Meteorology

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
Mentor: MS. MARJORIE G. RAMOS
DR. FRANCIS N. BALETA
8 August 2022
2022 ONLINE MENTORING PROGRAM for the
L i c e n s u re E x a m i n at i o n f o r F I S H E R I E S T E C H N O LO G I S T S
CAPTURE FISHERIES
FISHERIES
METEOROLOGY
MARJORIE G. RAMOS
Mentor AUGUST 6, 2022
Fisheries
- the science, occupation, industry, or season of
taking, rearing or utilizing fish or other aquatic
organisms
Meteorology
- the study of the Earth's atmosphere and the
variations in temperature and moisture patterns that
produce different weather conditions.
- the study of the atmosphere, atmospheric
phenomena, and atmospheric effects on our weather
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Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Atmosphere: the blanket of gases that
surrounds our planet.
Fisheries Meteorology
Elements of weather including forecasting methods and
techniques as applied to fisheries investigation.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Overview of the Earth’s Atmosphere

• The atmosphere, when scaled to the size of an
apple, is no thicker than the skin on an apple.
• The atmosphere is a gas.
• The atmosphere is a fluid.
• There is a surface but no “top” – the

atmosphere gradually thins out with increasing
altitude
Earth's Atmosphere
Thin Gaseous envelope
99% of atmospheric gases, including water vapor, extend only 30 kilometer (km)
above earth's surface.
Most of our weather, however, occurs within the first 10 to 15 km.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Composition of the Atmosphere
◼permanent gases
• nitrogen, oxygen and argon
◼variable gases
• water vapor
◼trace gases
• carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, CFCs, et al.
◼aerosols
• The “dry atmosphere”: 78% N2, 21% O2, 1% Ar

• N2 is primordial – it has been part of the
atmosphere as long as there has been an
atmosphere
• O2 - comes from photosynthesis
• Ar40/Ar36 tells us that the atmosphere has been
outgassed from volcanoes

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
• Water Vapor: H2O 0-4%

• H20 can exist in all three phases at the surface of the
Earth – solid, liquid and gas
• Liquid or solid H2O can be suspended by atmospheric
winds (clouds) or fall to the surface (precipitation)
• VERY powerful greenhouse gas (both in vapor form and
as clouds)
Water Cycle
◼ The Hydrological Cycle

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Table 1-1, p. 3
• Carbon dioxide
• 390 ppm (by mass) and counting…
• Natural and anthropogenic sources/sinks
• Strong greenhouse gas (GHG)
CO2 is neither the strongest atmospheric GHG pound-for-pound nor

molecule-for-molecule…
Why the fuss?
CO2 is a product of the reaction that allows modern civilization to
exist: combustion.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Fig. 1-4, p. 5
◼ The
Global
Carbon
Cycle

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
• Methane
• CH4 concentration: 1.8 ppm
• anthropogenic and natural sources/sinks too
• powerful greenhouse gas
• oxidizes rapidly, hence low concentrations
• Large concentrations proposed to explain
greenhouse warming of early Earth
• Ozone, CFCs and NOx

• Ozone (O3)
• shields the surface from UV rays
• produced by reaction with NOx and sunlight near the surface
• CFC’s (Chlorofluorocarbons)
• destroy stratospheric ozone
• chlorine is a catalyst: it destroys one O3 molecule and then is
free to find another
• Ozone at high altitudes (stratosphere) is “good”;

ozone at low altitudes (troposphere) is “bad.”

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Atmospheric Gases
Nitrogen, oxygen,
argon, water vapor,
carbon dioxide, and
most other gases are
invisible.
Clouds are not gas,

but condensed vapor
in the form of liquid
droplets.
Ground based smog,

which is visible,
contains reactants of
nitrogen and ozone.
Ozone – is the primary ingredient of smog!
Aerosols & Pollutants
Human and
natural
activities
displace tiny
soil, salt, and
ash particles
as suspended
aerosols,
as well as
sulfur and
nitrogen
oxides, and
hydrocarbons
as pollutants.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
◼ Aerosols
• Dust
• Sea-spray
• Microbes
Suspended particles in the atmosphere are

responsible for cloud formation: water drops
nucleate on them
Cloud Condensation Nuclei (CCN)
Weather vs. Climate
Weather is the dynamical

way in which the atmosphere
maintains the equilibrium
climate.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Elements of Weather
◼ air temperature • Certain weather elements, like

clouds, visibility and wind, are
◼ air pressure of particular interest to pilots.
◼ humidity
◼ clouds
◼ precipitation
◼ visibility
◼ wind
Climate
◼ Average weather
• time-average
• regional (spatial) average
◼ Extremes
◼ Trends
Climate represents long-term
(e.g. 30 yr) averages of weather.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Koppen Climate Classification
• developed by Wladimir Koppen more than a

century ago.
• Koppen (botanist)- heavily ties climate to
vegetation.
• experimented with weather balloons to plot
seasonal temperature ranges.
“The Koppen climate

classification is the
most widely used
system to catalog
climate types in the
world.”

