CHAPTER Investigations in seeuctural geology require familiarity with basic techniques of observation and of reporting and displaying ehree-dimensional formation. Thus we use standardized methods for measuring the orienca- tions of planes and lines in space. Techniques for dis tinguishing the relative ages of strata in 8 Sequence of layered sediments are crucial to ingecpcating their sig- nilfcance. Various graphical displays have proved most useful for ploteing and inecepreting orientational of thice-dimensional dara. Such displays inelude geologic raps.and cross sections thar present data ina geographic feamework, as well as histograms and sphetical pro- iections thar porteay only orientational dara without regard to geogcaphic location. Geophysical data such 4 seismic eeflection profiles and gravity measurements ate essential ro the inteepretation of many large-scale seructuces, and a scructural geologist must undersrand bow these daca are obrained and interpreted ia order ro take their limitations inco account. Mose discussions of structural zcology and tectonics assume the reader is familiac with all these techoiques. Proper interpretation of geologic structuces de- pends critically on the ability to visualize spatial rcla- vaships among vasious features. This ability ¢o think in threc dimensions does not necessarily come easily, but one can learn ic with practice. Learning ro “shink _ 38 3:D" is a major goal of laboratory courses in struc- “Siral geology. Techniques of Structural Geology and Tectonics The Orientation of Structures Many of the structures observed ia outcrops are ap- proximately planar or linear feacuces. Planar features include bedding, feactuces, faul planes, dikes, uncou- formities, and planar preferred orientations of micas. Lineat features include grooves and streaks on. surface, intersections of two planar feanures, and lincar preferred orientations of mineral grains, We can represent features thae are not planar, such as folded surfaces and folded linear featuces, by measuring a secies of tangent planes or lines acound the structure ‘Thus che attitude of a plane or a line—that is its ‘orientation in space—is fundamental to the description of structuces, We specify the attitudes both of planes and of lines with (wo angles measured, respectively. from geographi¢ north and from a horizontal plane. The attitude of a plane is specified by its strike and ies dip, or by the trend of che dip linc and the dip angle ‘The attinude ofa Ginear feature is given by its ecend and its plunge. The strike isthe horizontal angle, measured relative to geographic north, of the horizontal line io a given planac seeuctute (Figure 2.14). This horizontal line is the strike line, and itis defined by the imessectian of a horizontal plane with che planar seructure, Te has @ unique orientation for any given orientation of planeStrike tne Hoctzontl plane Dip tne Strong sup Sirke and ip symbol WES 8. Dip ine mba! Figee 24 ‘The seike and dip of a planar steuecure, A. The strike of a planar structure is che azimuth of a horizontal Une iv dhe plane and is defied by the interssetion of « horizontal plane with the planar seruceure. The dip angle is measured beroeen horizantal and the planar sructare In a vertical plane normal ro the stike line. The dip direction i this diagram is co che NE. B, ‘The strike shown here is measured on « quadrane compas as NSOW or on a 360° compass as cithec 325° oF 145°. The attitude is indicared on a map by 4 Teshaped symbol with the stem parallel to the dig ditecrion. The dip angle is written beside this symbol except a horizontal one. The dip isthe slope of 2 plane defined by the dip angle and the dip direction. The dip angle, also referred to simply as the dip, is the angle between a horizontal plane and the planar stcuctuee, measured in a vertical plane thac is perpendicular to the suike line (Figure 2.14). Ie is the lacgest possible angle between the horizoncal plane and the inclined plane. For a given strike, a particular value of the dip angle identifies two planes which slope in opposite dtections. To distinguish between them, we specify the approxi: rate dip diection by giving the quadrant (NE, SE, SW; NW) or the principai compass direction (N, F, 5, W) of the down-dip dicection. “The dip line is peependiculae to the strike line and is the direction of steepest descent on che planar struct ture. Yn some cases, particularly in British usage, the attitude of a plane is specified by the trend and plunge (defined below) of che dip line, The plunge of the dip line isthe same as the dip of the plane For the attitude of a linear seructure, the trend is the srike ofthe vercical plane in which the linear secuc- ture lies itis unique except foc an enactly vertical linear structure (Figure 2.24). The plunge is the angie berween the horizontal plane and the linear structure, measured in the vertical plane (Figure 2.24). The direction of plunge, like the dip ditection, can be specified by the 12 INTRODUCTION quadrant or by the principal compass direction of the down-plungedirection. Alternatively, ic can be specified implicitly by using the convention that the tcend always ‘be measured in the dows-plunge