A LAND OF THOUSAND LANGUAGES

Africa contains well over a thousand languages some have estimated over two thousands,
most of african origin & a few of european origin. africa is the most polyglot continent in the
world. it is not rare to find individuals there who fluently speak not only several african
languages, but one or two european ones as well. there are four major lanugage families
native to africa. they are:

- the afro-asiatic languages are a language family of about 240 languages & 285 million
people widespread throughout east africa, north africa, the sahel & southwest asia.

- the nilo-saharan language family consists of more than 100 languages spoken by 30 million
people. nilo-saharan languages are mainly soken in chad, ethiopia, kenya, sudan, uganda,
northern tanzania.

- the niger-congo language family covers much of sub-saharan africa & is propbably the
largest language family in the world in terms of different languages. a substantial number of
them are the bantu languages spoken in much of sub-saharan africa.

- the khoisan languages number about 50 & are spoken in southern africa by approximately
1,20,000 people . many of the khoisan languages are endangered. the khoi & san peoples are
considered the roiginal inhabitants of this part of africa.

following colonialism nearly all african countries adopted official languages that originated
outside the continent, although several countries nowadays also use various languages of
native origin (such as swahili) as their official language. in numerous countries , english &
french are used for communication in the public sphere including government, commerce,
education & media.

ANDEAN RANGE

the andean range is composed principally of two great ranges, the cordilera oriental &
cordillera occidental, often seperated by a deep intermediate depression, in which arise other
chains of minor importance, the chief of which is chile's cordillera de la costa. other small
chain arise on the sides of the great chains. the cordillera de la costa, starts from the southern
extremity of the continent & runs in northerly direction, parallel with the coast, being broken
up at its beginning into a number of islands & afterwards forming the western boundary of
the great central valley of chile. to the north this coastal continues in small ridges / isollated
hills along the pacific ocean as far as venezuela, always leaving the same valley. this andean
range extended over 7 countries. some of them known as andean states itself. the name andes
comes from the Quechua word anti, means "high crest". another , it is derived from spanish
word "anden" means terrace in reference the culitvation terraces used by the Incas & other
related peoples. the andes range is the highest mountain range outside asia, with its highest
peak, Aconcagua , rising to 6960 mts (22,841 ft) above sea level. the andes cannot match
himalayas in height but do so in width & are more than twice as long. 

ARCHIPELAGO
it is a chain or cluster of islands. the word archipelago literally means "chief sea", from greek
arkhon & pelagoes. in antiquity , the archipelago was the proper name for the aegean sea &
later shifted to islands. archipelago are usually found in the open sea; less commonly , a large
land mass may neighbour them. Scotland has more than 700 islands surrounding the
mainland. archipelago are often volcanic, forming along mid-ocean ridges but there are many
other processes involved in their construction, including erosion & deposition. the 4 largest
modern states that are mainly archipelagos are : japan, philippiness, new zealand, indonesia.
the largest archipelago in the world by size is in northern canada situated in the artic ocean.

ARETE

it is a thin , knife-like , ridge of rock which is typically formed when the two glaciers erode
parallel U-shaped valleys. the Arete is a thin ridge of rock that is left seperating the two
valleys.can also form when two glaciers cirques erode headwards towards one another,
frequently this results in saddle shapped pass called Col. the edge is sharpened by freeze thaw
weathering. the word arete is actually French for fishbone.

Few examples of arete are :

- knife-edge on Mount Katandin, maine, USA
- clouds rest, in the Sierra nevada, california
- the Minarets in sierra nevada, california
- the garden wall in glacier national park, wales.
- striking edge in the english lake district
- the catwalk in olympic national park, washington, USA.

ATOLL

it is an island of coral that encircles a lagoon partially or completely. the word atoll is derived
from the Dhivehi an Indo-Aryan language spoken on the Maldives islands word atholhu. its
first recorded use in english was in 1625. the term was popularized by charles darwin who
described atolls as a subset in a special class of islands.

DEFINITION :

atolls are those as " an annular reef enclosing a lagoon in which there are no promontories
other than reefs & islet composed of reef detritus". these are the product of the growth of
tropical marine organisms, so these islands are only found in warm tropical waters . volcanic
islands located beyond the warm water temperature requirements of reef building organism
become sea-mounts as they subside & are eroded away at the surface. islands more polar
evolve towards sea-mounts islands more equatorial evolve towards atolls. most of the world's
atoll are in PAcific ocean & Indian ocean.

LARGEST ATOLLS BY TOTAL AREA:

 saya de masha bank, western Indian ocean 35,000 km2 without separate north bank,
submerged ; least depth 7m

 great chagos bank 12,642 km2 land by area only 4.5 km2
  reed bank, spratly islands 8860 km2, depth 9m

 macclesfield bank, south china sea 6448 km2, depth 9.2m

 north bank 5800 km2, depth <10m

 caysal bank, bahamas 5226.73 km2

 landsdocone bank, west of new caledonia 5000 km2, depth 3.7m

 thilaanunmathi-miladhumadulu atoll, maldives 3850 km2

 huvadhu atoll, maldives 3152 km2

 trunk lagoon , chuuk 3130 km2

 kepulauan sabalana, indonesia 2694 km2

 ishou reef, coral sea 2529 km2

 bassa de pedro 2474,33 km2, depth 16.4m

 ardasier bank, spratly islands 2347 km2

 kwajalein, marshall islands 2304 km2

 diamond islets bank, coral sea 2282 km2

 namonuito atoll, chuuk 2267 km2

 ari atoll, maldives 2252 km2

 maro reef, north-western hawaiian islands 1934 km2

 rangiroa tuamatu islands, 1762 km2

 kolhumadulu atoll, maldives 1617 km2

 north male, maldives 1656 km2

 ontong java, solomon islands 1010

THE BEAUFORT SCALE

this is the scale used for measuring & recording the strength of the wind. it is based on
estomated velocity at 10 m (33feet) above the ground. it was devised by admiral sir beaufort,
in 1805.
DESCRIPTION = SPEED (KM/HOUR) = POSSIBLE EFFECTS
I. LIGHT WINDS :

 calm = 0 = chimmney smoke rises vertically

 light air = 1.5-5 = smoke drifts gently
 light breeze = 6-12 = leaves rustle, wind felt on face.
 gentle breeze = 13-20 = leaves & twigs on trees move.

II. MODERATE WINDS :

DESCRIPTION = SPEED (KM/HOUR) = POSSIBLE EFFECTS

 moderate breeze = 21-29 = dust & paper raised from ground

 fresh breeze = 30-39 = small trees start to sway.
 strong breeze = 40-50 = large braches move
 moderate gale = 51-61 = whole trees sway.

III. GALES :
DESCRIPTION = SPEED (KM/HOUR) = POSSIBLE EFFECTS

 fresh gale = 62-75 = twigs are broken off trees

 strong gale = 76-87 = slight structural damage to buildings
 whole gale = 88-102 = trees are uprooted & houses damaged.
 storm = 103-121 = widespread damage occurs
 hurricane = above 121 = widespread devastation occurs.

Birds in India
Bittern
Indian bittern is a bird belonging to the Ardeidae family of herons. Almost all the subspecies
of Bitterns have a short neck and tend to be more secretive than the other members of the
family. Indian Bittern birds form a monophyletic subfamily in the heron family of
Botaurinae.

Crested Serpent Eagle

Indian Crested Serpent Eagle, a member of Accipitridae family, is scientifically known as
Spilornis cheela. It is a specialist reptile eater, which mainly hunts snakes and lizards.

Grey Francolin
Grey Francolin, also known as Grey Partridge, is a resident bird of the Indian subcontinent.
The species was introduced for the first time in the Andaman Islands. Since then, it has
beautifully adapted itself to the country as well as its climate.

Greylag Goose
Greylag goose, Anser anser, is one of the Old World species of birds and was known in the
pre-Linnean times as Wild Goose. It has ancestral relations with the domesticated geese of
Europe and North America. Gray Lag Goose is a very frequent winter visitor to the north
regions of the Indian subcontinent.
Great Indian Hornbill
Greater Indian Hornbill is considered to be the largest member of the hornbill family.
Scientifically known as Buceros bicornis, it is usually found inhabiting the forests of Indian
subcontinent, the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra, Indonesia. The average lifespan of the Great
Pied Hornbill of India exceeds 35 years and may go upto 50 years in captivity.

Heron
Indian heron belongs is a member of the large wading bird family, known as Ardeidae. It is
found mostly inhabiting the tropical and sub tropical areas. However, Indian herons can also
be seen in temperate areas. There is one major characteristic that distinguishes herons from
the other birds.

Peacock
Blue peacock is regarded as one of the most beautiful birds throughout the world. It is also
the National Bird of the Indian subcontinent. Peacock is the name given to a male peafowl,
while the female is known as Peahen. Scientifically known as Pavo cristatus (Linnaeus), the
Peafowl of India is a swan-sized bird, with a long and slender neck.

Jungle Bush Quail

Jungle bush quail bird is one of the species of quails found in South Asia. The bird is usually
seen in small coveys and is quite shy by nature. One can get a glimpse of the Jungle bush
quails of India mainly when they burst out into flight from under the vegetation.

Stork
Indian stork is one of the 17 different species of storks found throughout the world. The only
continent where storks are not found is that of Antarctica. The natural habitat of the storks
comprises of Indian fields, savannas and marshes.

Dams and Reservoirs in Indian States

1.Andhra Pradesh

* Nagarjuna Sagar Dam

* Srisailam Project
* Srisailam Dam
* Nizam Sagar
* Telugu Ganga
* Polavaram dam
* Nijam Sagar Reservoir
* Osman Sagar
* Sriram Sagar Reservoir
* Lower Maneru Reservoir
* Himayath Sagar Reservoir
* Dindi Reservoir
* Somasila Reservoir
* Gandipalem Reservoir
* Dowleswaram Barrage
* prakasam barrage
* Tatipudi Reservoir
* Ichampalli
* Pulichintala
* Ellammpalli
* Singur Dam
* Dummagudem
* NagarjunaSagar TailPond
* Sunkesula
* Musi Reservoir

2.Gujarat

* Sardar Sarovar Project on Narmada river

* Ukai Dam near Surat

3.Himachal Pradesh

* Bhakra Dam on Sutlej river, near Nangal

* Gobind Sagar
* Maharana Pratap Sagar
* Pong Dam Reservoir on Beas River, near Talwara.
* Pandoh Dam on Beas River, near Mandi.
* Chamera Dam on Ravi River near Chamba.
* Nathpa Dam on Sutlej River near Rampur.

4.Karnataka

* Krishna Raja Sagara Dam built by the then Maharaja of the

erstwhile Mysore Kingdom, Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV. Chief Architect:
Sir Mokshagundam Visvesvarayya, across Cauvery River.
* Alamatti Dam
* Basava Sagara Dam
* Linganamakki dam
* Supa Dam
* Kodasalli Dam
* Kadra Dam
* Tunga Bhadra Dam
* Kabini Reservoir
* Harangi Dam
* Narayanpur Dam downstream of Alamatti Dam
* Garura Dam Krishna River
* Hemavathi Reservoir (Gorur Dam)

5.Kerala

* Banasura Sagar Dam

* Chalakkudy Dam
* Idukki Dam
* Kundaly dam in Munnar
* Malampuzha Dam
* Mattupetty Dam
* Parambikulam Dam
* Pothundi Dam
* Walayar Dam
* Idukki arch dam in idukki
* Neyyar Dam

6.Madhya Pradesh

* Bansagar
* Bargi Dam
* Barna Dam
* Gandhi Sagar dam
* Indirasagar
* Narmada Dam Project
* Rajghat
* Tawa Reservoir

7.Maharashtra

* Koyna Dam - River Koyna

* Jaikwadi
* Ujani -River Bhima
* Mulshi Dam - River Mula
* Khadakwasla - River Mutha
* Kolkewadi Dam
* Panshet - River Mutha
* Radhanagari
* Bhatsa
* Tansa
* Vaitarna
* Pawna - River Pawna
* Bhandardara
* Gangapur Dam, Nashik
* Ozarkhed Dam, Nashik
* Karanjwan Dam
* Nandur Madhmeshwar Dam
* Yeldari on Purna River Near Parbhani
* Siddheshwar on Purna River Near Parbhani
* Manar On River Manar Near Nanded
* Girna On River Girna
* Chaskaman On River Bhima Near Rajgurunagar

8.Meghalaya

* Umiam Lake

9.Orissa
* Balimela Reservoir
* Hirakud Dam on Mahanadi River near Sambalpur
* Balimela Reservoir
* Jalaput on Machkund River near Jaypore, Koraput District

10.Tamil Nadu

* Aliyar Reservoir
* Amaravathi Reservoir
* Anaikuttam Reservoir
* Anainaduvu Reservoir
* Bhavanisagar Reservoir
* Chittar Reservoir
* Chittar Reservoir-1
* Chittar Reservoir-2
* Gatana Reservoir
* Golwarpatti Reservoir
* Gomukhinadhi Reservoir
* Gundar Reservoir
* Gunderippalam Reservoir
* Kariakoil Reservoir
* Karupppanadhi Reservoir
* Kelavarapalli Reservoir
* Kesarigulihalla Reservoir
* Kodaganar Reservoir
* Kovilar Reservoir
* Krishnagiri Reservoir
* Kullursandai Reservoir
* Kutharaiyar Reservoir
* Lower Nirar Reservoir
* Manimukthanadhi Reservoir
* Manimuthar Reservoir
* Manjalar Reservoir
* Marudhanadhi Reservoir
* Mettur Dam
* Nagavathi Reservoir
* Noyyal Oarathuppalayam
* Palar Porandalar Reservoir
* Pambar Reservoir
* Parambikulam Reservoir
* Parappalar Reservoir
* Pechiparai Reservoir
* Periyar Reservoir (Pilavukkal Project)
* Periyar Reservoir
* Perumpallam Reservoir
* Perunchani Reservoir
* Peruvaripallam
* Ponnaniar Reservoir
* Ramanadhi Reservoir
* Sathanur Reservoir
* Sholayar Reservoir
* Siddhamalli Reservoir
* Soolagiri chinnar Reservoir
* Stanley Reservoir
* Thambalahalli Reservoir
* Thirumurthi Reservoir
* Thoppaiyar Reservoir
* Thunakadavu Reservoir
* Uppar Reservoir
* Upper Nirar Wier
* Vaigai Dam
* Vaigai Reservoir
* Vaniyar Reservoir
* Varadamanadhi Reservoir
* Varattupallam Reservoir
* Vattamalaikarai Odai Reservoir
* Vembakottai Reservoir
* Vidur Reservoir
* Willingdon Reservoir

11.Uttar Pradesh

* Govind Ballabh Pant Sagar on Rihand River in Sonbhadra

* Matatila Dam on Betwa River in Lalitpur
* Parichha Dam on Betwa River in Parichha (Jhansi District).