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
5 climate types:
• TROPICAL OR MEGATHERMAL CLIMATES (A): having constant
warm temperature.
• DRY OR ARID CLIMATES (B): low precipitation rates.
• TEMPERATE OR MESOTHERMAL CLIMATES (C): maintain mild
annual temperatures.
• CONTINENTAL OR MICROTHERMAL CLIMATES (D): have hot
summers and cold winters occurring typically at the interior of
a continent.
• POLAR OR ALPINE CLIMATES (E) sustain consistent cold
temperatures throughout the year.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Tropical
• warm all year-round
• near the equator from 15°N to 15°S latitude.
• tropical rainforests are hot, moist regions easily
distinguishable by their enormous trees, diverse
species and thick soils.
• sustain a healthy portion of high temperature (+18°C)
with its lowest mean monthly air temperature is greater
than 18 °C.
Classification of tropical climates by their amount of

precipitations:

Lecture Notes in
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8 August 2022
Dry climates
• having a shortage of water with a low annual mean precipitation rate
because water evaporates quickly from its temperatures.
• In the northern hemisphere, the defined period is from April to
September. But in the southern hemisphere, it’s from October through
March.
• If the annual precipitation is less than 50% of the precipitation
threshold, the classification is BW (arid: desert climate).
• But if it is more than 50%, the Koppen climate classification is BS
(semi-arid: steppe climate).
• For example, Phoenix, Arizona has an average annual temperature of
21.8°C.
• Approximately 38.4% of its annual precipitation falls from April to
September.
• Because its precipitation threshold is less than 50%, Phoenix, Arizona
is an arid desert climate.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Dry Climates

Lecture Notes in
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8 August 2022
Temperate climate
• These types of climates are common along the
edge of continents.
• For example, coastal locations have moderate
changes in temperature with mild winters and
summers. Seasonal changes are not as extreme
as dry climates.
• If the average temperature of the warmest month
is higher than 10°C and the coldest month is
between 18° and 0°C, then it’s considered a
temperate climate.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Continental climates
• are usually situated in the interior of continents.
• have at least one month with an average temperature below
0°C. Likewise, at least one-month averages above 10 °C.
• When you combine continental and dry climate types, they take
up a large portion (approximately 56%) of the surface.
• It also experiences drastic shifts during seasonal changes.
• Typically, continental climates range from 40° to 75° latitudes in
the northern and southern hemispheres.
• However, this type of climate type is rare in the southern
hemisphere.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Polar Climate
• endure frigid temperatures year-round.

• average temperature of the warmest month in polar
climatic zones is below 10°C.
• Typically, these types of climates occur in the polar
regions, generally greater than 70° latitude in the northern
and southern hemispheres.
• Very little vegetation grows in polar types climates
because it’s above the tree line. Most icecap type of
climates belongs to Inner Greenland and Antarctica.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Seasons
• A season is a period of the year that is distinguished by
special climate conditions
• Seasons are largely due to factors surrounding the Earth's
tilted axis as it revolves around the sun.
• The four seasons—spring, summer, fall, and winter—
follow one another regularly.
• Each has its own light, temperature, and weather patterns
that repeat yearly.
• Seasons occur because Earth is tilted on its axis relative
to the orbital plane, the invisible, flat disc where most
objects in the solar system orbit the sun.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Seasons
• Northern Hemisphere - winter generally begins on December 21 or 22.
This is the winter solstice, the day of the year with the shortest period
of daylight.
• Summer begins on June 20 or 21, the summer solstice, which has the
most daylight of any day in the year.
• Spring and fall, or autumn, begin on equinoxes, days that have equal
amounts of daylight and darkness.
• The vernal, or spring, equinox falls on March 20 or 21, and the
autumnal equinox is on September 22 or 23.
• The seasons in the Northern Hemisphere are the opposite of those in
the Southern Hemisphere. This means that in Argentina and Australia,
winter begins in June. The winter solstice in the Southern Hemisphere
is June 20 or 21, while the summer solstice, the longest day of the
year, is December 21 or 22.
Seasons
• The four-season year is typical only in the mid-latitudes -
places that are neither near the poles nor near the
Equator.
• The farther north you go, the bigger the differences in the
seasons. Helsinki, Finland, sees 18.5 hours of daylight in
the middle of June. In mid-December, however, it is light
for less than 6 hours.
• Athens, Greece, in southern Europe, has a smaller
variation. It has 14.5 hours of daylight in June and 9.5
hours in December.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Seasons near the Equator
• experience little seasonal variation.

