Translated from:

Pochvovedeniye, 1975, No. 12:32-44

MAIN SOIL GROUPS OF INDONESIA

V.M. FRIDLAND, V. V. Dokuchayev Soil Institute

Judging from the generalized soil map of B 50-65 em YR3/4) j red spots of un-
Indonesia [11J I the most common soil weathered rock appear
groups in this country are: Ando soils (and from a depth of 65 em.
other volcanic solIs); Red-Yellow Podzolic Transition gradual.
soilsj Brown soils, Red-Yellow Lateritic
Boils; Mediterranean soils, Yellow Podzolic Be 65-90(110) Transition from evenly
Boils, and groundwater Podzols. em colored horizon to spotty
rock, homogeneous
material predominates.
The first four soil groups were studied Transition to spotty rock
by us during trips in western Java. Samples dIstinct, but at varying
from the last three sol1 groups were given to depths.
us by our Indonesian colleagues.
C, 90(110)- spotty- (red, yellow,
150 cm Whitish), less vividly
The results of our study of Ando soils red rock. Transition
and other volcanic soils have already been gradual.
published [5]. Here we report the results
of investigations of the other Boil groups. C z 150-180 em More vividly red and
more distinctly spotty
rock. Transition
Descriptions of the profiles of these soils gradual.
are given below.
C3 180-230 em Noticeably lighter
colored rock but equally
Profile 6. Taken 55 Ion to the west- spotty as the C1 horizon.
northwest of Bogar (near Banar village of
the Parumpaltjan commune) at an elevation
of about 200 m above sea level. The area According to the Indonesian classification,
has n dissected hilly relief and consists of this soil is a Red-Yellow Podzolic soil. We
strongly weathered shales, exposed at the classify it as aneroded Red-YelIowFerral-
bottoms of creeks and small rivers. Secon- li tic soil. Erosion is evidenced by the nutty
dary forest near a dry-farmed rice field. structure of the upper horizon and the
presence in it of distinct clay tongues, tes-
tifying to its illuvial nature.
A 0-20 cm Brownish-dark gray (7.5
YR3/2), clayey. nutty
structure, breaks down in- Profile 8. Talten to the south of the
to indiVidual grains, slightly Bandung Bogar road, to the southwest of
compact, moist to damp. Sultabumi city. Hilly relief, elevation of
Transition gradual. about 500 m, level area (slope of -4") , teak
(Tectona grandis) plantation.
AB 20-50 em Reddish-brown (5 UR4/4).
weakly blocky, somewhat
moister (damp) plastic, Al 0-18 cm Dark gray, nutly,
clayey. Transition gradual. breaking down to granu-
lar, clayey, slightly
B 50-65 em Similar to the preceding, moist. Transition
but more vividly red (2.5 gradual.

661
 V.M. FRIDLAND

AB 18-55 em From gray in upper part Profile 21 (133768/71, according to the

to brown in lower part,
structure disappears grad-
ually. clayey. moist. Tran-
si tion gradual.
C 55-90 em Light brown plastIc clay,
very viscous, gray, crystal-
line limestone fragments in
the lower part of horizon.
numbering of the Institute). Madura Island,
Pamekasan dIstrict, hilly area at an eleva-
tion of 310 m above sea level. Total annual
precipi~tion in this area is 1484 mm, the
evaporative power is about 1000 mm, and
the dry period lasts about 4 months.
Manioc fields alternate with bamboo growthll.
The profile was taken in a plowed field.

A 0-15 em Grayish-brown (5 YR4/2-

plow
Accordlng to the Indonesian nomenclature 4/3), sandy clay loam,
this is a Braunlehm. The structure of the unstable fine nutty-pris-
profile and its micromorphology indicate matic structure, very
that the soil is eroded. hard lime concretions
and limestone fragments.
Transition even, clear.
Profile 9. Taken to the southwest of
Sukabumi on the Gembau plateau consisting
of Tertiary andesites at an elevation of B z•1 15-38 em Brown to reddish-brown
about 500 m. Growth of Eupatoria and (5 YR/3-4/4), 100Be,
Camara lantane shrubs. Area under limited fragile fine nutty-
agricultural use, growing the least demand- prismatic structure,
ing crops. lime concretions and
fragments. Transition
gradual, even.
0-60 em Gray-brown. blocky-granular I
becoming gradually lighter Bz.z 38-60 Reddish-brown (5 YR4/4-
colored with depth and assuming (90) 5 YR3/2), sandy-clayey,
a yellowish-red color, clayey, em loose, fragile. porOU8-
sllghUy damp. granular structure, lime
concretions and frag-
60-700 em Yellowish-red (light orange), ments, changes sharply
homogeneous, fine-grained, to limestone, boundary
damp, clayey. uneven.

According to the Indonesian classification According to the accepted IndonesIan

it is a Red-Yellow Latoeol, but according to classification this is a Red-Brown Mediter-
us it 15: a Red Ferrallitic soU. ranean soil. The profile structure indicates
that it is eroded.

The region where these soils were des-

cribed has an annual temperature sum ex-
ceeding 8000 C, a mean temperature above
18 C in all months, an annual precipitation
of more than 2000 mm, an annual evapora-
tion of about 900 mm, and a dry period
(with monthly wetting coefficients of 0.6 to
0.8) of no more than 2-3 months.
Profile 22 (1372s7/62, according to the
numbering of the Institute). Central Borneo,
Palangkaradja dIstrict. quartz sand platn,
50 m above sea level. Total annual precipi-
tation exceeds 3000 mm, evaporative power
is about 1100 mm, and there is no dry sea-
son. Primary tropical forest.