12.Uttarakhand

* Tehri dam

13.West Bengal

* Maithon Dam
* Panchet Dam
EOLINE PROCESSES

it is the processes pertain to the activity of the winds & more specifically , to the winds ability to
shape the surface of the earth & other planets. winds may erode transport & deposit minerals & are
effective agents in regions with sparse vegetation & large supply of unconsolidated sediments . this
process are important in arid environments such as deserts . wind erodes the earth's surface by
deflation , by the removal of loose, fine-grained particles , by the turbulent eddy action of the wind
& by abrasion. regions which experience intense & sustained erosion are called deflation zone. most
of Eoline deflation zones are composed of the desert pavement, a sheet-like surface of rock
fragments that remains after wind & water have removed the fine particulars, a dark, shiny stain
called desert vanish is often found on the surface of some desert rocks that have been exposed at
the surface for a long period of time. shine stain minerals are manganese, iron oxides, hydroxides,
clay. deflation basins , called blowouts are hollows formed by the removal of particles by wind .
wind-driven grains abrade landforms. sculpted landforms , called Yardangs, are up ot tens of meters
high & kilometers long are form that have been stremlined by desert winds.

ERG LANDFORM

an erg is also known as duna sea is a large relatively flat area of desert covered with wind-swept san
with little of to no vegetation cover. the term takes its name from the Arabic word erg mean "dune
field". an ergis defined as to be a desert area that contains more than 125 square kilometers of
eolian sand & where sand covers more than 20% of the surface approximately 85% of the earth's
mobile sand is found in ergs that are larger than 32,000 km2. ergs are als found on other celestial
bodies, such as venus & saturn's moon titan. erg are concentrated in 2 broad belts between 20
degree-40 degree S latitutdes, which includes regions crossed by the dry, subsiding air of the trade
winds. averaged erg are limited to regions which receive not more than 150 mm of annual
precipitation. sand sea & dune fields generally occur in regions downwind of copious sources of dry,
loose sand, such as dry riverbeds , deltas, flood plains, glacial out wash plains, dry lakes & dry
beaches. at least 1 million years are required to build ergs with very large dunes sand sea that have
accumulated in subsiding structural & topographic basins, attain great thickness more than 1000m.
by nature ergs are very active. individual dunes forming ergs typically have width, length / both
dimensions greater than 500m.

ESKER

it is a long , winding ridge of stratified sand & gravel. these are frequently several miles in length,
most of esker are believed to form in ice-walled tunnels by streams which flowed within & under
glaciers. after the retaining ice walls melt away, stream deposits remain as long winding ridges.it it is
also form above the glaciers by accumulation of sediment in supraglacial channels, increvasses, in
linear zones between stagnant blocks, the rate of plastic flow & melting of the basic ice determines
the size & shape of the subglacial tunnel. this in turn determines shape, composition, structure of
Esker. they are no often found as continuous ridges, but have gaps that seperate the winding
segments. the ridge crests of eskers are not usually level for very long & are generally knobby. Eskers
can be borad-crested / sharp-crested with steepsides. they can reach hundreds of kilometers in high.
the concentration of rock debris in the ice & the rate at which sediment is delivered to the tunnel by
melting & from upstream transport determines the amount of sediments in Eskers. the sediments
consists of coarse-grained, water-laid sand & gravel. cross-bedding is common in Esker.

the name Esker is derived from Irish word eiscier means " a ridge of one seperating two plains
surfaces". the mason esker at 22 miles is one of the longest Esker in the US.

EXCAVATIONS IN INDIA AND THEIR EXCAVATORS

1.Harappa-1921(Montgomery) -- Dayaram sahani

2.Mohanjadaro-1922(Sindh) -- Rakhaldas Banerjee
3.Kalibangan-(Hanumangar) -- Amalananda Gosh
4.Lothal-1957(Ahmedabad) -- S.R.Rao
5.Bonwali-1973(Hissar) -- R.S.Bist
6.Rangpur-1931(Gujarat) -- M.S.Vatsa
7.Ropar-1955(Punjab) -- Y.D.Sharma
8.Alamgirpur-(Meerut) -- Y.D.Sharma
9.Kotdiji-1935(Sindh) -- Ghurey
10.Surkotada-(Gujarat) -- J.P.Joshi
11.Changudaro-(Sindh) -- Majumdar
12.Sutkagendor-(Baluchisthan) -- A.Stein

FACTS OF RHINE

Introduction :
Rhine is the of the largest at river in Europe. it runs for over 1300 kilometers from its source in South
Rhine flows on through France, Germany & Netherlands.
* back bone of Europe = Rhine
* Rhine originates from = Gothar
* Rhine enters rift valley at = Basle
* Rhine drains into = North sea
* Tributaries of Rhine = Mosel, main, Lippe.

international co-operation over the river Rhine goes back to 1887 with a treaty prohibiting the
discharge of wastes dangerous to fish. international commission for the protection of the Rhine
against pollution was formed. most recently, after a serious incident in 1986, the Rhino Action
Programme was developed , by the 2000, programme aims to achieve a return to the river species
such as the salmon which once thrived them. the use of the river of extracting drinking water is also
dafeguarded.

The specific aimes of the Rhine Action Programme Approved by a confluence of ministers on the
protection of the Rhine against Pollution, in Strasbourg in 1987 are :

- to accelerate the reduction of permanent pollution from all sources.

- to reduce the risk of accidents & spillages.
- to improve hydrological & other conditions of the river.

At The National Rivers :

- national laws are made starting how much waster material can be discharged.
- industrial plants are obliged to have a permit for their emissions.
- pollution taxes are imposed on individuals & industrial plants
- purification & measuring stations are built.

At International Level :

- there is nore co-operation between countries that share the Rhine

- there is an alaram system for every time the concentration of a certain material exceeds its
permitted value.
- plans are made for the conservation & restoration of natural landscapes.

FELDSPAR

it is the name of a group of rock-forming minerals which make up as much as 60% of the earth's
crust. crystallize from magma in both intrusive & extrusive rocks, & they can also occur as compact
minerals as veins & are also present in many types of metamorphic rock . rock formed entirely of
plagioclase Feldspar is known as northosite. they are also found in many types of sedimentary rock.
it is typically reddish / pale pink in color, & has a hardness of 60 the mohs scale.

feldspar is derived from the german word feld, field, spat ; a rock that does not contain ore. feldspar
refers to minerals that contains feldspar.

COMPOSITION :
this group of minerals consists of framework or tectosilicates . composition of major elements in
common feldspar can be expressed in term of 3 endmembranes.

K-feldspar endmembranes = KAlSi3O8

Albite endmembranes = NaAlSi3O8
Anorthite endmembranes = CaAl2Si2O8

- sodium solution between K-feldspar & albit are called alkali feldspar.
- solid solution between albite & anorthite are called plagioclase.
- sanidine, orthoclase, microline refer to polymorphs of K-feldspar.

- sanidine is stable at the highest temperature

- microline at the lowest perthite is typical texture in alkali feldspar, due to exsolution of contrasting
alkali feldspar compositions during cooling of an intermediate composition. the perthitic texture in
the alkali feldspar of many granites are coarse enough to be visible to the naked eye.

USES :
- feldspar is common raw material in the production of ceramics.
- feldspar are used for thermoluminescence dating & optical dating in earth science & archeology.
- feldspar is often an anti-eating agent used in powedered forms of non-dairy creams.

FLASH FLOOD

it is rapidly flooding of geomorphic lowlying areas- washes, rivers & streams -- caused by the intense
rainfall associated with a thunder strom, or multiple thunder storms. they are distinguished from a
regular flood by a timescale less than 6 hours.

CAUSES
it occurs when the ground becomes saturated with water that has fallen too quickly to be absorbed.
they mostly often occur in dry areas that have recently received precipitation, these are extremely
dangerous because of their sudden nature.

FOEHN WIND

this occurs when a deep layer of prevailing wind is forced over a mountain
range. as the wind moves upslope, it expands & cools, causing water vapour to
precipitate out. this dehydrate air then passes over the crest & begins to move
downslope. Foehn winds can rise temperature by as much as 30 degree C , 54
degree F in just a matter of hours.

EFFECTS :

winds of this type are called "snow-eaters" for their ability to make snow melt
rapidly. this ability is based not only on high temperature, but also the low
relative humidity of the air mass. Foehn winds are often associated in popular
mythology with illness ranging from migraines to psychosis.

the name Foehn came from German, originated in the alpine region.

Foehn winds are called in different names in different countries. they

are :
- Zonda winds in Argentina
- Chinook in USA & Canada
- the Nor'Westr in Hawkes Bay
- Halny in Carpathian Mountain, Eastern Europe
- Fogony in the Catalan Pyrenees
- Berg wind in South Africa
- Viento Sur in the Cantabrian region of North Spain
- Terral in Malaga Souhtern Spain
- Foehn wind in Austria, southern germany.

FUMAROLE

it is an opening in earth's crust , often in the neighbourhood of volcanoes, which emits steam &
gases such as carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, hydrocloric acid & hydrogen sulfide. the name
solfatare , from the italian solfa sulfur, is given to fumaroles that emit sulfurous gases.fumarole may
occur along tiny cracks or long fissures, in chatic clusters or fields & on the surface of lava flows &
thick deposites of pyroclastic flows. a fumarole field is an area of thermal springs & gas vents are
releasing gases or interacting with groung water from the perspective of ground water. fumarole
could be described as a hot spring that boils off call its water before the water reaches the surface
example famous ot spring that boils off call its water before the water reaches the surface example
famous valley of ten thousand smokes , which was formed during the 1912 erruption of novarupta in
alaska.   
GEOGRAPHICAL SURNAMES

1. Blue Mountains = Nilgiri Hills

2. Bengal's Sorrow = Damodar river
3. City of Palaces = Kolkota
4. China's Sorrow = Hwang Ho
5. City of Seven Hills = Rome
6. City of Skyscrapers = New York
7. Cockpit of Europe = Belgium
8. Dark Continent = Africa
9. Empire city = New York
10. Emerald Island = Ireland
11. Gift of Nile = Egypt
12. Gateway of India = Bombay
13. Granite city = Aberdeen ( Scotland )
14. Holy land = Jerusaleum
15. Island of Cloves = Zanzibar
16. Land of Midnight Sun = Norway
17. Land of Rising Sun = Japan
18. Land of Thousand Lakes = Finland
19. Land of Golden Pagoda = Burma
20. Land of Morning Calm = Korea
21. Land of Maple Leaf = Canada
22. Land of Thousand Elephants = Laos
23. Land of White Elephants = Thailand
24. Land of Five Rivers = Punjab
25. Land of Thunderbolt = Bhutan
26. PlayGround of Europe = Switzerland
27. Rose Pink City = Jaipur
28. Roof of World = The Pamirs in Central Asia
29. Sugar Bowl of World = Cuba
30. Yellow River = Hawang-Ho ( China )

GEYSER

Geysers were named after a famous "the Great Geysir" of Iceland. That is located around the
northwest area of Mt. Hekla, which is also an active volcano in the south central part of the island.
That means "roarer" in Icelandic language.

It is a type of hot spring that errupts periodically, ejecting a column of hot water & stream into the
air. the name geyser comes from geysir, the name of an errupting spring at Iceland. the word comes
from Iceland means "to gush". the formation of geysers require a favourable hydrogeology which
exists in only a few places on earth, so they are fairely ran phenomena. about 1000 exist worldwide,
half of them is in Yellowstone National Park, US. geyser erruptive may change / cease due to ongoing
mineral deposition with in the geyser as plumbing, exchange of functions with near by hot springs,
earthquakes influence. geyser activity all hot spring activity is caused by surface water gradually
seeping down through the ground until it meets rock heated by magma. geyser differ from non-
eeruptive hot springs in their subterranean structure.

The geysers are made by a forceful eruption of water to go to heights of 100 to 200 feet, and the
record holding is around 1500 feet. When the water comes to blow off steam, which is responsible
for all that roaring. The vigor of these eruptions is what we want to understand more of. Geysers are
always around places like hot springs, but then they are a rather unusual phenomenon.

TWO TYPES OF GEYSERS :

1. FOUNTAIN GEYSER :
errupt from pools of water, typically in a series of intense, even violent, burts.

2. CONE GEYSER :
these geysers which errupt from cones of siliceous sinter, usually in steady jets that last anywhere
from few seconds to several minutes.

most geysers form in places where there is volcanic rhyolite rock which dissolves in hot water &
forms mineral deposite called silicons sinter. many geyser have been destroyed by people throwing
litter & debris into them. others have ceased to errupt due to the dewatering by geothermal power
plants. the specific colours of geysers derices from the fact that despite the apparently harsh
condition, life is often found in them in the form of thermophilic prokaryotes. in the 1960s , when
the research of biology of geyser first appeared, scientists were generally convinced that no life can
survive above around 73 degree c (163 degree F). the upper limit for the survival of eyanobacteria ,
as the structure of key cellular proteins & DNA would be destroyed.

