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Theory of Games
• Deals with decision-making in situations where
There are two or more rational players
Who all have a set of strategies each
Who are involved in conditions of competition and
conflicting interests, and
They are all aware of the pay-offs resulting from the
play of various combinations of strategies by different
players
• The solution to a game calls for determining
optimal strategies for the players to play
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Two-person zero-sum Games
There are two players
Each player has a finite number of strategies to
play
Conditional pay-offs resulting from play of
various combinations of strategies are known
Each pay-off is a gain for one player and loss for
the other
The solution calls for determining optimal
strategies for each of the players, whether pure
or mixed, and the resulting value of game
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Solution to Games
To check if a saddle point exists:
Find minimum pay-off in each row
Select the largest of the minimum pay-offs
This is maximin strategy of the maximising player
Find maximum pay-off in each column
Select the smallest of these pay-offs
This is minimax strategy of the minimising player
If the maximin and minimax strategies have
same pay-offs, the game has a saddle point
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Solution to Games
If a game has a saddle point, the maximin and
minimax strategies involved are optimal
strategies for the players and these are called
pure strategies
A game can have more than one saddle point,
resulting in multiple optimal strategies
If the game has no saddle point, the players have
to play mixed strategies
If value of the game, v= 0, it is called a fair game
If v > 0, the game favours maximising player and
if v < 0, it favours minimising player
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Solution to Games
with no Saddle Point
• If it is a 2 × 2 game
Player B
b1 b2
Player a1 a11 a12
A a2 a21 a22
If A plays a1 with probability x and a2 with probability 1-x, and B plays
b1 with probability y and b2 with probability 1-y, then
a22 – a21 a22 – a12
x = ----------------------------- y = ---------------------------
(a11 + a22) – (a21 + a12) (a11 + a22) – (a21 + a12)
and
(a11 × a22) – (a21 × a12)
v = -----------------------------
(a11 + a22) – (a21 + a12)
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Solution to Games
with no Saddle Point
• If it is a 2×n game or an m×2 game
Plot expected pay-off of each strategy on a graph
Locate the highest point in the lower envelop (in
case of a 2×n game) and the lowest point in the
upper envelop (in case of an m×2 game)
Consider the pair of lines whose intersection
yields the highest/lowest point and use the
strategies represented by it
This reduces the game to a 2×2 game and it is
solved accordingly
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Solution to Games
with no Saddle Point
• If a game is of the order m × n:
Attempt to reduce the order of the problem by
applying dominance rule
If it can be reduced to a 2×2 game, solve it
accordingly
If it can not be reduced to a 2×2 game, solve it
as an LPP
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Rule of Dominance
If a strategy is inferior to another, it is said to be
dominated
A dominated strategy can be deleted
If each value in a row (say R1) is greater than, or
equal to, the corresponding value in another row
(say R2), then R1 dominates R2
If each value in a column (say C1) is smaller than, or
equal to, the corresponding value in another column
(say C2), then C1 dominates C2
A linear combination of two strategies [for example,
αR1 + (1 – α) R2 ] may also dominate a strategy
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LP Solution to Games
Games can be formulated and solved as
LPPs
The solution is obtained by simplex and
uses the concept of duality
Before formulation, make sure that all
pay-offs are non-negative
In case of negative values, add such a
constant to all values that leaves all values
non-negative
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LP Formulation of Games
• Sample formulation of a 3×3 game from
maximising player’s point of view
Minimise 1/U = X1 + X2 +X3
Subject to
a11X1 + a21X2 + a31X3 ≥ 1
a12X1 + a22X2 + a32X3 ≥ 1
a13X1 + a23X2 + a33X3 ≥ 1
X1, X2, X3 ≥ 0
where Xi = xi/U; xi is the probability that player plays
ith strategy and U is the value of game
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