The next three descriptions were made AOl 0-2 em Dark cinnamon-brown
by the members of the Soil Institute of (10 YR3/7) with occ'Bional
Indonesia (at Bogor) and kindly given to UB sand grains, mellow.
together with the soil samples. Transition gradual.

662
 SOVIET SOIL SCIENCE

A, 2-15 em Light cinnamon-brown 8(12)-40(45) em Grayish-yellowish

(10 YR!2), mellow sandy. (2.5 YR6!4), sandy
Transition gradual. coarse Loam, weak
fine-pored granular
A, 15-46 em Light gray, being (10 structure. Transition
YR7!2), mellow sandy. cLear, wavy.
Transition clear, wavy.
B, 40(45)-50(70) Light, from yellow-
B, 46-60 em Dark cinnamon-brown, em ish-brown to orange
sandy I massive, hard. yellow (10 YR6!4-7!6),
Transl tlon gradual. sandy coarse Loam,
weak nutly structure,
Bhg 60-90 em Dark, yellowish-cinna- mellow. Transition
mon brown (10 YR2!3), clear, wavy.
sandy t massive but less
compact than the preced- BZ.2 50-(70)-110 Orange (7.5 YR7!6),
ing. Transition gradual, em sandy coarse loam,
diffuse. nutty structure, com-
pact, occasional
BCg 90 em Beige, tight (10 YR7 !2, brighter spots. Tran-
sandy, distinctly granular, sition gradual.
but compact.
BC 110-140 em Orange (7.5 YR7!6),
sandy coarse loam,
This is a groundwater PodzoI, accord- weak. flne nutty struc-
ing to the Indonesian classification. Its ture, compacted, oc-
morphology corresponds to that of ground- casional brighter
water-gleyed Humic-Illuvial Podzols, found spots.
in many areas of the Soviet Union {3, 2].
However, there is a significant difference:
the humic accumulative horizon is very dis- According to the Indonesian classification
tinct in the tropical Podzol (which, judging this is a Yellow Podzolic soil. Its morpho-
from the data of other researchers, is typi- logical structure indicates that it belongs
cal of these soils), which does not exist in to podzolized Ferrallitic Yellow soils.
the soils described in the Podzolic soil
zone. However, the Humic-lliuviai Podzols
of Western Europe usually have a humic All these soils have formed under similar
accumulative horizon and they are virtually th~rmal condi tioos of the equatorial belt
identical to the tropical Podzol in morphology. with high temperatures throughout the year,
ranging, according to mean monthly data,
from 23 to 26 C. However, wetting condi-
Profile 23 (127 402!07, according to the tions differ: Profiles 22 and 23 are exces-
numbering of the Institute). West Borneo, sively wet all the time, Profiles 6, 8, and
Siktang Province. Plain made up of quartz- 9 have formed in a climate with a brief dry
ites, about 25 m above sea level. Total period, and Profile 21, in a climate with a
annual precipitation is 3300 mm, evapora- distinct dry season. The soils differ also
tive power is about 1100 mm, and there is in their parent materials, i. e. , quartz
no dry season. Mainly Melastoma shrubs. sand, and andesite, limestone, shale, and
quartzite eluvium. The state of cultivation
of the soils also differs, i. e. , primary
AO( 0.2 cm Grayish-cinnamon brown tropical forest, shrubs and secondary
(10 YR4!3-4!4), sandy forests, and plowland.
coarse loam. Transition
gradual.
Most distinct in its structure among the
A, 2-8(12) em Dark cinnamon-brown soils described is Profile 22 of the ground-
(10 YR3!1-3!2), sandy water-gleyed Humic-Illuvial Podzol, which
coarse loam. mellow. differs morphologically from the same soils
Transition gradual. at temperate and boreal latitudes by having

663
 Y.M. FRIDLAND

Table 1
Particle-size composition of Indonesian Boils
Content of [rae., %; particle dilun., mm
Hygro-
"
0_
o.g": "
• 1• 'i " ~
Profile Horizon and depth, scopic ooU
No. em 6
water, ~li:C 'i ;;
~ •
~ tl;alll ,;
.3 ~', .; .; .; ~

• A
AB
B
o-to
20-30
50-60
5,1
',2
',0
',8
3,8
3,8
7,1
7,3
5,5
22,9
16,8
5,9
11,2
14,8
14.8
6,'
','
5,5
iB.5
',5
to, 1
at, t
43,2
54,3
BC 70-80 ',2 3,' ',6 24,t 10,7 3,6 H,t 42,0
C, 120-140 3,8 3,' 12,4- 41;5 17,8 3,1 ',1 15,2
C,
C,
160-170
220-230
0-10
','
5, I ','
" I
8,'
8,'
35,2
42,6
None 10,6
hl,3
27,0
3,7
4,'
13,5
" t
15,3
7,'
67,0
B' A, 3,' Not det. 8,8 4,' 0,'
AB 20-110 3,2 , t,7 2,8 7,1 7,6 12,9 67,9
,
C 40-50 4,8
, Nco. ',8
,,'
5, t 5,5 8,3 76.3