Other Physical Nature

In the Earth where there is an opening that would contain superheated water that periodically
erupts in a shower of water and of steam. They are found around places where there are heated
rocks close to the surface. Iceland is located on the Mid Atlantic ridge noted for its basic activities.
Old Faithful is known to be the most famous geyser in Yellowstone National Park, Old Faithful is not
the largest geyser in Yellowstone, but is known to be the most frequent on its eruptions on time
periods. These eruptions do erupt in about 45 to 110 minutes, with an average of 76 minutes less
predictable. However most geysers are always irregular, though Old Faithful ejects 14,000 to 32,000
liters of boiling water to heights of aver 30 to 55 m in each eruption. Approximately 700 geysers,
Yellowstone has 500 of all the geysers in the world. Once the other geysers in the Norris Geysers the
north Geysers Basin did erupt to 12 to 15 m every 60 seconds.
GLACIER ERRATIC

it is a piece of rock that deviates from the size & type of rock native to the area in which it rests; the
name "erratic" is based on the errant location of these boulders. these rocks were carried to their
current location by glacial ice, over hundred's of kilometers. Erratics can range in size from pebbles
to large boulders such as Big rock which is 16,500 ton is in Alberia.

How can ozone be both good and bad?

The thing that determines whether ozone is good or bad is its location.

Ozone is "good" when it is in the stratosphere. The stratosphere is a layer of the atmosphere
starting at the level of about 6 miles (about 10 kilometers) above sea level. The stratosphere
naturally contains about six parts per million of ozone, and this ozone is very beneficial because it
absorbs UV radiation and prevents it from reaching us.
Ozone is "bad" when it is at ground level. Ozone is a very reactive gas that is hard on lung tissue. It
also damages plants and buildings. Any ozone at ground level is a problem. Unfortunately, chemicals
in car exhaust and chemicals produced by some industries react with light to produce lots of ozone
at ground level. In cities, the ozone level can rise to a point where it becomes hazardous to our
health. That's when we hear about an ozone warning on the news.

IMPORTANT GLACIERS OF
HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS

KARAKORAM RANGE

Name of the glacier = Length(km) = Location

 siachen = 75 = nubra
 fedchenko = 74 = south-western pamir
 hispar = 62 = tributary of hunza river
 biafo = 59 = braldoh valley
 batura = 58 = hunza
 baltoro = 58 = braldoh valley
 chogo lungma = 50 = rakaposhi range
 khurdopla = 47 = shingshal valley
 lolofond = 40 = west of siachen
  yarkand rimo = 40 = shyok valley
 mohil yaz = 32 = shingshal valley
 yazhit = 31 = shingshal valley
 godwin austen = 30 = K2
 ching kumdon = 21 = shyok
 gasherbrum = 16 = gasherbrum

THE PIR PANJAL RANGE

Name of the glacier = Length(km) = Location

 sonapani = 15 = chandra valley of lahul & spiti

 bara shigri = 10-20 = chandra valley
 rakhiot = 15 = nanga parbat
 gangri = 13 = nun kun massif
 chungphar = 13 = nanga parbat

KUMAON-GARHWAL REGION

Name of the glacier = Length(km) = Location

 gangotri = 30 = source of the ganga

 milam = 20 = gori ganga
 bhagirath kharak = 18 = near badrinath
 mana = 18 = mana valley north of the gangotri
 satopanch = 16 = near badrinath

CENTRAL NEPAL REGION

Name of the glacier = Length(km) = Location

 yepokangara = 13.5 = gosainthan

 lidanda = 11 = manasulu
 chhuling = 11 = manasulu
 mayondi = 11 = dhaulagiri himal

KANCHENJUNGA-EVEREST REGION

Name of the glacier = Length(km) = Location

 rongbuk = 52 = northern (tibetan) side of the mount everest

 zemu = 25 = zemu valley (from headwaters of the tists river)
 kanchenjunga = 21 = north of kanchenjunga, covers head of kanchen river
 khumbu = 20 = south of Mt.everest
 kangshung = 19 = east of Mt.everest
 tolam bau = 19 = south-west of barunste peak
 barun = 15 = north-east of baruntse peak
  rambang = 10 = kanchanjunga

International Lines:

NAME OF THE LINE and COUNTRIES BETWEEN

1. Durand Line - Afghan and Pak

2. Hindenburg Line - Germany and Poland(After I World War)

3. Oder-Neisse Line - Germany and Poland

4. Maginot Line - France and Germany

5. Mac-Mohan Line - India and China

6. Radcliffe Line - India and Pakistan

7. 16th Parallel Line - Namibia and Angola

8. 17th Parallel Line - North and South Vietnam

9. 38th Parallel Line - North and South Korea

10. 49th Parallel Line - USA and Canada

Important River Valley Projects

1 Bhakra Nangal Project On Sutlaj in Punjab. Highest in India. Ht 226 m. Reservoir is called Gobind
Sagar Lake.
2 Mandi Project On Beas in HP
3 Chambal Valley Project On Chambal in MP & Rajasthan. 3 dams are there: Gandhi Sagar Dam, Rana
Pratap
Sagar Dam and Jawahar Sagar Dam.
4 Damodar Valley Project On Damodar in Bihar. Based on Tennessee Valley Project, USA.
5 Hirakud Project On Mahanadi in Orissa. World's longest dam: 4801m
6 Rihand Project On Son in Mirzapur, Reservoir is called Govind Vallabh Pant reservoir.
7 Kosi Project On Kosi in N.Bihar.
8 Mayurkashi Project On Mayrukashi in WB.
9 Kakrapara Project On Tapi in Gujarat.
10 Nizamsagar Project On Manjra in AP.
11 Nagarjuna Sagar Project Krishna in AP
12 Tungabhadra Project On Tungabhadra in AP & Karnataka
13 Shivasamudram Project On Cauvery in Karnataka. It is the oldest river valley project of India.
14 Tata Hydel Scheme On Bhima in Maharashtra
15 Sharavathi Hydel Project On Jog Falls in Karnataka
16 Kundah & Periyar Project In TN
17 Farakka Project On Ganga in WB. Apart from power and irrigation it helps to remove silt for easy
navigation.
18 Ukai Project On Tapti in Gujarat
19 Mahi Project On Mahi in Gujarat
20 Salal Project On Chenab in J & K
21 Mata Tila Multipurpose Project On Betwa in UP & MP
22 Thein Project On Ravi, Punjab
23 Pong Dam On Beas, Punjab
24 Tehri Project On Bhgirathi, Uttaranchal
25 Sardar Sarovar Project On Narmada, Gujarat/MP.

LENGTH OF INDIA'S BORDER WITH ITS NEIGHBOURS

COUNTRY =LENGTH OF BORDER (KM) = % OF TOTAL BORDER

- Afghanistan = 80 = 0.52

- Bhutan = 587 = 3.86

- Myanmar = 1458 = 9.59

- Nepal = 1752 = 11.53

- Pakistan = 3310 = 21.78

- China = 3917 = 25.77

- Bangladesh = 4096 = 26.95

INDIAN ISLANDS

ISLANDS = SIGNIFICANCE

- Diu = fishing island, continuous beach structure

- salsette = group of seven islands forms present mumbai

- Bassein = old deposits

- Lakshadweep = coral islands

- Aminidiv = group of islands north of 11th parallel part of lakshadweep

- Cannanore = group of islands south of 11th parallel part of lakshadweep

- Minicoy = corraline islands

- Kavarathi = sile of desalinisation & OTEC plant

- Kacchativa = fishing island recently leased to srilanka

- Pamban = remnants of land link now submerged

- Sriharikota = spit island

- Wellington = naval station in kerala

- New Moore = deltic island & disputed site between india & bangladesh

- N.Andaman = submerged peaks of ridges continuous with arakan yoma

- M.Andaman = submerged peaks of ridges continuous with arakan yoma

- L.Andaman = submerged peaks of ridges continuous with arakan yoma

- Berra island = only active volcano of india

- Narcondum = unsubmerted islands of andaman.

Indian Railway zones--HeadQuarters and

Divisions
Indian Railway zones and Headquartes
1. Northern Railway--Delhi
2. North Eastern Railway--Gorakhpur
3. Northeast Frontier Railway--Maligaon(Guwahati)
4. Eastern Railway--Kolkata
5. South Eastern Railway--Kolkata
6. South Central Railway--Secunderabad
7. Southern Railway--chennai
8. Central Railway--Mumbai November
9. Western Railway--Mumbai November
10. South Western Railway--Hubli
11. North Western Railway--jaipur
12. West Central Railway--jabalpur
13. North Central Railway--Allahabad
14. South East Central Railway--Bilaspur
15. East Coast Railway--Bhubaneswar
16. East Central Railway--Hajipur
17. Konkan Railwayâ€*--Navi Mumbai

Indian Railways and Divisions

1.Northern Railway-- Delhi, Ambala, Firozpur, Lucknow, Moradabad
2.North Eastern Railway-- Izzatnagar, Lucknow, Varanasi
3.Northeast Frontier Railway-- Alipurduar, Katihar, Lumding, Rangia, Tinsukia
4.Eastern Railway-- Howrah, Sealdah, Asansol, Malda
5.South Eastern Railway-- Adra, Chakradharpur, Kharagpur, Ranchi
6.South Central Railway-- Secunderabad, Hyderabad, Guntakal, Guntur, Nanded, Vijayawada
7.Southern Railway-- Chennai, Madurai, Palghat, Tiruchchirapalli, Trivandrum, Salem
8.Central Railway-- Mumbai, Bhusawal, Pune, Solapur, Nagpur
9.Western Railway-- Mumbai Central, Baroda, Ratlam, Ahmedabad, Rajkot, Bhavnagar
10.South Western Railway-- Hubli, Bangalore, Mysore
11.North Western Railway-- Jaipur, Ajmer, Bikaner, Jodhpur
12.West Central Railway-- Jabalpur, Bhopal, Kota
13.North Central Railway-- Allahabad, Agra, Jhansi
14.South East Central Railway-- Bilaspur, Raipur, Nagpur
15.East Coast Railway-- Khurda Road, Sambalpur, Visakhapatnam
16.East Central Railway-- Danapur, Dhanbad, Mughalsarai, Samastipur, Sonpur

INSELBURG

it is also known as monadrock. it is an isolated hill, knob, ridge that rises abruptly from a gently
sloping or vertically level surrounding plain. in southern & southern-central Africa, this monadrock is
an originally native american term for an isolated hill or lone mountain. the name is derived from the
Abenaki language, from either memonadenak means smooth mountain. the word insulburg is
german for "island mountain".

INTERNATIONAL AIRPORTS OF INDIA

There are 12 international airports in India.

1. Airport Name: Amritsar International Airport

City: Amritsar
State: Punjab
2. Airport Name: Indira Gandhi International Airport
New Delhi
3. Lokpriya Gopinath Bordolio International Airport
Guwahati
4. Airport Name: Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel International Airport
City: Ahmedabad
State: Gujarat
5. Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose International Airport
Kolkata
6. Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport
Mumbai
7. Airport Name: Hyderabad Airport
City: Hyderabad
State: Andhra Pradesh
Passenger Terminals International: Rajiv Gandhi Terminal Domestic: N. T. Rama Rao Terminal
8. Airport Name: Goa Airport
City: Vasco da Gama
State: Goa
9. Airport Name: Chennai International Airport
Chennai
10.Airport Name: Bangalore International Airport
City: Bangalore
State: Karnataka
Physical Location: Southern India, South-East of the State of Karnataka
11.Airport Name Cochin International Airport
City: Cochin
State: Kerala
12.Airport Name Trivandrum International Airport
City: Thiruvananathapuram
State: Kerala
Physical Location: South Kerala  

India
India
 Introduction India

Background: The Indus Valley civilization, one of the oldest in the world, dates back at least
5,000 years. Aryan tribes from the northwest invaded about 1500 B.C.; their
merger with the earlier Dravidian inhabitants created the classical Indian
culture. Arab incursions starting in the 8th century and Turkish in the 12th were
followed by those of European traders, beginning in the late 15th century. By
the 19th century, Britain had assumed political control of virtually all Indian
lands. Indian armed forces in the British army played a vital role in both World
Wars. Nonviolent resistance to British colonialism led by Mohandas GANDHI
and Jawaharlal NEHRU brought independence in 1947. The subcontinent was
divided into the secular state of India and the smaller Muslim state of Pakistan.
A third war between the two countries in 1971 resulted in East Pakistan
becoming the separate nation of Bangladesh. Despite impressive gains in
economic investment and output, India faces pressing problems such as the
ongoing dispute with Pakistan over Kashmir, massive overpopulation,
environmental degradation, extensive poverty, and ethnic and religious strife.

Geography India

Location: Southern Asia, bordering the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, between
Burma and Pakistan
 Geographic 20 00 N, 77 00 E
coordinates:

Map references: Asia

Area: total: 3,287,590 sq km

land: 2,973,190 sq km
water: 314,400 sq km

Area - slightly more than one-third the size of the US

comparative:

Land boundaries: total: 14,103 km

border countries: Bangladesh 4,053 km, Bhutan 605 km, Burma 1,463 km, China
3,380 km, Nepal 1,690 km, Pakistan 2,912 km

Coastline: 7,000 km

Maritime claims: territorial sea: 12 nm

contiguous zone: 24 nm
exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
continental shelf: 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin

Climate: varies from tropical monsoon in south to temperate in north

Terrain: upland plain (Deccan Plateau) in south, flat to rolling plain along the Ganges,
deserts in west, Himalayas in north

Elevation lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m

extremes: highest point: Kanchenjunga 8,598 m

Natural resources: coal (fourth-largest reserves in the world), iron ore, manganese, mica, bauxite,
titanium ore, chromite, natural gas, diamonds, petroleum, limestone, arable
land

Land use: arable land: 54.4%

permanent crops: 2.74%
other: 42.86% (2001)

Irrigated land: 590,000 sq km (1998 est.)