• They have about the same amount of
daylight and darkness throughout the year.
• These places remain warm year-round.
• Near the Equator, regions typically have
alternating rainy and dry seasons.
• Philippines
Seasons near the Poles

• experience seasonal variation, although they are
generally colder than other places on Earth.
• Near the poles, the amount of daylight changes
dramatically between summer and winter.
• In Barrow, Alaska, the northernmost city in the
U.S., it stays light all day long between mid-May
and early August.
• The city is in total darkness between mid-
November and January.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Climate of the Philippines
• The Climate of the Philippines is tropical and

maritime.
• characterized by relatively high temperature, high
humidity and abundant rainfall.
• similar in many respects to the climate of the
countries of Central America.
• Temperature, humidity, and rainfall, which are
discussed hereunder, are the most important
elements of the country's weather and climate.
Temperature and Humidity in the Philippines

• Based on the average of all weather stations in the Philippines,
excluding Baguio, the mean annual temperature is 26.6o C.
• The coolest months fall in January with a mean temperature of 25.5oC
while the warmest month occurs in May with a mean temperature of
28.3oC.
• essentially no difference in the mean annual temperature of places in
Luzon, Visayas or Mindanao measured at or near sea level.
• Due to high temperature and the surrounding bodies of water, the
Philippines has a high relative humidity.
• The average monthly relative humidity varies between 71 percent in
March and 85 percent in September.
• The combination of warm temperature and high relative and absolute
humidities give rise to high sensible temperature throughout the
archipelago.
• It is especially uncomfortable during March to May, when temperature
and humidity attain their maximum levels.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Rainfall in the Philippines

• Rainfall is the most important climatic element in the
Philippines.
• Rainfall distribution throughout the country varies
from one region to another, depending upon the
direction of the moisture-bearing winds and the
location of the mountain systems.
• The mean annual rainfall of the Philippines varies
from 965 to 4,064 millimeters annually.
• Baguio City, eastern Samar, and eastern Surigao
receive the greatest amount of rainfall while the
southern portion of Cotabato receives the least
amount of rain. At General Santos City in Cotabato,
the average annual rainfall is only 978 millimeters.
Seasons in the Philippines

• Using temperature and rainfall as bases, the climate of the
country can be divided into two major seasons:
(1) the rainy season, from June to November; and
(2) the dry season, from December to May.
The dry season may be subdivided further into (a) the cool
dry season, from December to February; and (b) the hot dry
season, from March to May.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Climate Types in the Philippines
• Typhoons have a great influence on the

• Based on climate and weather conditions of the
the Philippines.
distribution
• A great portion of the rainfall, humidity and
of rainfall,
four climate cloudiness are due to the influence of
types are typhoons.
recognized: • They generally originate in the region of
the Marianas and Caroline Islands of the
Pacific Ocean which have the same
latitudinal location as Mindanao.
• Their movements follow a northwesterly
direction, sparing Mindanao from being
directly hit by majority of the typhoons
that cross the country.
• This makes the southern Philippines very
desirable for agriculture and industrial
development.
A Satellite’s View of the Weather

• geostationary satellites
• Atmospheric
observation from
satellites was an
important
technological
development in
meteorology. Other
important
developments include
computers, internet,
and Doppler radar.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
El Nino and
La Nina
Definitions:
La Niña - Unusually cold surface water
temperatures in the Pacific ocean caused
by strong easterly trade winds.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
El Niño - Unusually warm surface water temperatures

in the Pacific ocean caused by weak (or reversed
direction) easterly trade winds.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
El Niño and La Niña simplified…
• El Nino is the • La Nina is the

abnormal heating of abnormal cooling of
Earth’s ocean Earth’s ocean
surface in the surface in the
Pacific. Pacific.
Did You Know…
• El Nino means “The Christ • La Nina means

Child” “Little Girl”
• They were discovered

hundreds of years ago
• They occur half as
often as El Nino’s
• They can be caused by
underwater volcanoes

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Time Pattern
• El Nino usually lasts from a • La Nina usually
year to two years. lasts nine to twelve
months.
• The longest El Nino ever
recorded lasted six years. • The longest ever
recorded lasted
three years.
El Nino La Nina. Oracle Think Quest. Retrieved May 14th, 2012. http://library.thinkquest.org/5818/elnino.html
Causes:
• El Nino is caused when • La Nina is caused

trade winds allow warm when the
water from the Pacific to temperatures drop
flow east. in the pacific, also
being blown east.
• This builds up warm

surface water that will • This builds up at
soon cause the El Nino. the coasts and will
cause a La Nina.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
What causes an El Niño?
Weak trade
winds and
weak
upwelling
cause warm
water off the
coast of S.
America
What causes a La Niña?