• C,,C,
C 75-80 5,1 - 7,' ',B 7,' 75,8
0-20 1,2 t,7 ',5 at,a 7,9 2,0 13.4 4.2,0
140- tHO
500-,,20 ','
3,2
2,5
2,B
1,8
7,8
27,6
10,8
',5
16,7
2,5
6,1
13.8
H.~
40,B
44,5
21' Aplow 0-15 3,1 Not det. H,1l 36,8 4,3 3, t 3,0 40,0
81.1 15-35 ',2 , 13,1 45,4 9,7 3,0 7,6 21,2
B I •1 40-55 3,2 , H,O 31,6 7,7 3,2 5, t 40,5
22' A.. 0-2 1,8 , 73,4 H,B 6,2 2,3 t,7 ',8
A, 2-t5 , 68,2 23,2 3,5 1,2 t,2 2,7
A, 20-35
',8
3,2 , 59,2 32,4 3,5 t,o 1,6 2,3
B. 50-60 3,3 , 51,6 26.0 5,' 3,3 5,2 B,O
65-75 , 60,2 27,3 t,3 t,5 7,3
B.g
BCg DD-iOO
3,'
3,0 , 57,6 27,3
2,'
5,' t,l t, I 7,'
23 A.. '_2 2, t 5,3 3B,7 35,8 7,8 t,7 2, I 8,B
A, 2_fO ',2 2,1 ',5 67,5 0,' 2,2 1,8 t2,D
B. 20-20 ',3 2,1 28,2 42,4 10,4 2,5 3,0 H,4
B2.~ 50-60 3,8 1,8 28,8 39,5 6,5 2,5 I,' t9,1
B~.2 80-100 2,5 1,2 as," 31,0 '7,9 1,7 1,0 2t,S

*PreptU'ed for Ilnalysts by the pyrophosphate method.

a humic accumulative horizon. The thick-
ness of the podzolic horizon (31 em) is
somewhat greater than that in the 8011s of
northern latitudes, but does not exceed that
in the thickest profiles.
Let us turn to the results of analyses of
this soil. It has a sandy texture (Table 1)
and an insignificant amount of clay I es-
pecially in the eluvial part of the profile,
whereas the illuvial part is somewhat
enriched with it. This enrichment in the
humlc-illuvial horizons can be explained by
the accwnulation of organic matter. In the
deeper horizons, which contain much less
humus, the increase in clay content can be
explained only by the accumulation of
mineral substances. The results of analy-
ses of oxalate and dithlonlte extracts (Table
5) show that aluminum and iron oxides do
not accumulate either in these horizons.
From acid in the upper horizons, the
Humic-lliuvial Podzol (Table 2) becomes
weakly acid with depth and base saturation
increases sharply. Studies of tropical
HUmic-llluvial Podzols [6, 14, 7] give
similar results, testifying to Borne ground-
water mineralization in these soils, produc-
ing a geochemical barrier for migrating
organic substances and saturating tile lower
part of the profile with bases. Anionic ad-
sorption, determined at a soil to solution
ratio of 1:20, is insignificant In the mineral
horizons and quite naturally increases
sharply in the humic-ill uvial horizon. The
total chemical composition of this soil
(Tables 3 and 4) is also typical of Humic-
Illuvial Podzols: there is more than 95%
SiOz in all the horizons of the profile, ap-
proaching 99% In eluvial horizons. The ac-
cumulation of AlzO) is very distinct in the
illuvial horIzons. This supports the

664
 SOVIET SOIL SCIENCE

Table 2
Results of analyses of Indonesian soils

pH Humus co, Adsorbed cations,

meq{l00 g
'" e.o ~:;::
~ "
~o
Horizon and 0
"II .a• •g-':0
• depth, em
12 ii %
to tit ] ~ ~ -~
a 08
2 •• ~ +x
B ~• rt.N.~ .....
'"
6 A 0-10 5,0 a,B 7,73 Not det. 0,0 4,0 18,7 28,7 35 2B
AB • 211,0
B
Be
20-30
fill-liD
70-80
4,B
4,1
4,7
a,B
3,5
a,o
3,0:1
1,110
t,tI!1
••
5,5
5,0
2,5
5,5
2,5
2,5
HI,a
28.3
:17,0
26,8
33,3
2B
to
" 21
2R
20
e.
e,
C,
120-140
160-170
220-230
4,7
4,7
4,B
a,s Not det.
3,5
a,s
•
•
·•
•
a,o
:1,5
a,s
a,s
3,5
3,5
30,il 38,8
SR.!! 45,0
41.0 4B.O
t7
IS
t4
21
2B
2B
B A. 0-10 6,t 4,n 5,35 0,27 -ill.Q 7,0 Not det. 51,0 Notdet. t4

·•• •
AB 20-30 0,2 5,0 -1,80 0,21 44,0 6,0 50,0 20
e 411-50 6,a 5, t 3,03 0,02 41,0 7,0 4B,0 • 20
e 75-80 6,0 5,11 1,71 0,37 50,0 5,0 55,0 • 20
0 A 0-20 4,B a,o 7,01 Nat det .. 5,0 0,0 7,1 t8, t 61 22
C. 140-t1lO I,' a,6 Not det. • 3,0 4,0 If1,7 :m,7 26 2B
C, 500-520 5, t a,1 • • 3,0 4.5 to,7 tB,2 41 26
2t AplOW 0-15 7,4 O,B a,2B 0,02 i3,0 1,0 Not det. 20,0 Not det. It
8,.t J,j-35 B,a 7,2 2,90 1,87 tlJ ,0 0,0 •
25,0 •10
B" 40-55 B,O B,7 1,42 0,45 1,0 iO,D •
17,0 •14
22 A.. 0-2 a,. 2,0 Not det. Notdct.. 3,0 2,0 B,B HI,8 31 Not det.
A. 2-15 4,5 a,B o,ga • a,o 2,0 1,2 0,2 B1 4
A, 21]-35 5,4 4,1 0,27 • 3,5 2,5 0,0 0,6 ot 4
SIl-IlO n,l1 4,4 5,15 • 3,5 2,0 ,,0 14,5 3B 29
11:'1-75 11,1 4,7 t,05 • 3,0 1,5 1,6 0,1 74 tB

" A..
A,
90-too 5,B
0-2
2-to 4,6
a,B
4,B Not det.
a,o
a,B
•
4,23
·
•
•
3,0 I,D 0,8
Traces
4,' sa
3t
Not dct.