Natural hazards: droughts; flash floods, as well as widespread and destructive flooding from
 monsoonal rains; severe thunderstorms; earthquakes

Environment - deforestation; soil erosion; overgrazing; desertification; Air pollution from

current issues: industrial effluents and vehicle emissions; water pollution from raw sewage and
runoff of agricultural pesticides; tap water is not potable throughout the
country; huge and growing population is overstraining natural resources

Environment - party to: Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic-Marine Living Resources,

international Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol,
agreements: Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous
Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber
83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling
signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements

Geography - note: dominates South Asian subcontinent; near important Indian Ocean trade routes

Peopl
India
e

Population: 1,080,264,388 (July 2005 est.)

Age structure: 0-14 years: 31.2% (male 173,634,432/female 163,932,475)

15-64 years: 63.9% (male 356,932,082/female 333,283,590)
65 years and over: 4.9% (male 26,542,025/female 25,939,784) (2005 est.)

Median age: total: 24.66 years

male: 24.64 years
female: 24.67 years (2005 est.)

Population 1.4% (2005 est.)

growth rate:

Birth rate: 22.32 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)

Death rate: 8.28 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)

Net migration -0.07 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)

rate:

Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female

under 15 years: 1.06 male(s)/female
15-64 years: 1.07 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 1.02 male(s)/female
 total population: 1.06 male(s)/female (2005 est.)

Infant mortality total: 56.29 deaths/1,000 live births

rate: male: 56.86 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 55.69 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)

Life expectancy at total population: 64.35 years

birth: male: 63.57 years
female: 65.16 years (2005 est.)

Total fertility rate: 2.78 children born/woman (2005 est.)

HIV/AIDS - adult 0.9% (2001 est.)

prevalence rate:

HIV/AIDS - people 5.1 million (2001 est.)

living with
HIV/AIDS:

HIV/AIDS - deaths: 310,000 (2001 est.)

Major infectious degree of risk: high

diseases: food or waterborne diseases: bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A and E, and typhoid
fever
vectorborne diseases: dengue fever, malaria, and Japanese encephalitis are high
risks in some locations
animal contact disease: rabies (2004)

Nationality: noun: Indian(s)

adjective: Indian

Ethnic groups: Indo-Aryan 72%, Dravidian 25%, Mongoloid and other 3% (2000)

Religions: Hindu 80.5%, Muslim 13.4%, Christian 2.3%, Sikh 1.9%, other 1.8%, unspecified
0.1% (2001 census)

Languages: English enjoys associate status but is the most important language for national,
political, and commercial communication; Hindi is the national language and
primary tongue of 30% of the people; there are 14 other official languages:
Bengali, Telugu, Marathi, Tamil, Urdu, Gujarati, Malayalam, Kannada, Oriya,
Punjabi, Assamese, Kashmiri, Sindhi, and Sanskrit; Hindustani is a popular
variant of Hindi/Urdu spoken widely throughout northern India but is not an
 official language

Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write

total population: 59.5%
male: 70.2%
female: 48.3% (2003 est.)

Governmen
India
t

Country name: conventional long form: Republic of India

conventional short form: India

Government type: federal republic

Capital: New Delhi

Administrative 28 states and 7 union territories*; Andaman and Nicobar Islands*, Andhra
divisions: Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chandigarh*, Chhattisgarh, Dadra
and Nagar Haveli*, Daman and Diu*, Delhi*, Goa, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal
Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Lakshadweep*,
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland,
Orissa, Pondicherry*, Punjab, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Tripura,
Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal

Independence: 15 August 1947 (from UK)

National holiday: Republic Day, 26 January (1950)

Constitution: 26 January 1950; amended many times

Legal system: based on English common law; limited judicial review of legislative acts; accepts
compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations; separate personal law codes
apply to Muslims, Christians, and Hindus

Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal

Executive branch: chief of state: President Pratibha Devi Singh Patil (Since June 21, 2007); Vice
President Mohd. Hamid Ansari (since 11 August 2007)
head of government: Prime Minister Manmohan SINGH (since NA May 2004)
cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the president on the
recommendation of the prime minister
elections: president elected by an electoral college consisting of elected
 members of both houses of Parliament and the legislatures of the states for a
five-year term; election last held July 2002 (next to be held 18 July 2007); vice
president elected by both houses of Parliament for a five-year term; election
last held 12 August 2002 (next to be held August 2007); prime minister chosen
by parliamentary members of the majority party following legislative elections;
election last held April - May 2004 (next to be held May 2009)
election results: Abdul KALAM elected president; percent of electoral college
vote - 89.6%; Bhairon Singh SHEKHAWAT elected vice president; percent of
Parliament vote - 59.8%

Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament or Sansad consists of the Council of States or Rajya Sabha
(a body consisting of not more than 250 members, up to 12 of whom are
appointed by the president, the remainder are chosen by the elected members
of the state and territorial assemblies; members serve six-year terms) and the
People's Assembly or Lok Sabha (545 seats; 543 elected by popular vote, 2
appointed by the president; members serve five-year terms)
elections: People's Assembly - last held 20 April through 10 May 2004 (next to
be held 2009)
election results: People's Assembly - percent of vote by party - NA%; seats by
party - INC 145, BJP 138, CPI(M) 43, SP 36, RJD 24, BSP 19, DMK 16, SS 12, BJD
11, CPI 10, NCP 9, JDU 8, SAD 8, PMK 6, TDP 5, TRS 5, JMM 5, LJSP 4, MDMK 4,
independents 5, other 30

Judicial branch: Supreme Court (judges are appointed by the president and remain in office until
they reach the age of 65)

Political parties All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam or AIADMK [C. Jayalalitha
and leaders: JAYARAM]; All India Forward Bloc or AIFB, [Debabrata BISWAS]; Asom Gana
Parishad [Brindaban GOSWAMI]; Bahujan Samaj Party or BSP [MAYAWATI];
Bharatiya Janata Party or BJP [Lal Krishna ADVANI]; Biju Janata Dal or BJD
[Naveen PATNAIK]; Communist Party of India or CPI [Ardhendu Bhushan
BARDHAN]; Communist Party of India (Marxist) or CPI (M) Hakishan Singh
SURJEET]; Congress (I) Party [Sonia GANDHI]; Dravida Munnetra Kazagham or
DMK (a regional party in Tamil Nadu) [M. KARUNANIDHI]; Indian National
Congress or INC [Sonia GANDHI]; Indian National League [Suliaman SAITH];
Janata Dal (Secular) [H. D. Deve GOWDA]; Janata Dal (United) or JDU [Sharad
YADAV]; Jharkhand Mukti Morcha or JMM [leader NA]; Kerala Congress (Mani
faction) [K. M. MANI]; Lok Jan Shakti Party or LJSP [leader NA]; Marumalarchi
Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam or MDMK [VAIKO]; Muslim League [G. M.
BANATWALA]; Nationalist Congress Party or NCP [Sharad PAWAR]; Pattali
Makkal Katchi or PMK [leader NA]; Rashtriya Janata Dal or RJD [Laloo Prasad
YADAV]; Revolutionary Socialist Party or RSP [Abani ROY]; Samajwadi Party or
SP [Mulayam Singh YADAV]; Shiromani Akali Dal or SAD [G. S. TOHRA]; Shiv Sena
or SS [Bal THACKERAY]; Tamil Maanila Congress [G. K. VASAN]; Telangana
 Rashtra Samithi or TRS [leader NA]; Telugu Desam Party or TDP [Chandrababu
NAIDU]; Trinamool Congress [Mamata BANERJEE]

Political pressure numerous religious or militant/chauvinistic organizations, including Vishwa

groups and Hindu Parishad, Bajrang Dal, and Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh; various
leaders: separatist groups seeking greater communal and/or regional autonomy,
including the All Parties Hurriyat Conference in the Kashmir Valley and the
National Socialist Council of Nagaland in the Northeast

International AfDB, ARF, AsDB, ASEAN (dialogue partner), BIS, C, CERN (observer), CP, FAO, G-
organization 6, G-15, G-19, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC,
participation: IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, MIGA,
MONUC, NAM, OAS (observer), ONUB, OPCW, PCA, SAARC, SACEP, UN,
UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIFIL, UNMEE, UNMIK, UNMOVIC, UNOCI,
UPU, WCL, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTO

Diplomatic chief of mission: Ambassador Ranendra SEN

representation in chancery: 2107 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008; note -
the US: Consular Wing located at 2536 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC
20008
telephone: [1] (202) 939-7000
FAX: [1] (202) 265-4351
consulate(s) general: Chicago, Houston, New York, and San Francisco

Diplomatic chief of mission: Ambassador David C. MULFORD

representation embassy: Shantipath, Chanakyapuri, New Delhi 110021
from the US: mailing address: use embassy street address
telephone: [91] (11) 2419-8000
FAX: [91] (11) 2419-0017
consulate(s) general: Chennai (Madras), Kolkata (Calcutta), Mumbai (Bombay)

Flag description: three equal horizontal bands of saffron (subdued orange) (top), white, and
green with a blue chakra (24-spoked wheel) centered in the white band; similar
to the flag of Niger, which has a small orange disk centered in the white band

Economy India

Economy - India's diverse economy encompasses traditional village farming, modern

overview: Agriculture, handicrafts, a wide range of modern industries, and a multitude of
services. Services are the major source of economic growth, though two-thirds
of the workforce is in agriculture. The UPA government has committed to
furthering economic reforms and developing basic infrastructure to improve the
lives of the rural poor and boost economic performance. Government controls
on foreign trade and investment have been reduced in some areas, but high
 tariffs (averaging 20% in 2004) and limits on foreign direct investment are still in
place. The government has indicated it will do more to liberalize investment in
civil aviation, telecom, and insurance sectors in the near term. Privatization of
government-owned industries has proceeded slowly, and continues to generate
political debate; continued social, political, and economic rigidities hold back
needed initiatives. The economy has posted an excellent average growth rate of
6.8% since 1994, reducing poverty by about 10 percentage points. India is
capitalizing on its large numbers of well-educated people skilled in the English
language to become a major exporter of software services and software
workers. Despite strong growth, the World Bank and others worry about the
combined state and federal budget deficit, running at approximately 9% of GDP.
The huge and growing population is the fundamental social, economic, and
environmental problem. In late December 2004, a major tsunami took nearly
11,000 lives, left almost 6,000 missing, destroyed $1.2 billion worth of property,
and severely damaged the Fishing fleet.

GDP (purchasing $3.319 trillion (2004 est.)

power parity):

GDP - real growth 6.2% (2004 est.)

rate:

GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $3,100 (2004 est.)

GDP - Agriculture: 23.6%

composition by industry: 28.4%
sector: services: 48% (2002 est.)

Labor force: 482.2 million (2004 est.)

Labor force - by Agriculture 60%, industry 17%, services 23% (1999)

occupation:

Unemployment 9.2% (2004 est.)

rate:

Population below 25% (2002 est.)

poverty line:

Household lowest 10%: 3.5%

income or highest 10%: 33.5% (1997)
consumption by
percentage share:
 Distribution of 37.8 (1997)
family income -
Gini index:

Inflation rate 4.2% (2004 est.)

(consumer
prices):

Investment (gross 23.8% of GDP (2004 est.)

fixed):

Budget: revenues: $67.3 billion

expenditures: $104 billion, including capital expenditures of $13.5 billion (2004
est.)

Public debt: 59.7% of GDP (federal debt only; state debt not included) (2004 est.)

Agriculture - rice, wheat, oilseed, cotton, jute, tea, sugarcane, potatoes; cattle, water buffalo,
products: sheep, goats, poultry; Fish

Industries: textiles, chemicals, food processing, steel, transportation equipment, cement,

mining, petroleum, machinery, software

Industrial 7.4% (2004 est.)

production
growth rate:

Electricity - 547.2 billion kWh (2002)

production:

Electricity - fossil fuel: 81.7%

production by hydro: 14.5%
source: nuclear: 3.4%
other: 0.3% (2001)

Electricity - 510.1 billion kWh (2002)

consumption:

Electricity - 350 million kWh (2002)

exports:
 Electricity - 1.54 billion kWh (2002)
imports:

Oil - production: 780,000 bbl/day (2004 est.)

Oil - consumption: 2.13 million bbl/day (2001 est.)

Oil - exports: NA

Oil - imports: NA

Oil - proved 5.7 billion bbl (2004 est.)

reserves:

Natural gas - 22.75 billion cu m (2001 est.)

production:

Natural gas - 22.75 billion cu m (2001 est.)

consumption:

Natural gas - 0 cu m (2001 est.)

exports:

Natural gas - 0 cu m (2001 est.)

imports:

Natural gas - 542.4 billion cu m (2004)

proved reserves:

Current account $4.897 billion (2004 est.)

balance:

Exports: $69.18 billion f.o.b. (2004 est.)

Exports - textile goods, gems and jewelry, engineering goods, chemicals, leather
commodities: manufactures

Exports - partners: US 17%, UAE 8.8%, China 5.5%, Hong Kong 4.7%, UK 4.5%, Singapore 4.5%
(2004)

Imports: $89.33 billion f.o.b. (2004 est.)

Imports - crude oil, machinery, gems, fertilizer, chemicals

 commodities:

Imports - China 6.1%, US 6%, Switzerland 5.2%, Belgium 4.4% (2004)

partners:

Reserves of $126 billion (2004 est.)

foreign exchange
and gold:

Debt - external: $117.2 billion (2004 est.)