Strong trade
winds blow
surface water
towards east,
creating colder
surface
temperatures
off South
American coast.
We get strong
upwelling.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
What causes the patterns?
• Normal
Movement of Ocean Water

• Surface currents - Currents that are controlled by
the wind. ~¼ mile depth, 10%
• Deep ocean currents
• Upwelling

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Deep Ocean Currents

• Currents controlled by water density:
temperature and salinity
90% of the ocean water

moves in deep ocean
currents
Upwelling
• upwelling brings up cold, nutrient-rich waters to the
surface, which encourage seaweed growth and
support blooms of phytoplankton.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Upwelling
• This happens along the coast, and when this happens it
creates animal diversity.
• Phytoplankton use these nutrients to grow and
reproduce at rapid rates.
• This attracts organisms to areas of upwelling that rely on
phytoplankton as food and, in turn, attracts their
consumers.
• This areas is rich in biological activity and diversity.
• Approximately half of the fish caught in the world come
from areas of upwelling.
El Niño and La Niña

• Video Presentation
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dzat16LMtQk&t=23s

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
El Nino’s Damage Done

• Floods in the Pacific
states
• Cause tornadoes in the
mid-west states
• Causes severe
thunderstorms in the
south
• Northeast typically has
stormy winters,
"Snowmageddon”
La Nina’s Damage Done

• Drier and Milder
conditions in the south.
• Cause severe droughts
in the southeast.
• Cause unusual cold
temperature changes
along the Pacific coast.
• Causes wetter
conditions for the
Pacific states.
• Northeast will have cold
periods

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Severe Drought
Brush fires caused by drought

in Texas (La Niña)

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Increased Tropical Storms (La Niña)
Hurricane Floyd was HUGE!

(1999 - La Niña)

Lecture Notes in
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8 August 2022
Causing devastating floods in

Australia (2010-2011 La Niña)
Peruvian anchovy populations

declined (El Niño)

Lecture Notes in
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8 August 2022
QUIZ! Which is which…

Normal, El Niño, La Niña?
Were you’re predictions correct?

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Storms
Clouds

Lecture Notes in
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8 August 2022
Cirrus uncinus
Cumulus fractus

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Mammatus
Lenticular Clouds

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Precipitation
• Note that cloud droplets are tiny (averaging
around 20 micrometers)
• The rate of droplet fall is slow due to its
relatively small size.
• Clouds consists of many billions of these
droplets. All these droplets compete for water
to grow and precipitate.
• To form precipitation, many droplets must
coalesce (join together) to sustain itself during
descent.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Precipitation
• falling products of
condensation in the
atmosphere,
Fall Velocity of Droplets

Types Diameter Fall Velocity
(mm) km/hr miles/hr

Small Cloud Droplets 0.01 0.01 0.006
Typical Cloud Droplets 0.02 0.04 0.03
Large Cloud Droplets 0.05 0.3 0.2
Drizzle Drops 0.5 7 4
Typical Rain Drops 2.0 23 14
Large Rain Drops 5.0 33 20
Data from Smithsonian Meteorological Tables

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Forms of Precipitation
Type Size State Description
Mist 0.005-0.05 mm Liquid Droplets large enough to be felt on the face
when air is moving. Stratus clouds.
Drizzle < 0.5 mm Liquid Small uniform droplets (several hours).
Associated with stratus clouds.
Rain 0.5-5mm Liquid Produced by nimbostratus or cumulonimbus,
and size is variable.
Sleet 0.5-5mm Solid Small, spherical to lumpy ice crystals and forms
when raindrops freezes while falling through a
subfreezing air.
Glaze 1-2cm layers Solid Produced when supercooled raindrops freeze in
contact with solid objects.
Rime variable Solid Deposits consists of ice feathers that point into
the wind.
Snow 1-2cm Solid Ice crystals which remains in its crystal form
during descent. It assumes many shapes.
Hail 5mm-10cm or > Solid Hard rounded pellets or irregular lumps of ice.
Graupel 2-5mm Solid Soft hail, forms when rime collects snow crystals
to produce irregular masses of soft ice.
Mist
Fog and mist differ by how far you can see through
them. Fog is when you can see less than 1,000 metres
away, and if you can see further than 1,000 metres, we call
it mist.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Drizzle
Rain
• Rain is precipitation that falls to
the surface of the Earth
as water droplets.
• Raindrops form
around microscopic cloud
condensation nuclei, such as a
particle of dust or
a molecule of pollution.
• Rain that falls from clouds but
freezes before it reaches the
ground is called sleet or ice
pellets.
• Even though cartoon pictures
of raindrops look like tears,
real raindrops are
actually spherical.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Sleet
Glaze