14
.
B. 20-30 5,a 4,0 2,07 • 2'51 2,5
2,5 2'51 H,t
2,4 IlB,tl
7.1 liB 18
B~.~ 50-no 5,a 1,4 0,74 • 3,0 2,0 1,1l lI,1l 76 13
B1.~ 80)-100 4,0 4,t Not·dp.t. • 2,5 t ,5 1,5 5,5 73 B
C 120-130 4,n a,6 • • Not det.

assumption that clay minerals accumulate
in them. They accumulate both in the
humlc-illuvial horizon and under it. This
suggests that Buspensions of clay minerals
are more resistant to flocculating effects
thllIl colloidal organic-matter solutions.
The insignificant amounts of sesquioxides
extracted by oxalate IlIld dithionite extracts
and the low content of these oxides in il-
luvial horizons (Table 5) permi t the state-
ment that organic matter migrates mainly
in free forms rather than in the form of
organomlneral complexes. This distin-
guishes these soils from the Humic-Illuvlal
Podzols of temperate lati tudes. This is
also supported by the decrease in the Fed
to clay ratio from the upper to the lower
horizons. The absence in the oxalate ex-
tract of even traces of aluminum and iron
testifies to the very intense acid leaching of
the Boils in question under natural condi-
tions. Andriesse (6J I who investigated
tropical Humic-lliuvial Podzols in East
Malaysia , also came to the conclUsion that
the organic matter in these Boils migrates
in the free state in the Uluvial horizon.
A t the same time , the organic matter of the
Humic-muvial Podzol (Table 6) is extremely
mobile. A direct alkaline extract removes
more than 50% of organic matter from the
upper horizon and more than 90% from the
illuvial horizons. The insoluble residue is
correspondingly about 40% In the humus
horizon and from 5 to 10% in the illuvial
horizons. This suggests that there are two
entirely different types of organic matter in
Humic-nluvlal Podzols. The organic mat-
ter in the humus horizon forms mainly in
situ, contains SUbstantial amounts of humic
acids I and is relatively strongly bound with

665
 V.M. FRIDLAND

Table 3
Total chemical composition of Indonesian Boils
(% af Ignited sample)

u
a Molecular
",d",
Profile Ignition
No. ;f losret,'1I: SIO, Fe,O. Al,o, c.a M,O Total
~ 510.
~
•
0
, Fe.O, AJ.O,

6 o-tO 21,05 63,10 8,59 24,56 t,17 1,34 IIB,82 19,48 4,30
20-30 17, tB f12,2b 8,62 25,91 0,97 1,36 9£1,12 19,20 4,08
50-00 17,57 59,58 9,43 28,24 0,94 1, 79 1111,68 16,81 3,58
70-80 17,48 59,23 10,20 28,20 0,82 t ,50 tOO.04 15,40 3,50
120-140 10,20 61,28 8,03 27,66 1,92 1,95 100,74 t8,88 3,76
tflO-i70 16,00 111,86 8,52 110,97 1,08 2,41 tOO,84 19,43 3,90
220-230 16,09 60,13 0.71 20,09 0,80 1,20 98,53 10,40 3,91
Weather~
ed rock 19,60 5[1,97 9,54 20,57 3,52 3,67 07,27 16,65 .s,DS
8 D-to 22,88 55,69 {2,65 26.61 2,57 1,03 99,62 ff,73 3,55
!!O-30 22,35 53,60 13.47 27,M 2,80 1,70 119,51 iQ,49 :i,27
0\0-50 21,01 53,72 13,34 28,35 2,23 t ,913 fl9,GO to,77 3.25
75-85 11l,813 53,U8 H,05 28,30 2,63 N:,72 98,2.fI 12,31 3,26
nOpOJlIl 44,21 0,34. 0,25 0.13 04,03 ot det. 95,65 3,62 0,45

• 0-20
140-160
500-520
25,43
IB,12
10,75
45,53 16,4.4. 35,03 1,00 0,52
45,4.0 16,73 35,84 0,66 0,49
48,83 M,OO 34,00 0,82 0,08
!l8,61
99,12
00,59
7,36
7,20
8,65
0,22
2,16
2,46
U 0-15 D,OD 76,04 7,31 13,57 0,3!) None 07,31 22,3t '171
15-35 8,05 82,23 5,25 8,74 2,17 O,H 08,64 4.1,48 ffi:02
40-50 !l,t3 73,65 0,43 fO,27 0,85 0,48 97,Il8 30,65 7;71
22 2-15 0,80 9S,!)4 0,35 0,02 0,21 0,37 DR,8D 823,50 823,5
25_35 0,37 97,22 0,36 0,97 0,67 None I!9,22 809,05 i7ff,BB
50-60 9,12 95,40 0,56 1.94 0,56 0,00 98,52 453,7 83,57
65-75 3,31 90,66 0,55 i,79 0,33 0,03 !l1l,30 533,00 M,OO
!lO-too 1,54 97,HI O,M 0,28 0,60 0,07 100,38 BOG,OO 73.54
23 0-0 23,97 02,61 1,08 3,07 0,70 None 99,01) 154,to 30,53
2-tO 22,15 89,25 1,29 8,87 0,69 o,ts 100,25 ::185,75 t7 ,DB
30-30 7,08 RO,3t 1,66 7,25 0,00 O,Oi Oll,flO 150,40 21,18
50-60 5,06 87,25 1,21 9,93 0,60 None 90,02 ,181,63 :14,98
80-JOO 4,26 88,00 i ,30 9,38 0,49 • 99, i7 183,12 15,50
.