Economic aid - $2.9 billion (FY98/99)

recipient:

Currency (code): Indian rupee (INR)

Currency code: INR

Exchange rates: Indian rupees per US dollar - 45.317 (2004), 46.583 (2003), 48.61 (2002), 47.186
(2001), 44.942 (2000)

Fiscal year: 1 April - 31 March

Communications India

Telephones - main 48.917 million (2003)

lines in use:

Telephones - 26,154,400 (2003)

mobile cellular:

Telephone general assessment: recent deregulation and liberalization of

system: telecommunications laws and policies have prompted rapid change; local and
long distance service provided throughout all regions of the country, with
services primarily concentrated in the urban areas; steady improvement is
taking place with the recent admission of private and private-public investors,
but telephone density remains low at about seven for each 100 persons
nationwide but only one per 100 persons in rural areas and a national waiting
list of over 1.7 million; fastest growth is in cellular service with modest growth
in fixed lines
domestic: expansion of domestic service, although still weak in rural areas,
resulted from increased competition and dramatic reductions in price led in
large part by wireless service; mobile cellular service (both CDMA and GSM)
 introduced in 1994 and organized nationwide into four metropolitan cities and
19 telecom circles each with about three private service providers and one
state-owned service provider; in recent years significant trunk capacity added in
the form of fiber-optic cable and one of the world's largest domestic satellite
systems, the Indian National Satellite system (INSAT), with five satellites
supporting 33,000 very small aperture terminals (VSAT)
international: country code - 91; satellite earth stations - 8 Intelsat (Indian
Ocean) and 1 Inmarsat (Indian Ocean region); nine gateway exchanges
operating from Mumbai (Bombay), New Delhi, Kolkata (Calcutta), Chennai
(Madras), Jalandhar, Kanpur, Gandhinagar, Hyderabad, and Ernakulam; 5
submarine cables, including Sea-Me-We-3 with landing sites at Cochin and
Mumbai (Bombay), Fiber-Optic Link Around the Globe (FLAG) with landing site
at Mumbai (Bombay), South Africa - Far East (SAFE) with landing site at Cochin,
i2icn linking to Singapore with landing sites at Mumbai (Bombay) and Chennai
(Madras), and Tata Indicom linking Singapore and Chennai (Madras), provide a
significant increase in the bandwidth available for both voice and data traffic
(2004)

Radio broadcast AM 153, FM 91, shortwave 68 (1998)

stations:

Radios: 116 million (1997)

Television 562 (of which 82 stations have 1 kW or greater power and 480 stations have
broadcast less than 1 kW of power) (1997)
stations:

Televisions: 63 million (1997)

Internet country .in

code:

Internet hosts: 86,871 (2003)

Internet Service 43 (2000)

Providers (ISPs):

Internet users: 18.481 million (2003)

Transportation India

Railways: total: 63,230 km (16,693 km electrified)

broad gauge: 45,718 km 1.676-m gauge
 narrow gauge: 14,406 km 1.000-m gauge; 3,106 km 0.762-m gauge and 0.610-m
gauge (2004)

Highways: total: 2,525,989 km

paved: 1,448,655 km
unpaved: 1,077,334 km (1999)

Waterways: 14,500 km
note: 5,200 km on major rivers and 485 km on canals suitable for mechanized
vessels (2004)

Pipelines: gas 6,171 km; liquid petroleum gas 1,195 km; oil 5,613 km; refined products
5,567 km (2004)

Ports and harbors: Chennai, Haldia, Jawaharal Nehru, Kandla, Kolkata (Calcutta), Mumbai
(Bombay), New Mangalore, Vishakhapatnam

Merchant marine: total: 299 ships (1,000 GRT or over) 6,555,507 GRT/11,069,791 DWT
by type: bulk carrier 85, cargo 75, chemical tanker 13, combination ore/oil 1,
container 7, liquefied gas 14, passenger 3, passenger/cargo 9, petroleum tanker
91, roll on/roll off 1
foreign-owned: 10 (Australia 1, China 1, Greece 1, UAE 6, United Kingdom 1)
registered in other countries: 30 (2005)

Airports: 333 (2004 est.)

Airports - with total: 234

paved runways: over 3,047 m: 14
2,438 to 3,047 m: 47
1,524 to 2,437 m: 78
914 to 1,523 m: 74
under 914 m: 21 (2004 est.)

Airports - with total: 99

unpaved runways: 2,438 to 3,047 m: 3
1,524 to 2,437 m: 9
914 to 1,523 m: 42
under 914 m: 45 (2004 est.)

Heliports: 20 (2004 est.)

Militar
India
y
Military branches: Army, Navy (includes naval air arm), Air Force, Coast Guard, various security or
paramilitary forces (includes Border Security Force, Assam Rifles, National
Security Guards, Indo-Tibetan Border Police, Special Frontier Force, Central
Reserve Police Force, Central Industrial Security Force, Railway Protection Force,
and Defense Security Corps)

Military service 16 years of age for voluntary military service (2001)

age and
obligation:

Manpower males age 16-49: 287,551,111 (2005 est.)

available for
military service:

Manpower fit for males age 16-49: 219,471,999 (2005 est.)

military service:

Manpower males: 11,446,452 (2005 est.)

reaching military
service age
annually:

Military $18.86 billion (2005)

expenditures -
dollar figure:

Military 2.93% (2005/06)

expenditures -
percent of GDP:

Transnational
India
Issues

Disputes - China and India launched a security and foreign policy dialogue in 2005,
international: consolidating discussions related to the dispute over most of their rugged,
militarized boundary, regional nuclear proliferation, Indian claims that China
transferred missiles to Pakistan, and other matters; recent talks and
confidence-building measures have begun to defuse tensions over Kashmir,
site of the world's largest and most militarized territorial dispute with portions
under the de facto administration of China (Aksai Chin), India (Jammu and
Kashmir), and Pakistan (Azad Kashmir and Northern Areas); in 2004, India and
Pakistan instituted a cease fire in the Kashmir and in 2005, restored bus
service across the highly militarized Line of Control; Pakistan has taken its
 dispute on the impact and benefits of India's building the Baglihar dam on the
Chenab River in Jammu and Kashmir to the World Bank for arbitration; UN
Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP) has maintained a
small group of peacekeepers since 1949; India does not recognize Pakistan's
ceding historic Kashmir lands to China in 1964; disputes persist with Pakistan
over Indus River water sharing; to defuse tensions and prepare for discussions
on a maritime boundary, in 2004, India and Pakistan resurveyed a portion of
the disputed boundary in Sir Creek estuary at the mouth of the Rann of Kutch;
Pakistani maps continue to show Junagadh claim in Indian Gujarat State;
discussions with Bangladesh remain stalled to delimit a small section of river
boundary, to exchange 162 miniscule enclaves in both countries, to allocate
divided villages, and to stop illegal cross-border trade, migration, violence, and
transit of terrorists through the porous border; Bangladesh protests India's
attempts to fence off high-traffic sections; dispute with Bangladesh over New
Moore/South Talpatty/Purbasha Island in the Bay of Bengal deters maritime
boundary delimitation; India seeks cooperation from Bhutan and Burma to
keep Indian Nagaland and Assam separatists from hiding in remote areas
along the borders; Joint Border Committee with Nepal continues to demarcate
minor disputed boundary sections; India has instituted a stricter border
regime to keep out Maoist insurgents and control illegal cross-border activities
from Nepal

Refugees and refugees (country of origin): 92,394 (Tibet/China) 60,922 (Sri Lanka)
internally IDPs: 650,000 (Jammu and Kashmir conflicts; most IDPs are Kashmiri Hindus);
displaced 113,000 (resulting from 26 December 2004 tsunami) (2004)
persons:

Illicit drugs: world's largest producer of licit opium for the pharmaceutical trade, but an
undetermined quantity of opium is diverted to illicit international drug
markets; transit point for illicit narcotics produced in neighboring countries;
illicit producer of methaqualone; vulnerable to narcotics Money laundering
through the hawala system

KYANITE

the name derived from the greek word kyanos, meaning blue. it is typicaly blue siliacte mineral,
comonly found in aluminium-rich metamorphic pegmatites & sedimentary rocks. it is strongly
anisotrophic , in that its hardness varies depending on its crystallographic direction. this is used
primarily in refractory & ceramic products, including porcelain plumbing fixtures & dinnerware. it is
also used in electrical insulators & abrasives. it undergoea an irreverssible expansion when fired at
high temperature. this is also been used as gemstone.

ASSOCIATED MINERALS OF KYANITE :

andalusite Ai2SiO5
sillimanite Al2SiO5
Quertz SiO2
staurolite Fe2Al9Si4Onn(OH)2
micas AB2-3(X1Si)4 O10(O, F, OH)2
garnete A3B2(SiO4)3

LAHAR

it is a type of mudflow composed of pyroclastic material & water that flows down from a volcano,
typically along a river valley, the term lahar originated in the Javanese language of Indonesia. lahars
have the consistency of concrete. fluid where moving then solid when stopped. lahars are be huge,
the osceola lahar produced 5600 years ago by mount rainier in washington produced a wall of mud
140 mts 450 feet deep in the white river canyon & extends over an area of over 330 square
kilometers. these are extermely dangerous, became of their energy & speed. large lahares can flow
several dozen meters per second & can flow for many kilometers , causing catastrophic distruction in
their path. lahars possible causes :
- snow & glaciers can be melted by a pyroclastic flow during an eruption.
- a flood caused by a glacier, lake breakout & heavy rainfall can release a lahar also called glacier run.
lahars are associated with volcanic activity, can occur even without any current volcanic activity , as
long as the conditions are right to cause the collapse & movements of mud originating from exisitng
volcanic ash deposits.

LAMPROPHYRE

it is a greek word Lampros meaning "bright", Prophyre meaning "rocks". they are uncommon, small
volume ultrapotassic igneous rocks primarily occuring as dikes, lopoliths, laccoliths, stocks & small
instrusions. they are alkaline silica-undersaturated , ultramafic rocks with high magnesium oxide,
>3% potassium, high sodium oxide & high nickle & chromium. they occur in all geologic eras.

ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF LAMPROPHYRE :

- high depth of melting which yields more mafic magmas.

- low degrees of partial melting, which yields magmar rich in the alkalies (potassium mainly)
- lithophile element (K, Ba, Cs, Rb) enrichment , high Ni & Cr.
- high potassium & sodium concentrations.
- some form of volatile enrichment, to provide the biolite (phlogopite) & amphilobole (pargasite)
mineralogy.
- lack of fractional crystallisation
- high Mg# (NgO// FeO+Fe2O3).

Lamprophyre are usually associated with voluminous granodiorile intrustive episodes ^.

Lamprophyre are also known to be spatially & temporarily associated with gold mineralisatio

MEANDER
it is a bend in a river also known as an oxbow loop. a stream
or river flowing through a wide valley or flat plain will tend to
form a meanding stream course as it alternatively erodes &
deposits sediments along its course . the result is snaking
pattern as the stream meander bock & forth across its flood
plain . meander is linked to the existance of pool-riffle
sequence where meander form hard rock, when the
meander meets the hardrock it then bends into another area.
on the inside of menader, most of meander occur in the
lower course of river . on the inside meander, willows are
often far from the bank, whilst on the outside of the bend,
the roots of the willows are often exposed & undercut,
eventually leading the trees to fall in the river. the term
derives from the river known to the ancient greeks
Maiandros meander is located in present-day Turkey near
the ancient greek town of miletus. Meander is calculated as
the length of the stream divided by the length of the valley.

 MERCALLI INTENSITY SCALE

it is a scale used for measuring the intensity of an earthquake. the scale quantifies the effects of an
earthquake on the earth's surface , humans, objects of nature & man-made structures on a scale of 1
through 12, with 1 denoting a weak earthquake, 12 denoting : one that causes almost complete
destruction.

EVOLUTION

it originated with the widely used simple ten-degree rossi-forel scale, which was revised by Halian
volcanologist Giuseppi mercalli in 1883 & 1992. in 1902, ten-degree mercalli intensity scale was
expanded to 12 degrees by Italian physicist Adolf cancani. it was later completely re-written by
german geophysicist August heinrich sieburg & became known as the mercalli-cancani-scale. then
changed the name to mercalli-intensity-scale.

 MESA ROCKS

this is a spanish & portuguese word meaning table. it is a elevated area of land with the flat top &
sides that are usually steep cliffs. it is in table top shape. Mesa form in area where horizontally
layered rocks are uplifted by tectonic activity. the differences in strength of various rock layers is
what gives mesas their distinctive shape. less resistant rocks, are eroded away on the surface into
valley. where they collect water drainage from the surrounding area, while they more resistant
layers are left standing out. a large area of very resistant rock, such as sill may shield the layers
below it from erosion while the softer rock surrounding it is eroded into valley. thus forming caprock.
difference in rock type also reflect on the sides of mesa, as instead of smooth slopes, the sides are
broken into a staircase pattern calle "cliff &-bench topography".

MOUNTAIN PASSES OF INDIA

Name of Pass = Place

- Banihal pass = doda & anantnag districts, J & K

- shipkila la pass = sutlej enters india from tibet , Himachal pradesh

- Bara Lancha La pass = kyelang & leh, himachal pradesh

- Rohtang = kullu & kyelang, himachal pradesh

- Bomdi La pass = tezpur & tawang, arunachal pradesh

- Thanga La & Niti La pass = uttaranchal

- Lipu = leh, indo-nepal-china, uttaranchal

- Jelepla = india & china (gangtok-lhasa road), sikkim

- Nathu La pass = india & china, sikkim

- Karakoram pass & Aghil pass = j & k

- Palghat = palakkad & coimbatore

- Shenkotta = kollam & madurai

- Thalghat = mumbai & pune

- Bhorghat = mumbai & nasik. 

Names of Tropical Cyclones

North Atlantic & North Pacific - Hurricane

Western North Pacific - Typhoons
Australia - Wily Wily
Indian Ocean - Cyclones
Phillipine Islands - Baguio
Japan - Nowaki ( in olden days)
Taifu (Recent Name)
Rest of the World - Tropical Cyclone

National Parks in India

 Bandhavgarh National Park

This park is some of the left out preserved wild pockets of Madhya Pradesh of what were
once splendid forests that extended across the whole of Central India.

 Ranthambore national Park

A nearby attraction of Sawai Madhopur, in the state of Rajasthan, Ranthambore National

Park is an outstanding example of Project Tiger's efforts at conservation in the India.