Lecture Notes in
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8 August 2022
Rime
Snow
• precipitation that falls in the form of
ice crystals.
• ice crystals are formed individually in
clouds, but when they fall, they stick
together in clusters of snowflakes.
• Snow requires temperatures at the
ground to be near or below freezing—
less than 0 degrees Celsius (32-
degrees Fahrenheit). Snow that falls
on warmer ground melts on contact.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Hail
• Hail forms in
cold storm clouds.
• It forms when very
cold water droplets freeze, or
turn solid, as soon as they
touch things like dust or dirt.
• The storm blows
the hailstones into the upper
part of the cloud.
• More frozen water droplets
are added to
the hailstone before it falls.
• Unlike sleet, which is liquid
when it forms and freezes as
it falls to Earth, hail falls as a
stone of solid ice.
• Hailstones are usually the
size of small rocks, but they
can get as large as 15
centimeters (6 inches) across
and weigh more than a
pound.
Groupel
When snow falls in

the form of a ball
instead of soft flakes,
it is called graupel.
This happens when
snow is melted and
precipitation forms
around the snow
crystal.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Other Types of Precipitation

Sometimes, different types of precipitation fall at the
same time. During harsh winter storms, for instance, it
is not unusual for sleet and rain to fall at the same
time.
Other times, precipitation doesn't fall at all. Virga is a

type of precipitation that begins to fall from a cloud,
but evaporates before it reaches the surface of the
Earth.
Colors of the Sky

A red sky appears
when dust and
small particles are
trapped in the
atmosphere by
high pressure. This
scatters blue light
leaving only red
light to give the sky
its notable
appearance.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Ring around the sun

• Halos around the Sun and Moon
are certainly not rare.
• They are caused by high cirrus
clouds refracting light.
• Cirrus clouds are so high in the
sky (typically higher than 20,000
feet), they are made up of millions
upon millions of tiny ice crystals
which readily refract the light
from the Sun or Moon.
Rainbows
• When sunlight hits a rain droplet, some
of the light is reflected.
• The electromagnetic spectrum is made
of light with many different wavelengths,
and each is reflected at a different angle.
• Thus, spectrum is separated, producing
a rainbow.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Thunderstorms
• The flow of air about the storms are circulating in
an upward and downward movement.
• Form on their own or in conjunction with cyclones.
• A tornado may descend from a thunderstorms’
cumulonimbus clouds.
• It is a small scale phenomenon that is a result of
the vertical movement of unstable, relatively warm
air, demonstrating the dynamic thermal activity
during development.
• It is associated with heavy rainfall, thunder,
lightning, and occasionally hail.
• At any given time, there are an estimated of 2000
thunderstorms, greatest on the tropics. That makes
45000 a day and 16 M annually.
Stages in the Development
• All thunderstorms require warm, moist air

to be lifted in order for the latent heat to
provide buoyancy to maintain upward flight.
• The instability and associated buoyancy are
triggered by different process.
• It usually occurs during afternoon when the
temperature is relatively high.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
(1) Cumulus Stage

• The towering clouds must be extensive 12km to 20 km to
supply moist air.
• Each new warm air rises higher than the last adds up to
the height of the clouds.
• During this stage, updrafts of up to 160 km/hr dominates
and can result to hail formation.
• Usually within an hour of its inception, the precipitation of
the cloud is too great for the updrafts to support thus
precipitation causes a drag and downdraft is initiated.
• The downdraft is further aided by influx of cool dry air
surrounding the cloud (a process called entrainment). It
intensifies the downdraft. It initiates evaporation during
descent.
(2) Mature Stage

• It is marked by the release of precipitation by a
downdraft process. The cool downdraft spreads
laterally before the actual precipitation reaches
the ground.
• The sharp cool gusts at the surface are indicative
of the downdrafts aloft.
• During the mature stage, downdraft exists with
updrafts. The clouds continue to grow up to the
base of the stratosphere to form ice laden cirrus
clouds. It is the most active period of the
thunderstorm, gusty winds, lightning, heavy
rainfall, and sometimes hail.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
(3) Dissipating Stage

• Once downdraft begins, more entrainment
of cool air happens until it dominates
throughout the cloud initiating the last
stage.
• The cooling effect of falling precipitation
and the influx of colder air aloft mark the
end of the thunderstorm activity.
• Without the supply of moist air, the cloud
will soon evaporate.
Types
• (1) Air-Mass Thunderstorms – occur in

warm moist air originating from bodies of
water to land and moving northwards.
• (2) Severe Thunderstorms – produces
severe local storms. This can damage crops
and property. Hails and tornadoes could be
developed and lightning induced death and
fires could occur. Usually in the mid-
latitudes and form ahead of cold fronts.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Tropical Cyclone, Hurricane, Storm

Formation
• Video presentation
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W2UDbDXXYGE