Table 4
Total chemical composition of clay in Indonesian soils
(% af ignited sample)

Molecular mtios
Profile Depth,
No. em
•0
'0· 510. Pe,O. AI,O, e.O M,a TotlLl
:;j S[O.
Pe,O.
5[0.
AI,O.

, O-W
140-fOO
23,45
18,52
43,40
44,29
14,34
14, it
38,81l
41,04
1,00
1,09
0,58
O,:U
90,08
100,84 '
8,03
8,37
1,90
1,82
500-520 18,04 48,64 t2,1Q 38,01 1,10 0,29 100,213 10,80 2,17
21 0-15 t9, ::19 46,08 15,17 34,88 t,9t 1,13 99,17 8,07 0,:!4
15-35 20,61 4.5,5715,38 33,27 2,26 0,85 97,33 7,90 2,33
40-50 19,03 44,99 15,60 35,32 1,64 0,57 (18,12 7,64 2,16
23 2-10 35,29 43,60 6,79 45,18 a,08 0,14 98,79 18,36 t,7ll
20-30 28,71 41,40 5,68 49,59 1,04 0,53 99,14 19,69 1,41
80-100 18,82 42,95 5,25 50,86 0,89 0,4.1 100,36 2f.,BO 1,43

666
 SOVIET SOIL SCIENCE

Table 5
Composition of extracts from Indonesian Boils
Oxalate extract (after Tamm) Fe203 in dl-
thlonite cx-
% of absolutc-
Iy dry soil % of total content t:nu:t (after
Profile Horizon and Jackson) Fe.- f",
No. depth, em 'Fed clay
re,D, " or "tot.or
SID. AI.O, SID, At,O. fe,O d'l'
soil ,=-
tent

6 A O-to Not detennlncd 3,40 39,11 N'!tdet o,it

Aa 20-30 0,4B 0,28 0,57 0,8 1,1 11,7 3,88 M.D 0,15 0,09
a 50-60 0,60 0,32 0,45 1,0 1,1 4,B 3,92 41,5 0,12 0,07
ac
C.
70-80 0,54
120-140 0,86
HlO-t70 1, t6
o,aa
0,40
0,27
0,26
0,29
0,17
D,D
1.4
1.9
1.2 2,5
1,4 3,4
1,0 2,0
',"41,0 0,0(1
4.03 46.8 0,07
3,45 40,5 0,05
O,to
0,26
0,22
& 220--230 1,61 0,23 0,18 2,7 D,!) [,0 4,20 43,3 0,04 0.5;
8 A. 0-[0 0,14 0,36 1,25 0,3 [,3 0,0 0,72 52.8 O. tQ 0,10
Aa 20-30 D,M 0,47 :1,14 0,3 [,7 B,5 7,07 52,5 O,la 0,10
C 40-50
0,23 0,70 0,72 0,' 2,5 5,' 6,77 50,5 O,tO 0,09
C 0,21
75-80 1, to 0,27 0,' 4,[ 2,3 B,3S M,5 0,04 o,oa
9 A 0-20
0,36 0,02 1,34 0,7 2,0 B,[ 9,91 60,0 0,13 0,23
C, 14.0-160
0,49 0,60 0,5t [, [ [,7 3,[ to,57 Il3,O 0,05 0,21
C, 500-520
0,32 0,82 0,35 0,7 2,4 2,3 8,83 58,0 0,04 0,20
21 Aplow 0-15 0,18 0, t5 0,68 0,02 [,5 9,3 4,77 65,3 0,14 0,12
Bu t5-35 0,19 O,tO 0,47 0,02 [, [ 8,9 2,05 56,0 0,16 0,14
82.2 40-55 0,55 0,01 0,43 0,07 0,4 0,7 5,62 81,0 0,08 0,14
22 A, 2-15 0,10 Net det. 0,001 Net det. 0,10 .i6,0 otdet 0.06
A, 20-35 0.10 • 0,001 • Netdet - •
Net det.
50-60 0, i1 • 0,001 • 0,20 35,9 • 0,03
65-75 0,10
90-toO O,iO
•
•
0,001
0,001
•
•
0,22
0,03
3~,1l
33,3
•0,03
• 0,01
23 A. 2_10 0,12 0,10 0,38 0,01 11,5 22,6 0,72 42,7 0,53 0,07
a, 20-30 0,27 0,58 0,37 0,03 .,0 22,0 0,83 50,0 0,45 0,07
B!.2 50-60 0,18 0,32 0,26 0,02 . 3,2 20,8 0,08 78,5 0,26 0,05
B~.~ aO-fOO 0,12 0,10 0,04 O,Oi [, [ 3, [ 1,15 88,5 0,03 0,05

*Fe e is iron in exnlatl!. extract Ilnd Fed is iron in dlthlonite extrllct.