 Kaziranga National Park Assam

The land of Rhino is counted among the two major wild pockets, the only surviving habitats
of this prehistoric survivor in India.

 Kanha National Park

In the state of Madhya Pardesh,this place is called a wild hideout taken straight from the
famous "Jungle Book".

 Sundarbans National Park

Known as the largest estuarine delta in the world, this Tigerland vibrates with countless
forms of colourful life.

 Manas National Park

Assam is the state of the Great One Horned Rhino. Beside the Kaziranga there's Manas
another habitat of the Rhino's, located in one of the remotest region among the foothills of
Himalayas.

 Bandipur National Park

Lies halfway down the Mysore-Ooty highway became one of the first of India's Tiger
Reserves and the southernmost of the nine reserves specially established under Project Tiger.
  Sultanpur National Park

Sultanpur national park was a stretch of marshy land that has been remodeled and converted
into a water body. The park is home to a large range of birds, both resident and migratory.

 Royal Chitwan National Park (Nepal)

Established in 1973, provides a great wildlife experience with its rich flora and fauna. Short
grass makes the months of February-May the best game-viewing season, but the autumn
months are perfect for visiting, with Himalayan views, and in winter months of December-
January, Chitwan has quiet a pleasant climate compared to Kathmandu.

 Royal Bardia National Park (Nepal)

Largest and most undisturbed wild area of the Terai region of the Nepal Himalayas. Simialar
to Chitwan park, but with a drier climate and a more remote location, Bardia encompasses
1,000-sq-kms of riverine grassland and sal forests.

 Rajaji National Park, Uttaranchal

Situated in the forested hills, east of Haridwar, is quiet known for its wild Elephants, which
have an approximate population of 150. Because of the pleasant climate this hideout becomes
a pretty good tourist destination and a perfect retreat for picnicking

 Dudhwa National Park, U.P.

Also popular as a Tiger Reserve, this national park is located in the district of Lakhimpur,
along the Indo-Nepal border. Another major attraction of this wild reserve is the Barasingha
or the Swamp Deer, found in the southwest and southeast region of the park.

 Bandipur & Nagarhole National Parks, Karnataka

Two of the most attractive national parks of Karnataka are Nagarhole and Bandipur. Even if
separate entities, they are a part of a large neighboring wildlife reserve that also includes
Madumalai Sanctuary of Tamil Nadu and Wynad Reserve of Kerala.

 Bhalukpong, Arunachal

On the edge of the luxuriant forest of the Pakhui Game Sanctuary, along the Kameng river
lies the village settlement of Bhalukpong, also known as the gateway to Bomdila and the
Tawang Monastery.

 Simplipal National Park, Orissa

Simplipal is counted among the earliest Project tiger reserves of India and is located in the
northern-forested belt of Orissa. Beside the faunal attractions, the attractive terrain also
includes numerous waterfalls.
  Nandankanan Zoo, Orissa

A combination of a beautiful botanical garden, a zoo and a sanctuary, Nandankanan, is

situated 20-km from Bhubaneshwar, and is popularly known as the "Garden of Pleasure" in
Orissa. The zoo at Nandankanan is world famous for its White Tigers.

 Gahirmatha Turtle Sanctuary, Orissa

Aqua fauna is what going to attract you to this sanctuary, the breeding center of the Giant
Olive Ridley Turtles, who crossover the Pacific to come here and lay their eggs.

 Namdhapha National Park, Arunachal

Tucked away in the northern most state of Arunachal, is the Namdhapa National Park,
famous for the extremely elusive snow and the clouded Leopard. The park is also a Tiger
Reserve under Project Tiger.

 Velvadhar Blackbuck Sanctuary, Gujarat

Popularly known as the home of the Indian Black Buck, has attracted worldwide attention for
the successful conservation of the fastest of the Indian Antelopes - Black Buck.

 Wild Ass Sanctuary, Gujarat

Gujarat is an exciting place for wildlife enthusiasts, mainly because it resides some of the
unique wild attractions within its numerous sanctuaries. Wild Ass sanctuary is another of
Gujarat's wild surprises famous for its large wild Ass herds.

 Dachigam National Park, J&K

Of all the sanctuaries present in the state of Jammu & Kashmir, the one at Dachigam is the
best known. Once an exclusive hunting preserve of the Maharaja of Kashmir, it was declared
a national park in 1951, owing to a strictly enforced conservation programme, to preserve the
or Hangul population or the Kashmiri Stag.

 The Great Himalayan National Park, H.P.

The National Park with an area of 620-sq-kms is caved out of the splendid mountain terrain
of the Kullu District and has the representative area of temperate and alpine forests of
Himachal. It is also one of the largest protected area of the state.

 Dibru Saikhowa National Park, Assam

Located on the alluvial flood plains of Brahmaputra in Upper Assam neighboring Arunachal
is a biosphere reserve called Dibru Saikhowa National Park Its also an orchid paradise
besides being a home to numerous wild animals and birds.
  Milroy or Pabha Sanctuary, Assam

This splendid wildlife reserve even if doesn't have many faunal varieties to offer, still it
possesses the most coveted one, the Wild Water Buffalo.This sanctuary has been exclusively
built for the protection of the wild water buffalo.

 Nameri National Park, Assam

Nameri is the second Tiger reserve of Assam, situated at the foothills of eastern Himalayas.
The hilly backdrop, deciduous and the river Jia Bhoroli have added a unique natural charm to
it.

 Pin Valley National Park, H.P.

Tucked in between the snow laden higher reaches and scree slopes covered with scanty tufted
vegetation, Pin Valley National Park forms the natural habitat of a number of endangered
animals including Himalayan Ibex, Snow Leopard, Bharal, Wooly Hare, Tibetan Wolf, and
Snow Cock.

 Hemis High Altitude National Park, J&K

Hemis is a high altitude protected area that was created in the year 1981, in the eastern part of
the cold desert of Ladakh, for the conservation and protection of its unique flora and fauna.

Nebraska Sand Hills!

SAND HILLS OF NEBRASKA

sand hill is a region of mixed grass prairie in north-central Nebraska, covering just over 1
quarter of the state. the region is variously defined by different organizations . so its size is
indicated as 19,000 mi2 (50,700 km2) or 23,600 mi2 (61,100 km2). dunes in sand hills may
exceed 330 feet (100m) in height. the average elevation of the sand hills region gradually
increases from about 1500 feet 550m in the eat to about 360 feet 1100m in the west. the sand
hill sit top the massive ogallala aquifer & marshes & shallow lakes both temporary &
permanent--are common in low-lying parts of the sand hills. the eastern & central sections of
the regions are drained by tributaries of the long river & the niobrara river . the worldwide
fund for nature designated the sand hills as an ecoregion, distinct from other grasslands of the
great plains. as much as 85% of the sand hills ecoregion is intact naural habitat, the highest
level in the great plains. the reason is primarily due to lack of agriculture,. the plant-anchored
dunes of the sand hills were formed at the most recent ice age by wind-blown particles
originating from regions to the north & west of Nebraska.
 
 
 
NorthWest Passage Opens

the north-west passage - a long-sought short cut between Europe & Asia that has been
historically impassable-is opening up due to raising global temperature. this area covered by
sea ice in the Arctic region has now shrunk to its lowest level.

- the McClure Strait, the most direct route of the Northwest Passage, has been fully open
since early August 2007. there has been a reduction of the ice cover over the last 10 years of
about 1,00,000 sq.km per year on average so drop of 1 million sq.km in just one year is
extreme.

- these are highly vulnerable to raising temperatures & predicted arctic would be virtually ice
free by the summer 2070.
 
 NUNATAK

it is the exposed summit of a ridge , mountain / peak not covered with ice snow within an
icefield or glacier. the term is typically used in areas where a permanent ice sheet is present .
nunatak are generally angular & jagged because of freeze. than weathering, & can be seen to
contrast strongly with the softer contours of the glacially eroded land below if the glacier
retreats. the word nunatak is of grenlandic origin meaning a hill . it has been used in western
european languages since 1870s.
 
ORIGIN OF RIVERS

SOURCE = RIVERS

- manasarovar = indus & tsangpo

- lahul = chenab

- rohtang = beas

- harike = sutlej & beas

- pilibbit = gomti

- amarkantak = narmada & sone

- betul = tapi

- annasgar = luni

- pharsiya = mahanadi

- trimbak = godavari

- balaghat = manjra
- kalahandi = indravati

- mahabaleshwar = krishna

- medak = musi

- brahmagiri = kaveri

- devprayag = bhagirathi & alaknanda.

- betul = wardha  

Pipeline Projects!
PIPELINES

1. Naharkatia-Nunmati-Barauni pipeline
2. Mumabi high-Mumbai-Ankleshwar-Kayoli pipeline
3. Salaya-Koyali-Mathura
4. Hajira-Bijapur-Jagdishpur Gas pipeline
5. JAmnagar-Loni LPG pipeline
6. Kalol-Sabarmati Crude pipeline
7. Nawgam-Kalol-Koyali Crude pipeline
8. The Cambay-Dhiwaran Gas pipeline
9. The Anklaeshwar-Vadodara, associated Gas pipeline
10. The Koyali-Ahmedabad Products pipeline
11. Haldia-Kolkata pipeline
12. Pune-Mumbai-Manmad pipeline

PIPELINE PROJECTS UNDER CONSTRUCTION

1. Dahej-Vijaipur pipeline
2. North-South Gujarat pipeline
3. Dahej-Hazira-Uran pipeline
4. Kandla-Bhatinda pipeline
5. Kochi-Mangalore-Bengalooru pipeline
6. Vishakhapatanam-Secunderabad pipeline
7. Kanpur-Bina pipeline
8. Mangalore-Chennai pipeline
9. Vijayawada-Vishakhapatanam pipeline
10. Haldia-Budge Budge pipeline

PLAGIOCLASE
it is very important series of tectosilicate minerals within the fields par family. rather than referring
to a particular mineral with a specific chemical composition, plagioclase is a solid solution series,
more properly known as plagioclase feldspar series from greek word "oblique fractor" in reference
to its two cleverage angles. the series range from arbite to anorthite endmembers where sodium &
calcium atoms can substitue for each other in the mineral crystal lattice structure. plagioclase is a
hand samples is often by its polysynthetic twinning or 'record-froove' effect. plagioclase is major
constituent mineral in earth's crust. & is consequently an important diagnostic tool in petrology for
identifying composition, origin & evolution of igneous rocks.

PLAGIOCLASE MINERALS & THEIR COMPOSITIONS

NAME = %NaAlSi3O8(%Ab) = % CaAl2Si2O8(%An)

- albite = 100-90 = 0-10

- oligoclase = 90-70 = 10-30

- andesine = 70-50 = 30-50

- labradorite = 50-30 = 50-70

- bytowrite = 30-10 = 70-90

- anorthite = 10-0 = 90-100

ALBITE

is named from latin albus, in reference to its unusally pure white color. it is relatively common &
important rock-making mineral associated with the more acid rock types & in pegmatite dikes, often
with rare minerals like bery & tourmaline.

ANORTHITE

was named by the Rose in 1823 from the greek meaning oblique, referring to its triclinic
crystallization. anorthite is characteristic of the mafic igneous rocks such as gabbro & basalt.

OLIGOCLASE

is common in granite, syenite, diotire & gneiss. it is frequent associate of orthoclase. the name
oligoclase is derived from the greek for little & fracture in reference to the fact that its clevage angle
differs significantly from 90 degree. sunstone is mainly oligoclase with flakes of hematite.
ANDESINE

is a characteristcs mineral of rocks such as diorite which contain a moderate amount of silica related
volcanics such as andesite.

LABRADORITE

is the feldspar of the more basic rock types such as divrite, gabbro, andesite. basalt is usually
associated with one of the pyroxenes. labradorite frequently shows an iridescent disply of colors to
light refracting within the lamellae of the display.

BYTOWRITE

named after the former name of Ottawa, Canada. it is rare mineral occasionally found in more basic
rocks.

*******************************************************************************

Polynesia!
POLYNESIA

Polynesia is generally defined as the islands within the polynesian triangle. the term "polynesia",
meaning many islands, was first used by charles de brosses in 1756, & originally islands of the Pacific.
jules dumont d'uvrille in 1831 a lecturer to the geographical society of paris proposed a restriction
on its use. geographically , & oversimply, polynesia may be described as triangle with its corners at
hawaii, aotearoa (new zealand) & rapu nui (easter island). the other main island groups located
within the polynesian triangle are samoa, tonga, the various island chains that form the cook islands
& french polynesia. nuie is a rare solitary island state near the centre of polynesia. polynesian island
groups outside this great triangle include tuvalu & french territory of wallis & futuna. rotuma in the
northern fijian islands & some of the lau group to fiji's southeast have strong polynesian character
too. in essance, it is an anthropological term referring to one of the three parts of Oceania whose
pre-colonial generally belongs to one ethno-cultural family as a result of centuries of maritime
migrations.

************************************************************************
PRODUCER'S OF DIFFERENT CROPS IN WORLD

 The Largest producer of groundnut in World =India

 The Largest producer of Tobacco in World = China
 The Largest Quantity of Barley is produced in World = Russia
 The Largest producer of Long Staple Cotton in World = USA
 The Largest Cattle production in World = India
 The Largest producer of Butter & Ghee in World = India
 The Largest producer of Rice in World = India & USA
 The Largest producer of Fish in World = China
 The Largest producer of Mutton in World = New Zealand & Australia.
 The Largest producer of Mercury in World = Spain
 The Largest producer of Rock Phosphate in World = USA & Russia.
 The Leading producer of Uranium in World = Canada
 The Leading producer of Automobiles in World = USA
 The Leading producer of Cement in World = USA
 The Country that Manufactures due Maximum number of
Locomotives in World = USA
 The Country known for Locomotive = Philadelphia
 The Country famous for Petroleum = Baku
 The Country famous for Wollen textiles in World = Leeds.
 The Country known as Sugar Bowl in World = Cuba.