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Lightning
• Lightning – electric shock, it occurs when there is an excessive
development of positive and negative charges on different parts
of the cloud.
• The object of lightning is to equalize the charges by producing a
negative flow of current from region of excess negative charge to
area of excessive positive charge.
• Because air is a good insulator, a very high electrical potential
(charge difference) is necessary before a lightning will occur.
• The total discharge which lasts only for a few tenths of a second
is called flash. Individual components making up your flash is
called a stroke. Each stroke begins when the cloud base frees
electrons in the air. Once ionized, the air becomes a conductive
path called a leader. It is extended earthward in short but invisible
bursts called step leader.
Lightning
• When the electrical field ionizes the remaining section of the
path, the electrons deposited on the channel begins to flow
downwards and begins near the ground.
• Then the electrons positioned successively higher up the
channel begin to migrate downwards. This accompanying
discharge has been named return stroke.
• It is this intense stroke that illuminates the conductive path.
• Each subsequent stroke begins with a dart leader that once
again ionizes the channel and carries the cloud potential to the
ground. It is less branched than the step leader. When the
current ceased for more than 0.1 second, further strokes will be
preceded by a step leader whose path is different from that of
an initial stroke. Total time for each flash consists of 3 or 4
strokes is 0.2 seconds.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Lightning
Thunder
• The electrical discharge of lightning superheats
the air immediately around the lightning channel.
In less than a second, the temperature rises by
8000 to 330000C.
• When air is heated this quickly, it expands
explosively and produces sound waves we hear,
thunder.
• Lightning and thunder are produced
simultaneously. The relatively slow sound waves
reach us a little later than lightning.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Tornadoes
Tornadoes
• Local storms of short duration.
• They are one of the most destructive forces of nature.
• They are sometimes called “twisters” or cyclones.
• These are violent wind storms that take the form of a
column of air, or vortex, that extends downward from a
cumulonimbus cloud.
• The pressure on this vortex is usually 10% lower than the
storm so air rushes through the vortex. It spirals upward
until it eventually merges with the airflow of parent
thunderstorm.
• Maximum winds approach 480 km/hr. The probability of
having a tornado on the same location is once in 250
years.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Waterspouts
• Less destructive than
tornadoes.
• Develops in coastal regions
and associated with fair
weather.
• These type is short-lived.
• They form in association
with cumulus congestus
and low level instability.
• It is made up of clouds and
not of seawater drawn to
the vortex.
Hurricanes

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Typhoon
Formation
• A hurricane is a heat engine fueled by latent heat
liberated when huge quantities of water vapor
condense.
• The latent heat released warms the air increasing
buoyancy thus creating a low pressure area which
in turn encourages more rapid inflow of air. Thus a
large quantity of warm moist air is necessary.
• Initially, they develop into smaller tropical
cyclones.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Formation of a Hurricane
A hurricane, also called a tropical cyclone or a typhoon, forms when all
of the following conditions occur: sea temperature higher than 27 °C
(81 °F), atmosphere saturated with moisture, convergence of cold
airstreams. Under these conditions, hot air cannot escape outwards and
Instead whirls upwards in a column, creating the hurricane. Hurricanes
may reach diameters of more than 500 km (300 mi).
Around the periphery of the column, the whirling winds can reach 300
km/h (180 mph). In the centre of the column, called the eye of the
hurricane, there is a zone of subsidence, characterized by weak winds
and a clear sky. The humid air rises more than 10,000 m (33,000 ft)
and forms cumulonimbus (anvil-shaped clouds). Cooled water vapour
then condenses and falls as torrential rain.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Decay of Hurricanes
• If hurricanes move across ocean
waters that cannot supply warm, moist
tropical air
• Move onto land; and
• Reach a location where large scale
aloft is unfavorable.
Effects of Hurricanes
• Wind Damage
• Inland Flooding
• Storm surge

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Detecting and Tracking Hurricanes
• Satellites
• Aircraft Reconnaissance
• Radar and Data Buoys
PAGASA

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
PAGASA

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Importance of Weather Forecasting
• Adjust schedule of activities

• Airlines, fruit growers
• Agriculture
• Flooding (harvest)
• NASA (launching of its spacecraft)
• Construction (when and what)
• Preparation for the upcoming weather
(typhoons)
• Moods

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Importance
• The impacts of meteorological phenomena upon
both life and property, whether short-lived or
long-lasting in nature, are substantial:
• Nearly 90% of the emergencies declared by the
Federal Emergency Management Agency are
weather-related.
• More than 7000 road fatalities per year can be
directly or indirectly attributed to weather.
Importance
• Approximately 70% of air traffic delays are caused by
weather, at a cost of about $6 billion per year.
• Heat waves kill an average of about 175 people each
year in the U.S.
• U.S. utilities save more than $150 million per year
using 24-hour temperature forecasts to meet
electricity demands most efficiently.
• Reducing the length of coastline under hurricane
warnings involving the need for evacuations saves up
to $1 million per coastal mile in evacuation and other
preparedness costs.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Introduction
• Determining the future state of the
atmosphere
• It involves enormous task even for a short-
range forecast
• It involves several steps including collecting
weather data, transmitting it, and compiling it
on a global scale.
• The data are then analyzed that an accurate
assessment of the current conditions can be
made.
Weather Analysis
• Before any weather can be predicted, a firm grasp
of the current atmospheric conditions must be
made – weather analysis.
• It involves collecting, transmitting and compiling
million pieces of observational data. Since the
atmosphere is ever changing, the job must be
accomplished quickly (thru computers).
• In order to be easily understood by forecasters,
analysts must accomplished a synoptic weather
chart with all possible information on it.
• It is called synoptic (coincident in time) since they
display weather condition at a given time.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
(1) Gathering Data