the mineral mass. Fulvic acids predomInate The reason for the similarity between
sharply in the organIc matter of illuvialhorl- temperature-latitude and tropical Podzols
ZODS, which Is very weakly bound with the is the effect of simllar factors, 1. e., ex-
mineral mass. treme poorness of the parent material,
high humidity and leaching· water regime,
Thus I the results of chemical analyses and forest vegetation. The reason for the
and morphological structure testify to a differences is apparently the more active
considerable similarity of the Podzol in biological cycle in the tropics (larger
question to the groundwater-gleyed Humic- amount of litter and its more rapid decom-
lluvlal Podzols of temperate latitudes, as position), which produces accumulation of
well as to distinct differences between them. some amount of D.shelements, and, with it,
The latter lie mainly in the presence of a the formation of a humic-accumulative ho-
hUmic-accumulative horizon in the tropical rizon. The nonaccumulation of ~O:J in the
Podzol, which differs sharply in organic humlc-Illuvlal horizon 18 probobly due to
matter composition from the humic-illuvial the more intense leaching of the Boils and
horizon, and in the absence of illuviated iron more limited flocculation factors (extreme-
and aluminum oxides in the latter horizon. ly rare soil drying, no Boil freezing).

667
 Table 6
Group composition of organic matter in Indonesian Boils (numerator, % of absolutely dry Boili denominator,
% of mass of organic matter)
Substances Humus comporition

lNo, em
Tot:J.ior-
bon (% of
init. soil
extracted
Profile Depth, ' gllnic car- dwing de-
calcifica-
burniE: acids

fraction fraction
fulvic acids
fraction fraction
Ch•
Cr.
Residue Total
weJght) free 2 3 total froc 2 3 total
tioo

, 0-10 4,48
a,m
--a,57 U
0,23 0,10
2,23 ~
0,07 0,17
""3,70
1,34
ZU , 1l1
1,12
25,00
0,31
ti,ii1
1,43
31 ,Ill 0,12
2,58
57,59
'-',34
Uif,8u
<
~
0,09 0,06 0,04- 0,01 0,05 D,nO 0,32 0,05 0,37 1,33 1,&1
20-30 t,70 a,35 ""'2,23 -o,5ii 2,79 33,52 17,88 2,7H 20,67 O,i3 74,lm 102,78
5,U2
0,08 o,oa 0,03 0.01 0,04 0,54 0,32 O,OB 0,40
0,10
0,55 1,07 ~
'"'" 50-60 0,08 8,16 --a,uU 3,00 1,02 4,08 55,10 32,65 8,18 :m:1i1 5U,12 109,07
~
'" O,lZ 0,07 0,62 0,05 0,67 0,51 0,75 (J,07 0,82 1,51 3,15
B 0-10 3,10 4,00 2,20 2U,00 T,ill 21 ,Iii 11l,.J:i V0Y ~,2U 2U,45 0,81 50,00 102,00 ~
o,to 0,01 0,37 0,06 0,43 0,57 0,28 O,id 0,41 1.69 2,63 o
20-30 2,78 0,36 13,31 15,4Ei 20,50 11,20 4,67 15,87 1,05 IlU,7U 05,72
3,UO 2,15
0, t3 0,05 0,05 0,03 0,08 0,3S 0,22 O,ta 0,35 1,38 1,04
40-50 1,76 0,23
7,39 2,77 2:n 1,70 4,47 !-1O,43 12,50 7,38 1D.Bs 78,40 1to,14
0,17 0,79 0,17 0,017 0,187 0,G9 1,32 o,to 1,42 2,49 4,27
9 0-20 4,41) 17,25 3,79 0,3!) 4,18 20,IJO 2U,37 2,22 31,59 0,13 54,3ii 93,95
3,7U
0,01 0,12 0,14 0,u7 0,' 0,17 0,00 0,02 0,11 0,20 0,53
22 2-t5 0,54 22,22 25,\J2 12,911 38,88 . 31,48 16,66 3,70 20,3U 1,90 37,04 98,13
1,85
1,38 0,48 0,26 0,05 0,a1 2,37 0,89 0,01 O,UO 0,15 2,69
50-60 2,95 16,27 8,81 1,69 ro,5o 80,34 30,17 0,34 30,51 0,34 5,08 9t,17
45,08
0,15 0,18 0,04- 0,04 0,40 0,36 0,04 0,40 0,00 0,05
65-75 O,Gi 29,03 Ei,5ti None """6;5ti 65,58 59,02 H,56 U5,58 O,to 9.83 106,58
24,59
--
 SOVIET SOIL SCIENCE