*********************************************************************

Tiger reserves in India

Hai all the members,
by mistake, 5 of the states of below Tiger reserves were given wrong. I have given below the
corrected information in BOLD letters. please verify. thank you,
Thank you for the right information and founding out the mistake chanda sir.

1.Bandipur National Park (1973-74) - Karnataka

2.Jim Corbett National Park (1973-74) - Uttar Pradesh
3.Kanha National Park (1973-74) - Madhya Pradesh
4.Manas National Park (1973-74) - Assam
5.Melghat Wildlife Sanctuary (1973-74) - Maharashtra
6.Palamau National Park (1973-74) - Jharkhand
7.Ranthambore National Park (1973-74) - Rajasthan
8.Simlipal National Park (1973-74) - Orissa
9.Sunderbans National Park (1973-74) - West Bengal
10.Periyar National Park (1978-79) - Kerala
11.Sariska National Park (1978-79) - Rajasthan
12.Buxa National Park (1982-83) - West Bengal
13.Indravati National Park (1982-83) - Chattisgarh
14.Nagarjunsagar National Park (1982-83) - Andhra Pradesh
15.Namdapha National Park (1982-83) - Arunachal Pradesh
16.Dudhwa National Park (1987-88) - Uttar Pradesh
17.Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (1988-89) - Tamil Nadu
18.Valmiki National Park (1989-90) - Bihar
19.Pench National Park (1992-93) - Madhya Pradesh
20.Tadoba-Andhari Tiger Reserve (1993-94) - Maharashtra
21.Bandhavgarh National Park (1993-94) - Madhya Pradesh
22.Panna National Park (1994-95) - Madhya Pradesh
23.Dampha Tiger Reserve (1994-95) - Mizoram
24.Bhadra National Park (1998-99) - Karnataka
25.Pench National Park (1998-99) - Maharashtra
26.Pakhui-Nameri Tiger Reserve (1999-2000) - Assam and Arunachal
pradesh
27.Bori, Satpura & Pachmarhi Wildlife Sanctuaries (1999-2000) - Madya
Prades
28.Katerniaghat Wildlife Sanctuary Extension (1999-2000) - Uttar Pradesh
29.Nagarhole National Park Extension (1999-2000) - Karnataka

****************************************************************

RIVER REJUVENATION

river is to be rejuvenated when the base level that is flowing down to, is lowered. this can happen by
uplift of land, or by a sea or lake that it is flowing into becoming lower. that makes the river suddenly
start eroding its bed vertically faster as it gains gravitational potential energy. that causes effect such
as meanders cut down as gorges, steps where river suddenly starts flowing faster, & terraces derived
from old floodplains. Rejuvenation terrains usually have complex landscape, because remnants of
older landforms are locally preserved. parts of flodd pains may be preserved as terraces along the
downcutting stream channels. Meandering streams often become entrenched , so a product of older
river system is found with step, very pronounced "V" shaped valley. Rejuvenation result from causes
which are dynamic, eustatic / static in nature.

I. DYNAMIC : dynamic rejuvenation may be caused by the epeirogenic uplift of a land mass. there
movements are either associated with neighbouring orogenic movements.

II. EUSTATIC : this rejuvenation results from the causes which bring worldwide decrease in sea level,
& 2 types of such rejuvenation are recognized.

DIASTROPHIC EUSTATISM : it is the change in sea level due to variation incapacity of ocean basins.
GLACIO-EUSTATISM : is the change in sea level due to withdrawal of water into the oceans
occupying the accumulation of successive ice sheet.

CHANGES OF STATIC :
- decrease in land
- increase in runoff because of rainfall
- increase in stream volume through acquisition of new drainage by stream diversion

****************************************************************

SCORIA

it is a textual term for macrovesicular volcanic rocks ejecta. it is commonly , but not exclusively
basaltic in composition. scoria is light as a result of numerous macroscopic ellipsoidal vesicles but
most scoria has a specific gravity than 1 & sinks in water. the vasicularity results from the exsolution
of magnetic volatiles prior to chilling. scoria differs from purnice in having layer vesicles & thicker
vesicles walls, & hence is typically darker in color. it is generally dark brown, dark red, dark black. the
word comes from greek skoria means "rust". as raising magma encounters lower pressures,
dissolved gasses are able to exsolve & form vesicles. some of the vesicules are trapped when the
magma chills & solidifies. vesicules are usually small, spheroidal & donot impringe upon one
another, it is formed from a thin layer of froth occuring on some basaltic lava flows due to the
bursting of vasicle walls. the thin glass threads are the inter-section of burst vehicles. this is the
lightest rock on earth with its specific gravity less than 0.3.

*******************************************************************

SILLIMANITE

it is also called as Bucholzite . is ia an alumino-silicate mineral with chemical formula Al2SiO2. it is

named after American Achemist Brjamin silliman (1779-1864). it is one of the three alumino-silicate :
polymorphhs, kyanite & andalusite. a common variety of sillimanite is known as fibrolite, so named
because the mineral appears like a bunch of fibres twisted together when viewed under this section
or even naked eye. both the fibrous & traditional forms of silicate are common in metamorphosed
sedimentary rocks . it is an index mineral indicating a high degree of metamorphtism. sillimanite has
been found in brandywine springs, new castle country, delaware, usa. it is also known as rock creek
shear zone with the piedmont physiographic provience.

CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES :
CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC = orthorhombic
COLOURS = white, brown, green
LUSTRE = silky if in fibrous form, else vitreous
HARDNESS = 7.5
REFRACTIVE INDEX = 1.641-1.648
CLEAVAGE = 1
PLEOCHROSIM = colourless to pale brown to yellow
TYPE LOCALITY = wtava, susica, czech republic

****************************************************

 Do rivers always flow from the north to the south?

While some oblivious people think that rivers always flow from the north to the south (a
term some even call downhill!) but rivers always flow with gravity (unless modified by
humans). There are countless examples of rivers that flow from the south to the north (in
both hemispheres), such as the Ob in Russia and the Mackenzie in Canada.
An interesting analogy was brough up in the Geography Forum - would you fly to Seattle,
rent a car, and coast all the way to Los Angeles? Just because south is at the bottom of the
map, doesn't mean it's lower in elevation.
 How many active volcanoes are in the world?
There are approximately 1,500 active volcanoes worldwide.
A volcano is considered active if it has erupted in the last 10,000 years. Over 75% of the
world's volcanoes and most active volcanoes are located in the Pacific Ring of Fire.
 What are the seven seas?
Although seamen of long ago are popularly known to have stated "I've sailed the seven
seas," there really wasn't a good definition of those seas. However, today
 How many tectonic plates are on earth?
There are dozens of tectonic plates on earth but only about one seven huge plates. The
largest include the African Plate, Antarctic Plate, Eurasian Plate, Indo-Australian Plate, North
American Plate, Pacific Plate, South American Plate
 How do you convert snow into rainfall amounts?
Since precipitation is generally measured in inches of liquid water and not in snowfall
amounts, snow is usually converted into inches of water by dividing by 10. Thus, ten inches
of snow is equivalent to one inch of rain.
Light and loose snow takes more than 10 inches to make an inch of water but dense and
slushy snow takes less.
 What effect does the Coriolis force have upon my bathtub?
It's granted that the Coriolis effect has an affect on the circulation of air and water on the
planet but many people also think that the force has an effect on sinks, wash basins, toilets,
bathtubs and other tiny bodies of water.
Unfortunately, small bodies of water are not affected by the Coriolis effect or bearing on
whether sinks and toilets drain in one direction in the Northern Hemisphere and another
direction in the Southern Hemisphere
 How often does a 100-year flood occur?
Large floods are often given designations as a "one-hundred-year flood" but a 100-year flood
does not mean that such a flood occurs once every 100 years; instead it means that there is
a one in one-hundred (or 1%) chance of such a flood occurring in a given year.
Two 100-year floods could occur a year apart or even a month apart -- it all depends on how
much rain is falling or how quickly the snow melts. A "20-year flood" has a one in twenty (or
 5%) chance of occurring in a particular year so it would be a less destructive flood than a
100-year flood while a "500-year flood" has a one in 500 (0.2%) chance of occurring so it
would be much more catastrophic than a 100-year flood.

STACK
It is a geological land form consisting of a steep & often vertical column / columns of rocks in the sea
near coast.

Stacks are formed when a part of a headland is eroded leaving small island. They are also form when
natural arch collapses due to sub-aerial processes & gravity.

A stack may collapse / be eroded leaving a stums. Stacks forms most commonly on chalk cliffs,
beacause of the medium resistance to erosion.

Cliffs with weaker rock such as clay tend to stump & erode too quickly to form stacks, while harder
rocks such as granite erode in different ways. stacks are often important sites for nesting seabird.

It is also famous for rock climbing.

States and Rivers

1.Rivers flowing into Bay of Bengal

* Karnaphuli River from Mizoram and Bangladesh

* Meghna River from India and Bangladesh
o Titas River in Tripura
+ Haora River in Agartala

Brahmaputra River Basin

* Brahmaputra River
o Lohit River
o Burhidihing River
o Dihing River
o Kameng River
o Manas River
o Sankosh
o Yamuna
o Teesta River
+ Rangeet River
+ Lachen River
+ Lachung River
o Darla River in Bangladesh
+ Jaldhaka in Sikkim and West Bengal

Ganga River Basin

* Ganges River
o Hooghly River (distributary)
+ Damodar River
# Barakar River
+ Rupnarayan River
+ Ajay River
+ Mayurakshi river
+ Dwarakeswar river
+ Mundeswari river
o Meghna River (distributary)
o Padma River (distributary)
o Budhi Gandak
o Kosi River
o Gandak at Patna
o Son River
+ Koel River
+ Rihand River
o Ghaghara River (Gogra) or Karnali River in Nepal
o Yamuna River
+ Ban Ganga River
+ Betwa River
# Dhasan River
# Halali River
# Kaliasote River
+ Sindh River
# Kwari River
# Pahuj River in Bhind District Madhya Pradesh
+ Chambal River
# Banas River
* Berach River
o Ahar River
# Kali Sindh River
# Parbati River (Madhya Pradesh)
# Shipra River in Ujjain
+ Gambhir River
# Parbati River (Rajasthan)
o Gomti River
o Mahananda River
o Mahakali River
o Bhagirathi River
o Alaknanda River
o Maddie Phillips River

West Bengal Coastal Rivers

* Subarnarekha river
o Kharkai River
* Kangsabati River

Mahanadi River Basin

* Mahanadi River
o Brahmani River
+ South Koel River near Rourkela
+ Sankh River

Godavari River Basin

* Godavari River in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra states

o Kolab River in Orissa State
o Indravati River in Gadchiroli district of Maharashtra State and also in Chhattisgarh state
+ Bandiya River in Gadchiroli
o Pranhita River in Gadchiroli district of Maharashtra State and also in Andhra Pradesh state
+ Dina River in Gadchiroli
+ Wainganga River in Gadchiroli, Chandrapur, Nagpur, Bhandara, Gondiya districts of Maharashtra
state and Balaghat District of Madhya Pradesh State
# Sati River in Gadchiroli
* Khobragadi River in Gadchiroli
o Teepa River in Gadchiroli
# Chulband River in Bhandara, Gondiya districts of Maharashtra state
# Kanhan River in Nagpur
* Nag River in Nagpur
* Pench River in Nagpur
* Kolhar River in Nagpur
# Sur River in Bhandara, Nagpur districts of Maharashtra state
# Bawanthadi River in Bhandara
# Wagh River in Gondiya
+ Wardha River in Chandrapur, Yavatmal, Wardha, Nagpur, Amravati
# Penganga River in Andhra Pradesh state and Chandrapur, Yavatmal, Nanded, Hingoli, Washim and
Buldhana districts of Maharashtra State
* Vidarbha River, Yavatmal in Yavatmal
* Khuni River in Yavatmal
* Waghadi River in Yavatmal
* Arunavati River in Yavatmal, Washim
* Adan River in Yavatmal, Washim
* Kayadhu River in Nanded, Hingoli
# Vena River in Wardha, Nagpur districts of Maharashtra state
* Pothara River in Wardha
o Lai River in Wardha
* Bor River in Wardha, Nagpur districts of Maharashtra state
# Yashoda River in Wardha
* Dham River in Wardha
* Bhakalee River in Wardha
# Ramganga River in Yavatmal
# Bembala River in Yavatmal, Amravati, Washim districts of Maharashtra state
# Vidarbha River, Amravati in Amravati
# Charghad River in Amravati and Madhya Pradesh State
# Maad River in Amravati and Madhya Pradesh State
o Manjra River in Bidar district of Karnataka State, Nizamabad district of Andhra Pradesh and
Nanded, Latur, Osmanabad, Beed districts of Maharashtra State
+ Manhaad River in Nanded, Latur
+ Lendi River in Nanded, Latur
+ Terna River in Osmanabad, Latur
+ Tavarja River In Latur
+ Karanja River in Bidar, Latur
# Devani River in Latur, Bidar
o Kadakpurna River in Parbhani, Hingoli, Buldhana, Aurangabad districts of Maharashtra state
+ Dudhna River in Parbhani, Jalna, Aurangabad
+ Kelna River in Jalna, Aurangabad
+ Girija River in Jalna, Aurangabad
o Kapra River in Parbhani district of Maharashtra state
o Sindfana River in Beed
+ Bindusara River in Beed
o Kham River in Aurangabad
o Shivna River in Aurangabad
o Pravara River in Ahmednagar
+ Mula River, Ahmednagar in Ahmednagar
o Kadwa River in Nashik
o Darna River in Nashik district of Maharashtra state

Krishna River Basin

* Krishna River
o Tungabhadra River
+ Vedavathi River
+ Tunga River
+ Bhadra River
o Malaprabha River
o Ghataprabha River
o Bhima River
+ Sina River in Solapur, Osmanabad, Beed, Ahmednagar districts of Maharashtra state
+ Nira River in Pune, Satara
# Karha River
# Bhatghar River
+ Ghod River
# Kukadi River
+ Mula Mutha River at Pune district of Maharashtra state
# Mutha River
# Mula River, India
* Pavana River in Pune
+ Indrayani River
+ Bhama River
o Dudhganga River
o Panchganga River in Kolhapur district of Maharashtra state
o Warna River
o Yerla River
o Koyna River in Satara district of Maharashtra state

Andhra Pradesh Coastal Rivers

Rivers like vamsadhara and nagavalli are the two coastal rivers in srikakulam district of Andhra
Pradesh

Sharada river starts at Devarapally in visakhapatnam district and drains in to the Bay of Bengal

Penner River Basin

* Penner River

Kaveri River Basin

* Kaveri River (Kaveri)

o Kollidam (distributary)
o Amaravati River
o Arkavathy River
o Mettur Dam
o Bhavani River
o Hemavati River
o Kabini River

Tamil Nadu Coastal Rivers

* Cauvery River
* Thamirabarani River
* Palar River
* Vaigai River
* Vellar
o Vasishta Nadi
o Sweta Nadi

2.Rivers flowing into Arabian Sea

Kerala Coastal Rivers

* Chaliyar River
* Periyar River
o Chalakkudy River
* Bharathapuzha River
o Thuthapuzha
o Gayathripuzha
o Kalpathipuzha
o Kadalundipuzha River
o Kannadipuzha
o Tirur River
* Pamba River
o Achankovil River

* Payaswini
* Meenachil River
* Kodoor River
* kallada river
* Ithikkara river

Karnataka Coastal Rivers

The rivers flowing through three coastal districts of Karnataka join Arabian sea.