• A vast network of weather stations is required
to provide enough data for a weather chart
that is useful for even short-range forecasts.
• There are 130 nations (members of the WMO
or World Meteorological Organization)
responsible in gathering data and producing
synoptic weather charts.
• There are around 10,000 surface stations on
land and sea which reports the atmospheric
conditions 4x a day (0000, 0600, 1200, 1800
GMT). Satellite images and radiosonde data
are used to determine the conditions aloft.
(1) Gathering Data

• These information is transmitted and
compiled in the National Meteorological
Centers (Washington, DC, Moscow,
Melbourne) to be distributed to the
participating countries.
• PAGASA monitors and provide local
weather forecasts.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
(2) Constructing A Synoptic

Weather Chart
• Production involves plotting of data from selected
observation points
• Data plotted include temperature, dew point,
pressure and its tendency, cloud cover (height,
type and amount), wind speed and direction, and
weather both current and past. The arrangement
of data is shown on the next slide.
• Isobars and fronts are also added to the weather
charts. These are based on the pressure readings
available.
• Weather charts are available at PAGASA
(www.pagasa.dost.gov.ph)
Weather Forecasting
• Approaches used:
• Traditional Synoptic weather forecasting
• Numerical weather prediction
• Statistical Methods
• Various short-range forecasting techniques.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
(1) Synoptic Weather Forecasting
• It is the primary method used before 1950s.

• The forecaster base the weather forecast
on weather charts over the years thus an
estimate of rate of direction of weather
systems.
• It is accurate only for few hours.
• Data on air aloft is recorded to accurately
predict the state of the atmosphere.
(2) Numerical Weather Prediction

• Used by modern forecasters (NWP)
• Numerical weather prediction is based on the fact
that the gases of the atmosphere obey a number
of physical principles. Changes on the behavior of
gases can be used in predicting weather.
• Due to a very large amount of information and
different variables, numerical models were
developed omitting some variables regarded as
constant parameters.
• This method usually produces a “prognostic
chart”, which predict the condition of the
atmosphere a more future time.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
(3) Statistical Methods

• Used in conjunction with NWP. Past weather are
carefully examined to determine weather patterns
that are good predictors of future events.
• Most often used to determine a single aspect of
weather (max temp for the day)
• Another statistical approach to weather
forecasting is “analog method” through searching
for past weather records and locate ones that
come close to duplicating current conditions. (No
two periods of weather are identical) usually used
to long range forecasting.
(4) Short Range Forecasting

• This is based on the tendency of the weather at a
given site to remain unchanged for several hours or
even a day or so.
• Persistence forecasts predict that the future weather
will be the same as the present conditions. It does not
account for changes that might occur in the intensity
or direction of a weather system.
• It breaks down after 6 to 12 hours or a day at most.
• Issuance of warnings and forecasting for
atmospheric changes that must be done quickly and
site specific is called “nowcasting” (aided by radars
and geostationary satellites.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Long range Forecasts
• It is an area that relies heavily on past

weather data.
• Weekly, monthly and seasonal weather
outlooks.
• These includes estimates of the
precipitation and temperatures that can be
expected during these periods.
Forecast Accuracy
• Accurate weather forecasts and warnings

of extreme weather conditions must be
provided to protect life and property.
• Relatively accurate weather forecasts can
last 6 to 12 hours.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Tools In Weather Forecasting
• Automated Weather Instruments (ASOS –

Automated Surface Observing Systems) –
wind profilers
• State of the art interactive computer
network
• Satellites (polar and geostationary
satellites)

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
PAGASA BASCO
PAGASA DA-BASCO
WEATHER AGRO-MET
RADAR STATIONS
STATIONS APARRI MMSU-
BATAC
ISU-
ECHAGUE
BAGUIO DMMMSU-LABSU-LA TRINIDAD
UNION NVSIT-
BALER BAYOMBONG
HA. CLSU-
SN. ILDEFONSO, BULACAN LUISITA- MUNOZ
TARLAC CENTRAL AGROMET-QUEZON
TANAY CITY
DAET VIRAC
UPLB-NAS
TAGAYTAY
CSSAC-
PILI
EXISTING BVHS-BULAN UEP-
CATARMAN
NEW RADAR
STATION PSPC-
GUIUAN MAMBUSAO
MACTAN VISCA-
BAYBAY
SPCP-ABORLAN
MALAYBALAY
MSU-MARAWI
TRRC-TAGUM
PCA-BAGO
GEN. OSHIRO
SANTOS
PAGASA
PAGASA TELEMETERED
FLOOD FORECASTING
WEATHER AND WARNING
SYSTEM
SATELLITE
GROUND
RECEIVING
STATIONS
QUEZON CITY
{GMS;WEFAX}
LEGASPI
(WEFAX)
MACTAN
(WEFAX)
CAGAYAN DE
ORO (WEFAX)