Let us now examine the Boils formed on An important feature of Profile 21 is the
strongly calcareous parent materials. Pro- large content of secondary carbonates,
file 8 has formed under more humid and testifying to the great importance of the dry
Profile 21 under more arid conditions. The season with a nonleaching water regime.
first contains carbonates only in residual According to its structure and the results
fonn and the second in secondary form. of analyses, this soil can be classed in the
Both Boils are obviously eroded. group of tropical Red-Cinnamon Brown
soils. The uniqueness of these soils and
the aridity Of their regime are stressed in
The results of particle-size analysis the Indonesian classification in which they
(Table 1) testify to a difference in parent are called Mediterranean soils.
ma.terial. Profile 8 has a very fine texture.
the Boil has formed on a fairly pure lime-
stone eluvium (Table 3), while Profile 21 The last three profiles were classified
bas developed on calcareous sand. The tex- by us as Ferrailitlc soils formed under
tural differentiation of the profiles is weak; dIfferent wetting conditions. Profiles 6
it is more accurate to say that the material and 9 have formed in a tropical climate
fa somewhat inhomogeneous. with a short (2-3 months) dry season,
while Profile 23 has formed in a permanent-
ly humid climate. These soils are de-
These Boils are neutral or slightly alka- veloped on the weathering products of dif-
line •. have a high cation excbange capacity I ferent rocks: Profile 6 on those of shale,
nnd a relatively low anion adsorption capa- Profile 9 on those of Tertiary andesites,
city (Table 2). The humus content is high and Profile'23 on those of quartzites.
and the deep horizons are humifled to a
considerable degree.
The texture of these soils (Table 1)
clearly shows the predominance of clay
The total chemical composition of these over sand. There is little silt, especially
salls differs considerably. The clayey Pro- medium and fine silt, as in all Ferrallitic
file B is much richer in aluminum, iroD, soils. The nature of the parent material
and calcium than the sandy coarse loam Pro- is also distinctly revealed in the texture
file 21. However both profiles have a dis-
I of tbes.e soils. The soil developed on
tinct siallitlc composItion, which is also quartzites is sandy, that developed on shale
evidenced by the results of total chemical is less sandy, and that developed on ande-
analysis of the clay of Profile 21 •. site is extremely rich in sand, which is
clear from the results of the dithionite ex-
tract (Table 5). This extract removed
The organic matter of Profile B has a low much more iron from this than any other
content of free forms extractable directly soil. These results suggest that the sand
with alkali. Fraction 2, bound with calcium, fraction consists mainly of concretions.
predominates sharply in both the humic and Study of this fraction under a binocular and
Culvic acids. The humic to fulvic acid ratio its treatment with dithionite confirmed this
Is fnirly high. The nonextractable residue, assumption. A large part of the sand frac-
strongly bound with the mineral soil mass, tion dissolved and the undissolved part
accounts for half to three quarters of the proved to consist of clay minerals of kao-
Boil organic matter. ThuB, according to linitic appearance. Ferrallitic soils on
their chemical and physicochemical proper- pre-Quaternary andesites are frequently
ties, the soils in question are similar to sandy because of the formation of
Sod-Calcareous salls. However, their concretions.
morphological structure does not permit to
class them under Sod-Calcareous soils.
The uniqueness of Profile 8 lies in the nutty The upper horizons of all three Ferral-
structure of the upper horizon, plasticity litle soils are poor in clay. This is mani-
of deeper horIzon, and in a very fine texture. fest even despite some erosion of these
The classification of these soils as a special soils. The least differentiated soil is de-
Iype of Braunlehm [12J is quite justified, veloped on basalt. Micromorphological
in our opinion. study of Ferrallitic soils on quartzite and

669
 V.M. FRIDLAND
especially on shales revealed the presence
of distinct illuvlal clay films in the eluvial
horizons. This testifies once more to the
erosion of the Boils.
All FerralliUc Boils, especially that of
Profile 6 in the forest, are acid and have
a low content of excbangeable bases. The
Bum of exchangeable catioDs is highest in
the most fine-textured of the Ferrailitic
Boila (Profile 6) and lowest in the coarsest
(Profile 23). The Boil of Profile 9, similar
in texture to that of Profile 6, has a much
lower cation exchange capacity, probably
because of the effect of ferruginous films.
The variations in anion adsorption capacity
are the saIDe as in cation exchange capacity.
The total chemical composition of the
Boils reflects the composition of the initial
rocks, i. e., the content of silica increases
and that of iron. aluminum, and manganese
decreases from Profile 9, developed on
andesite, through Profile 6, formed on shale.
to Profile 23, formed on quartzite. The
content of calcium is low in all three pro-
. flIes and the differences in it are smaller
than in the content of other elements.
The reasons for such patterns are ob-
vious. They are determined for the first
four elements by the quartz content of the
initial rock and for calcium, the most bio-
genous of these elements, by the intensity
of the biological cycle.
The removal of clay from the upper hori-
zons is reflected in an increase of the SiOz
to Al z0 3 ratio in the upper horizons. In
addition to being removed vertically, clay
is also removed from the surface because
of differential erosion. This process is
vividly reflected in the texture and total
chemical composition of the AOt horizon
(depth of 0-2 cm) of Profile 23.
The total chemical composition of clay
in Ferr.llltlc soils (Table 4) is typical of
soils of this group and differences between
profiles are less distinct than in the total
chemical composition of soils as a whole.
The SiOz:A1I!P3 ratio testifies to the kaolini-
tic composition of the clay and to the pres-
ence of free aluminum oxides in it. Profile
670
9, formed on andesite, is distinguished by
a high iron content in the clay. Unusual for
the composition of the clay of Ferrallitic :
soils is the relatively high content of calcium. :
and magnesium, that of calcium being even '
slightly higher than in the soil as a whole.
The total chemical composition of clay
in the Ferrallitic soils developed on ande-
site is close to that of the entire soil. In
thes'e soils, as in the Red Earths of Georgia
developed on Tertiary andesite eluvium {11
and in the dark red Ferrallltic solls of the
Democratic Republic of Vietnam developed
on Quaternary andesites [41. the iron con·
tent in the soil as a whole is higher than in
the clay. This suggests that one of the
important forms of iron in these soils are
concretions and ferruginous films on coarse
particles. Examination of the samples
under a binocular supports this assumption.
Analysis of oxalate and dlthionite ex-
tracts (Table 5) testifies to a high content
of iron oxides in these soils. These oxides
are strongly crystallized in Profiles 6 and
9 and much less. so in Profile 23.
The organic matter of Indonesian Fer-
rallitic soils (Table 6) is very similar in
composition to that of the same soils in
other regions (41. Fulvic acids predomi-
nate sharply over humic acids in them.
Both fulvic and humic acids are very mobilei
they are almost completely extracted by
direct soil treatment with alkali. More than
half of the soil organic matter is in the
form of humins and strongly bound with Boil
minerals.
Analytical data have confirmed that the
three soils in question belong to the Ferral-
liUc class. At the same time, these soils
differ very Significantly from each other.
so that they can be classed under three dU·
ferent varieties.
Profile 6 can be classed as a Red-Yellow
Ferrallitic soil. and Profile 9 as a Dark-
Red Ferrallitic soil. We shall not describe
these groups of soils. their description was
given by us earlier [4J •
 SOVIET SOIL SCIENCE

