω
X(e ) = x[n]e−jωn
n=−∞

Property Aperiodic Signal Fourier transform


x[n] X(ejω ) Periodic with
jω
y[n] Y (e ) period 2π
Linearity ax[n] + by[n] aX(ejω ) + bY (ejω )
Time-Shifting x[n − n0 ] e−jωn0 X(ejω )
Frequency-Shifting ejω0 n x[n] X(ej(ω−ω0 ) )
Conjugation x∗ [n] X ∗ (e−jω )
Time Reversal x[−n]
X(e−jω )
x[n/k], if n = multiple of k
Time Expansions x(k) [n] = X(ejkω )
0, if n
= multiple of k
Convolution x[n] ∗ y[n] X(ejω )Y (ejω )
1
Multiplication x[n]y[n] X(ejθ )Y (ej(ω−θ) )dθ
2π 2π

Differencing in Time x[n] − x[n − 1] (1 − e−jω )X(ejω )

n
1
Accumulation x[k] X(ejω )
k=−∞
1 − e−jω

+∞
j0
+πX(e ) δ(ω − 2πk)
k=−∞
dX(ejω )
Differentiation in Frequency nx[n] j
dω
 jω

X(e ) = X ∗ (e−jω )


e{X(ejω )} = e{X(e−jω )}
Conjugate Symmetry for x[n] real m{X(ejω )} = −m{X(e−jω )}


Real Signals 
|X(ejω )| = |X(e−jω )|

<) X(ejω ) = −<
) X(e−jω )

Symmetry for Real, Even x[n] real and even X(ejω ) real and even
Signals
X(ejω ) purely
Symmetry for Real, Odd x[n] real and odd
imaginary and odd
Signals
Even-odd Decomposition of xe [n] = Ev{x[n]} [x[n] real] e{X(ejω )}
Real Signals xo [n] = Od{x[n]} [x[n] real] jm{X(ejω )}

Parseval’s Relation for Aperiodic Signals

+∞ 
2 1
|x[n]| = |X(ejω )|2 dω
n=−∞
2π 2π
 Table 6: Basic Discrete-Time Fourier Transform Pairs

Fourier series coefficients

Signal Fourier transform (if periodic)

+∞

 
jk(2π/N )n 2πk
ak e 2π ak δ ω − ak
N
k=
N  k=−∞
2πm
(a) ω0 =
N
+∞

1, k = m, m ± N, m ± 2N, . . .
ejω0 n 2π δ(ω − ω0 − 2πl) ak =
0, otherwise
l=−∞
(b) ω 0
2π irrational ⇒ The signal is aperiodic
2πm
(a) ω0 =
N
+∞

1
cos ω0 n π {δ(ω − ω0 − 2πl) + δ(ω + ω0 − 2πl)} ak = 2 , k = ±m, ±m ± N, ±m ± 2N, . . .
0, otherwise
l=−∞
(b) ω 0
2π irrational ⇒ The signal is aperiodic
(a) ω0  = 2πr
N
1
+∞
π
 2j , k = r, r ± N, r ± 2N, . . .
sin ω0 n {δ(ω − ω0 − 2πl) − δ(ω + ω0 − 2πl)} ak = − 1 , k = −r, −r ± N, −r ± 2N, . . .
j  2j
l=−∞ 0, otherwise
(b) ω 0
irrational ⇒ The signal is aperiodic
+∞


2π
1, k = 0, ±N, ±2N, . . .
x[n] = 1 2π δ(ω − 2πl) ak =
0, otherwise
l=−∞
Periodic

square wave
1, |n| ≤ N1 +∞

  sin[(2πk/N )(N1 + 12 )]
x[n] = 2πk ak = , k
= 0, ±N, ±2N, . . .
0, N1 < |n| ≤ N/2 2π ak δ ω − N sin[2πk/2N ]
N ak = 2N1 +1
, k = 0, ±N, ±2N, . . .
and k=−∞ N
x[n + N ] = x[n]
+∞

+∞  
2π
2πk 1
δ[n − kN ] δ ω− ak = for all k
N N N
k=−∞ k=−∞
1
an u[n], |a| < 1 —

1 − ae−jω
|n| ≤ N1
1, sin[ω(N1 + 12 )]
x[n] —
|n| > N1
0, sin(ω/2)

sin W n
Wn 1, 0 ≤ |ω| ≤ W
=W
π sinc
X(ω) =
πn π 0, W < |ω| ≤ π —
0<W <π
X(ω)periodic with period 2π
δ[n] 1 —
+∞


1
u[n] + πδ(ω − 2πk) —
1 − e−jω
k=−∞
δ[n − n0 ] e−jωn0 —
1
(n + 1)an u[n], |a| < 1 —
(1 − ae−jω )2
(n + r − 1)! n 1
a u[n], |a| < 1 —
n!(r − 1)! (1 − ae−jω )r
 Table 7: Properties of the Laplace Transform

Property Signal Transform ROC

x(t) X(s) R

x1 (t) X1 (s) R1

x2 (t) X2 (s) R2

Linearity ax1 (t) + bx2 (t) aX1 (s) + bX2 (s) At least R1 ∩ R2

Time shifting x(t − t0 ) e−st0 X(s) R

Shifting in the s-Domain es0 t x(t) X(s − s0 ) Shifted version of R [i.e., s is

in the ROC if (s − s0 ) is in
R]
1 s
Time scaling x(at) X “Scaled” ROC (i.e., s is in
|a| a
the ROC if (s/a) is in R)

Conjugation x∗ (t) X ∗ (s∗ ) R

Convolution x1 (t) ∗ x2 (t) X1 (s)X2 (s) At least R1 ∩ R2

d
Differentiation in the Time Domain x(t) sX(s) At least R
dt
d
Differentiation in the s-Domain −tx(t) X(s) R
 ds
t
1
Integration in the Time Domain x(τ )d(τ ) X(s) At least R ∩ {e{s} > 0}
−∞ s

Initial- and Final Value Theorems

If x(t) = 0 for t < 0 and x(t) contains no impulses or higher-order singularities at t = 0, then

x(0+ ) = lims→∞ sX(s)

If x(t) = 0 for t < 0 and x(t) has a finite limit as t → ∞, then

limt→∞ x(t) = lims→0 sX(s)

Table 8: Laplace Transforms of Elementary Functions

Signal Transform ROC

1. δ(t) 1 All s
1
2. u(t) e{s} > 0
s
1
3. −u(−t) e{s} < 0
s
tn−1 1
4. u(t) e{s} > 0
(n − 1)! sn
tn−1 1
5. − u(−t) e{s} < 0
(n − 1)! sn
1
6. e−αt u(t) e{s} > −α
s+α
1
7. −e−αt u(−t) e{s} < −α
s+α
tn−1 −αt 1
8. e u(t) e{s} > −α
(n − 1)! (s + α)n
tn−1 −αt 1
9. − e u(−t) e{s} < −α
(n − 1)! (s + α)n
10. δ(t − T ) e−sT All s
s
11. [cos ω0 t]u(t) e{s} > 0
s2 + ω02
ω0
12. [sin ω0 t]u(t) e{s} > 0
s2 + ω02
s+α
13. [e−αt cos ω0 t]u(t) e{s} > −α
(s + α)2 + ω02
ω0
14. [e−αt sin ω0 t]u(t) e{s} > −α
(s + α)2 + ω02
dn δ(t)
15. un (t) = sn All s
dtn
1
16. u−n (t) = u(t) ∗ · · · ∗ u(t) e{s} > 0
   sn
n times