direction. ‘We genecally use ont af two conventions to record a strike or a trend, Wecan specify the angle a5 a bearing {che angle measured between 0° and 90” east or west of forth or, in some cases, south) o¢ as an azimuth (che angle berween 0° and 360°, increasing clockwise from north). Measurements differing by 180° have the same orientation. Thus 4 northeast strike or teond could be reported as beatings NASE or S45W and as azimuths 045" or 225°, each par differing by 180°. Using che same convantions, we cou! give a northwest strike o¢ trend as bearings N4SW oc SASE. and as azimuths 135° or 315°. {cs good practice always ko write the azimuth as a three-digit number, using preceding zeros where nec- ‘essary, to distinguish it from dip of plunge angles which are always becween 0° and 90°, ‘A variety of conventions are in common use for writing the attitudes of planes and lines. We generally write the strike and dip in che order steike, dip, dip dizeetion, regatdless of whether beating or azimuth is used. Sccike bearings ate always eeported relative t0 north; no disinerion is ade berween azimuths differing by 180°, Thus N3SW.SSNE, 325,55NE, and 145,55NEHorizontal plane Vertical lane containing near etveture ssow Trend ine 8 Figuce 2.2. The trend and plunge of a linear struecuce. A. The ‘weed isthe angle berween north and the steike of che vertical plane thar contains the linear seraccute. The plunge is che angle between horizontal and the lines steuetuce, measured in the vecrcal plane thac contains the structure, 8. The ecend shown hece is given as N20W on a quadeane compass of a5 either 340" oF 160° on 2 360° compass IE by convention the rend is recorded in the dowa-plunge direction, then i can be aiven only by S2DB or 160", On a map, linear features axe plotted as an arrow pirallel © the trend and pointing i the down-pluage direction. The plunge angleis weiten beside this all specify the same attitude of plane (Figuee 2 1B), The dip direction is always in a quadrant adjacent to that of the serie. ‘The most convenient convention for the attitudes Of lines is to measure the teend in the down-plunge direction, in which case that direction need not be stated explicitly, We first write thc plunge and then the trend (the reverse order is also used) so that the measurements 40;550W and 40;230 both refer to the same attitude igure 228) We plot the attitude ofa plane on a map by drafting a line parallel co strike with a short bar indicating the Soxn-tip diction. If the teend and plange of tke dip line is measueed, we plor che atcimde with, an accu! pointing in the down-dip dicection (Figuee 2.18). The aucitude of a line is indicated by an arrow pointing in the down-plunge direction (Figuee 2.2B; the arrow sym. bols used to indicate the attitude of a line and of che dig line of a plane should be differen). Jn all cases, the value of the dip or plunge, as appropriate, i weirten beside the symbol so char the aecitude can be seen at a glance Geologic Maps Geologic meps acc the basis of ali studies of structure and tectonics. They ate two-dimensional cepreseata- tions of an area of the Earth's sarface on which are ploned a variety of data of geologie interest. These data are based on observations from many outcrops and on the judicious inference of relationships that are nat di- rectly observable. The data plowed may include the distribution of the different rock types, the location and nature of the contacts between the rock eypes, and the location and accitude of strucvaral Keates. Contacts aie lines on the topographic surface of the Faeth where the Boundary surface beeen two dif- ferent rock types intersects the wopography.. Contacts can be stratigraphic, where one unit lies depositionally upon another, tectonic, where the units ace faulted against one another; or intrusive, where on unin invades another. On a geologic map, different eypes of contacts and the reliability of the contact location are indicated hy differenc styles of lines. The shape of the contact on the map depends both on the geomerty of the contact susface (for example, whether itis planas or folded and what its atttode is} and on the topogeaphy that the contact surface intersects. An experienced observer ean derecmine the geomerry of structures in an area, as well as the quality of information available, simply by careful inspection of a good geologic map. All geologic maps are smaller than the arca chey represent. Exactly haw much smaller is represented by the scale of the map, which is che ratio of the distance fon the map she equivalenr distance on the ground A scale of 1:25,000 (onc to twenty-five thousand), for example, indicates chat 1 unit of distance on the map {ouch as a cemrimaerer oF an inch) cepeesents a horizontal distance of 25,000 of the same unit on the ground. Because the scale is a ratio, ic applies t0 any desired innit of measurement, The seals of most maps used in structural and tectonic work range between 1:1000 and 1: 100,000, ehough other scales are also used, In pactic- tlae, maps of large regions sach as seates, peoviness, countries, and continents ace published at scales be- even 1:500,000 and 120,000,000. “Techniques of Stuctral Geology and Tectonics