Table 7
Optical density of humic acIds in Indonesian Boils
Profile Depth, Wllvelength, mp.
E.:£.
No. em 126 '65 ". ". >l'
'" 465

6 20-30 0,440 0,489 0,0:'10 0,878 1,21 1,58 1,90 4,3

50-flO 0,207 0,435 0,572 0,788 1,07 1,48 1,80 6,7
70-BO 0,283 0,34.7 0,438 0,612 0,001 1,25 t ,5B 5,6
8 0-10 0,560 0,640 0,880 1,07 1,35 1,70 1.88 3,4
20-30 0,862 0,772 1,[]20 t,36 1,45 'l,fO 2,70 4,1
40-50 0,04.5 0,805 1,050 1,37 1,80 2,30 2,50 3,9
0 0-20 0,280 0,373 0,478 0,048 0,£101 1,25 1,50 5,3
22 2-15 0,532 0,626 0,840 f,to 1.40 1,05 2,00 3,8
50-60 0,418 0,525 0,650 0.818 1,14 1,52 1,80 4,3
65-75 0,345 0,402 0,661 0,843 l,fO 1,47 1,70 4,6
23 20-30 0,150 0,280 0,440 0,6110 0,910 1,22 1,60 10,6

Profile 23 belongs to the Yellow Ferral- There is another distinct pattern: the
title soil group_ These Boils are identified optical density of the humic acids is lowest
according to the French Boil classification in Ferrallltlc soils (Profiles 6, 9, and 23),
[81 and are shown over large areas in South highest in the soil developed on limestone
America, especially the Amazon region [13J • (Profile B), and medium in the Humic-
They are called Xanthic Ferraisols in the lliuvial Podzol, whereby in the upper
legend of the FAO-UNESCO soil map of the humic-accumulative horizon it is close to
world [10] and in the map of South America that in the soil developed on limestone and
[91. These soils, having the main charac- in the lower, illuvial horizons, close to
tersitics of Ferrallitic Boils, have a low that in Ferrallitic soils.
content of iron, which is hydrated to a large
extent and less crystallized. They form in
a permanently humic tropical climate and The foregoing and also other data on
their properties are more distinct when tropical salls suggest that soils classed in
they form on the elUVium of acid and espe- the Tropical group, although they have a
cially ultra-aoid rocIts. more or less common thermal regime,
differ in the other regimes as significantly
and in properties and composition even
Thus the six profiles of Indonesian salls more Significantly than the Boils of tem-
studied represent six distinctly different perate latitudes.
(despite the erosion of some of them) soil
groups, testifying to the great diversity of
Boils in tropical regions. These differences Indeed, the weathering and soil forma-
between the salls were also clearly revealed tion rates are higher in the tropics than at
by a study of the optical density of humic temperate latitudes. In large regions of
acids (determined in alkaline solutions the tropics, where old relief surfaces pre-
with a carbon concentration of 0.136-0.138 g Vail, the duration of soll formation is also
per liter on a Pulfrich spectrophotometer longer. Quaternary mantle deposits are
with 4-fold replication), The results of also limited in the tropics. These are
these determinations (Table 7) show thnt the reasons for the great diversity of parent
optical density decreases from the upper material (from very saline to deeply fer-
to the lower horizons in Ferrallitic soils rallitized) and also for varying and very
(Profile 6) and in the Hwnic-nluvial Podzol, significant relict structural soil
whereas in Profile 8 (Braunlehm), developed characteristics.
onilmestone, it increases from the upper to
the lower horizons. The reason for this is
obvious, it lies in the change in acidity and These reasons make the world of tropi-
In the content of exchangeable bases along cal soils more diversified than the world of
the profile. Boils of the temperate belt. At the same

671
 V.M. FRIDLAND
time, Boile having properties similar to
those of temperate-latitude Boils frequently
fann on nonferrallitic parent materials in
the tropics and occupy considerable areas.
Received April 14, 1975
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. SABASHVILI, M. N. 1949. Pochvy
Gruzil (Soils of Georgia). Thlllsi.
2. TONKONOGGV, V. D. 1972. Podzolo-
obrazovaniye na kvartsevykh peskakh
(on primere Severa RUBSkoy ravniny)
[Podzol formation on quartz sands
(as exemplified by the north of the
RUBsian plain)]. Author'S summary
of his dissertation. Moscow.
3. Ukazaniya po klassificatsii i diagnostlke
pochv. vyp. 1. Pochvy tayezhno-
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forest regions of the USSR). 1967.
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(Boils and weathering crusts of the
humid tropiCS). Moscow.
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MGU.
672
6. ANDRIESSE, J. P. 1969. A study of
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8. Classification des BoIs. Edition
1967.
9. FAO-UNESCO. Soll map of the world
1:5, aDO. 000. Vol. 4. South America.
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10. FAO-UNESCO. 1974. Soil map of the
world 1:5. ODD. ODD, Vol. 1. Legend.
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tlber GewH.sser und Bt5den des
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R. A. McGREERY. 1970. The char-
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Sci. Soc, Amer. Proc .• 34(5).