* Netravati River
* Sharavathi River
* Aghanashini River
* List of rivers of Dakshina Kannada and Udupi districts

Goa Coastal Rivers

* Zuari River
* Mandovi River

Maharashtra Coastal Rivers

* Shastri River
* Gad River
* Vashishti River
* Savitri River
* Patalganga River
* Ulhas River
o Thane Creek (distributary)
o Vasai Creek (distributary)
* Mithi River or Mahim River
* Oshiwara River
* Dahisar River
* Tansa River in Thane
* Vaitarna River
* Surya River

Tapti River Basin

Tapti River and its tributaries

* Tapti River in Gujarat, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh

o Gomai River in Nandurbar district of Maharashtra
o Arunavati River in Dhule district of Maharashtra
o Panzara River in Jalgaon, Dhule districts of Maharashtra
+ Kaan River in Dhule district
o Aner River in Jalgaon, Dhule districts
o Girna River in Nashik, Malegaon, Jalgaon districts
+ Titur River in Jalgaon district
o Waghur River in Jalgaon, Aurangabad districts
o Purna River in Amravati, Akola, Buldhana, Jalgaon, Navsari districts of Gujarat, Maharashtra
Madhya Pradesh
+ Nalganga River in Buldhana district
+ Vaan River in Buldhana, Akola, Amravati districts of Maharashtra
+ Morna River in Akola, Washim districts
+ Katepurna River in Akola, Washim districts
+ Umaa River in Akola, Washim districts
o Sangiya River in Amravati district of Maharashtra

Narmada River Basin

* Narmada River
o Kolar River in Sehore
o Barna River in Raisen
o Hiren River
o Tawa River
o Burhner River

Mahi River Basin

* Mahi River
o Som River
+ Gomati River

Sabarmati River Basin

* Sabarmati River
o Wakal River
o Sei River

Indus River Basin

* Indus River
o Panjnad River
+ Sutlej River
# Beas River
* Parbati River (Himachal Pradesh)
+ Chenab River
# Ravi River
# Jhelum River

Rivers flowing into inner part of India

* Ghaggar River in Haryana,Rajasthan

* Musi River at Hyderabad, India
 

***************************************************

Steel Plants in India

1. Bhilai Steel Plant (BSP)-- 1959 - in Chhattisgarh - With the help of USSR - Only Producer of Steel
Rails in India
2. Durgapur Steel Plant (DSP)-- Late 1950s - at Durgapur, West Bengal - With the help of UK
3. Rourkela Steel Plant (RSP) --1965 - in Orissa - With the help of Germany
4. Bokaro Steel Plant (BSL) -- 1972 -in Jharkhand -With the help of USSR
5. IISCO Steel Plant (ISP) --1918 - (2nd after TISCO) - in West Bengal
6. Alloy Steels Plants (ASP)-- West Bengal
7. Salem Steel Plant (SSP)-- Tamil Nadu
8. Visvesvaraya Iron and Steel Limited (VISL)-- 1923 - Karnataka
9. Maharashtra Elektro-smelt Limited (MEL) --in Maharashtra
10. VIZAG Steel Plant - based on the design of Pohang Steel Plant, Korea - 1st Integrated in Coastal
India

*******************************************

SUPER VOLCANO

it is a volcano that produces the largest & most voluminous kinds of erruption on earth. the
explosivity of such eruptions varies, but the volume of ejected tephra is enough to radically alter the
landscape & severely affect global climate for years, with cataclysmic consequences for life. the term
originally coined by the producers of the BBC popular science program, horizon. in the year 2000 it
refered to three types of eruption. a large igneous province is an extensive region of basalts on a
continental scale, resulting from flood basalt eruptions. when created regions often occupy several
million km2 & have volumes on the order of 1 million km3. eruptions with a volcanic explosively
index of 8are mega- colossal events that eject at least 1000 km3 of pyroclastic material. VEI-8
eruptions are so powerful that they form circular calderas rather than montains because the
downward collapse of land at the eruption site fills empited space in the magma chamber beneath.
the caldera can remain for millions of years after all volcanic activity at the site has ceased.

ERUPTIONS :
- lake tarpo, nothr island, new zealand - oruanui eruption - 26,500 years ago , 1170 km3

- lake toba , sumatra, indonesia - 75,000 years ago , 2800 km3

- la garita caldera, colorada, us, - 2.2 million years ago , 2500 km3

lake toba eruption plunged the earth into a volcanic winter, eradicating an estimated 60% of human
population & was responsible for the sulphuric acid in the atmosphere.

*********************************************************
 

SYNOPTIC SCALE METEOROLOGY

it is also known as cyclonic scale. it is a horizontal scale of order of 1000 kilometers / more this
corresponds to a horizontal scale typical of mid-latitudes depressions. most high & low pressure are
as seen on weather maps are synoptic scale systems. the word synoptic is derived from the greek
word sunoptikos meaning seen together.

********************************

Tallest,Deepest and lowest points on Earth

Tallest point of each continet

Highest Mountain in the World (and Asia)

Everest, Nepal-China: 29,035 feet / 8850 meters

Highest Mountain in Africa

Kilimanjaro, Tanzania: 19,340 feet / 5895 meters

Highest Mountain in Antarctica

Vinson Massif: 16,066 feet / 4897 meters

Highest Mountain in Australia

Kosciusko: 7310 feet / 2228 meters

Highest Mountain in Europe

Elbrus, Russia (Caucasus): 18,510 feet / 5642 meters

Highest Mountain in Western Europe

Mont Blanc, France-Italy: 15,771 feet / 4807 meters

Highest Mountain in Oceania

Puncak Jaya, New Guinea: 16,535 feet / 5040 meters

Highest Mountain in North America

McKinley (Denali), Alaska: 20,320 feet / 6194 meters

Highest Mountain in the 48 Contiguous United States

Whitney, California: 14,494 feet / 4418 meters
Highest Mountain in South America
Aconcagua, Argentina: 22,834 feet / 6960 meters
Lowest points on Land

Lowest Point in the World (and Asia)

Dead Sea shore, Israel-Jordan: 1369 feet / 417.5 meters below sea level

Lowest Point in Africa

Lake Assal, Djibouti: 512 feet / 156 meters below sea level

Lowest Point in Australia

Lake Eyre: 52 feet / 12 meters below sea level

Lowest Point in Europe

Caspian Sea shore, Russia-Iran-Turkmenistan, Azerbaijan: 92 feet / 28 meters below sea level

Lowest Point in Western Europe

Tie: Lemmefjord, Denmark and Prins Alexander Polder, Netherlands: 23 feet / 7 meters below sea
level

Lowest Point in North America

Death Valley, California: 282 feet / 86 meters below sea level

Lowest Point in South America

Bahia Blanca, Argentina: 138 feet / 42 meters below sea level
Lowest Point in Antarctica
The Bentley Subglacial Trench is approximately 2540 meters (8,333 feet) below sea level but is
covered with ice; if Antarctica's ice were to melt, exposing the trench, it would be covered by sea so
it is a quasi-lowest point and if one ignores the reality of the ice, it is the lowest point "on land" on
the earth.

Deepest points in each Ocean

Deepest Point in the World (and Pacific Ocean)

Challenger Deep, Mariana Trench, Western Pacific Ocean: 35,840 feet / 10,924 meters

Deepest Point in the Atlantic Ocean

Puerto Rico Trench: 28,374 feet / 8648 meters

Deepest Point in the Arctic Ocean

Eurasia Basin: 17,881 feet / 5450 meters

Deepest Point in the Indian Ocean

Java Trench: 23,376 feet / 7125 meters
Deepest Point in the Southern Ocean
Southern end of the South Sandwich Trench: 23,736 feet / 7235 meters

*************************************************************************

TOMBOLO

it is a deposition landform such as a spit or bar which forms a narrow piece of land between an
island or offshore rock & a mainland shore; / between two islands. they usually form because the
island causes wave refraction, depositing & shingle moved by longshore drift in each direction
around the island where the waves meet eustatic sea level rise may also contribute to aceretion as
material is pushed up with rising sea levels. 

********************************

VENTIFACT

these are rocks that have been abraded, grooved, by wind-driven sand. these gemorphic features
are most typically found in & environments where there is little vegetation to interfere with eolian
particle transport where there are frequently strong winds, & where there is a steady but not
overwhelming supply of sand. ventifacts can be abraded to eye-catching natural sculptures. in
moderately tall, isolated rock out crops, mushrooms shaped pillars of rock may form as the out crop
is eroded by saltating sand grains. this occurs because , even in strong winds, sand grains can't be
continuously held in the air.

WADI
It is traditionally a valley. In some cases it can refer to a dry river bed that contain water only during
times of heavy rain. The wadi is very widely found in arabic to ponyms were streams in a desert
environment & generally are dry year round except after rain. The deposition of wadi is rapid
because of the sudden loss of the velocity & absorption of the water into the ground.
Why was the Prime Meridian established at Greenwich
In 1675, the Royal Observatory at Greewich, outside of London was created to study the
determination of longitude (a vital comonent to oceanic navigation). The United Kingdom and, by
association, the United States, used Greenwich as the reference point for longitude.
Thus, by the time of an international conference in 1884 to establish fixed degrees of longitude on
the planet, many countries had been using Greenwich as the Prime Meridian for decades so the
tradition became internationally accepted

World Largest Coral Reef!

GREAT BARRIER REEF - WORLD'S LARGEST CORAL REEF SYSTEM

it is the worlds largest coral reef system, composed of roughly 3000 individual reefs & 900 islands
stretching for 2600 km over an area of approximately 3,44,400 square kilometers. the reef is located
in the coral sea, off the coast of Queensland in northeast australia. Great Barrier Reed can be seen
from outer space & is worlds biggest single structure made by living organism. this is build by billions
of tiny organisms , known as coral polyps. when coral sea basin was formed, coral reef began to
grow in the basin until about 25 million years ago, they can increase in diameter from 1-2 cms per
year & grow vertically any where from 1-15 cms per year. they are limited to growing above a depth
of 150 meters due to their need for sunlight & cannot grow above sea level. the land formed the
subtrate of the current great barrier reef was a coastal plain formed from the eroded sediments of
the great dividing range with some larger hills from 20,000 years ago until 60,000 years ago, the sea
level rose steadily. by around 13,000 years ago the sea level was 60 meters lower than the present
day, corals began to grow around the hills of the costal plain , which were by then, continental
islands. this GBR supports a diversity of life, including many vulnerable & endangered species, some
of them are endamic to the reef system. there are thirty species of whales, dolphines , porpoises
have been recorded in the GBR, including the dwarf minke whale, indo-pacific humpback dolphin &
the humpback whale. large populations of dugongs live there. six species of a sea turtles come to the
reef to breed-the green sea tutle, leather back the sea turtle, hawksbill turtle, loggeshead sea turtle,
olive ridly. salt water crocodiles live near the reef.

Xenolith!
XENOLITH

it is rock fragment which becomes enveloped in a larger rock during the latter's development &
hardening. in geology xenolith is almost used to describe igneous rock during magma
emplacement & eruption. xenolith may be engulfed along the margins of magma chamber, torn
loose from the walls of an erupting lava conduct / explosive diatreme along the base of a flowing
lava on earth's surface. xenolith provide information about the composition of the innacessible
mantle, basalts, kimberlites, lamproites which have their source in the upper mantle. often contain
fragments & crystals assumed to be a apart of the originating mantle minualogy.

Yardang!
YARDANG

It is a wind-abraded ridge found in cohesive material. The word is derived from turkish meaning,
'steep bank'. Some are found in dried-up river beds. These are elongate features typically 3 or
more times longer than they are wide, when viewed from above , resemble the hull of a boat.

TYPES:
a) Mega-yardang : can be several kilometers long & hundreds of meters high.

b) Meso-yardang : these are generally a few meters high & 10-15 meters long.

c) Micro-yardang : these are only few centimeters high.

Yardang form in environment where water is scarce. The prevailing winds are strong,
unidirectional & carry an abrasive sediment load. A large concentration of mega are found near
the tibesti mountains in the central sahara. There is a famous yardang are 'hole in the rock' in
papayo parla in phoenix, arzona , a rock formation with a roughly another yardang arizona is
window rock, near the town of window rock. It is a 200 feet sandstorm hill with a very large
circular rock in the middle of it.