Figure 4. Location map of the overall system network of Flood
2022 ONLINE MENTORING PROGRAM Forecasting Working Systems (FFWSS) including
Licensure Exam for Fisheries Professionals their sub-systems. 76
Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Memorandum Circular No. 01-09 Guidelines On

Movement Of Vessels During Heavy Weather
• MEMO Published: 07 January 2014

• RA 5173 as amended by PD 601
• PURPOSE: To prescribe policies and procedures in order to enhance
maritime safety during the occurrence of tropical depression, storm
or typhoon in the Philippine area of responsibility.
• APPLICATION: This circular shall apply to all vessels operating within

the territorial jurisdiction of the Republic of the Philippines.
• IV. EXEMPTIONS:
• A. Tugboats purposely used in assisting vessels in docking or
undocking to or from berthing piers or wharves;
• B. Government-operated vessels used for non-commercial purposes;
and
• C. Vessels called upon by the PCG to assist in a specific search and
rescue operation.
Policies
• A. Vessels of 1,000 gross tons or below shall not sail, except to take
shelter, when PSWS number 1 is hoisted within its point of origin or
route or point of destination.
• B. Movement of vessels above 1,000 gross tons is left to the discretion
and responsibility of the ship owner and master when PSWS number 1
is hoisted within its point of origin or route or point of destination.
• C. Vessels of any tonnage shall not sail, except to take shelter, when
PSWS number 2 or higher is hoisted within its point of origin or route
or point of destination.
• D. Masters and ship owners of vessels above 1,000 gross tons who,
based on the intent of this Circular, are given or left with the
discretion to sail during a storm shall exercise extra precautionary
measures and carefully study the possible effect of a storm to the
vessel’s voyage with due regard to the forecasted track, wind force
and radius of the storm in reference to weather bulletins and Tropical
Cyclone Warning for Shipping issued by PAGASA every 0500H, 1100H,
1700H and 2300H.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Policies
• E. Vessels sailing for the purpose of taking shelter shall depart
without passengers. Cargoes already loaded onboard the vessel may
be permitted to remain onboard provided that maximum
precautionary measures shall be observed by ensuring that proper
lashing and stowage are strictly followed.
• F. It is the decision and responsibility of the Master and ship owner of
the vessel to ensure the safety of the ship and crew whenever they
decide to take shelter.
• G. Vessels shall not sail when its point of origin or route or point of
destination is within an applicable PSWS Sector where it is not
allowed to sail (as provided in paragraphs A and C) based on the latest
PAGASA weather bulletin.
• H. In no way shall ship owners and Masters of vessels depart from the
intent of this circular by violating the objective of the provision hereof
on taking shelter.
• I. Ship owners and Masters shall exercise extra-ordinary diligence
required by law for common carriers in ensuring the safety of life and
property at sea.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Climate Change
The Ocean’s Deadly Trio
H.A.D.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Heat –
Ocean
Warming

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Heat –
Ocean
Warming

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Heat –Ocean
Warming
Heat –Ocean
Warming
The ocean absorbs
vast quantities of
heat as a result of
increased
concentrations of
greenhouse gases
in the atmosphere

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Heat –Ocean Warming

• The Fifth Assessment Report by Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) in 2013 - ocean had absorbed more than
93% of the excess heat from greenhouse gas emissions since
the 1970s.
• Data from the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) - average global sea surface
temperature increased by approximately 0.13°C per decade
over the past 100 years.
• 2012 journal Geophysical Research Letters - deep ocean is also
affected, with one third of the excess heat absorbed 700 m
below the sea surface.
• Modelling studies published in IPCC’s 2013 Report predict that
there is likely to be an increase in mean global ocean
temperature of 1-4 °C by 2100.

• The ocean’s ability to absorb excess heat has shielded
humans from even more rapid changes in climate.
• Without this oceanic buffer, global temperatures would
have risen much more than they have done to date.
• IPCC’s Fourth Assessment Report in 2007 estimated that
the Earth had experienced a warming of 0.55°C since the
1970s.
• According to an analysis by the Grantham Institute, if the
same amount of heat that has gone into the top 2,000 m of
the ocean between 1955 and 2010 had gone into the lower 10
km of the atmosphere, the Earth would have seen a
warming of 36°C.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022

• affect marine species and
ecosystems.
• coral bleaching
• loss of breeding grounds for
marine fishes and mammals.
• high levels of mortalities
• mass movements

• extreme weather events and the
loss of coastal protection.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022

• A 2012 report by the FAO - estimates that capture fisheries and
aquaculture provide 4.3 billion people with about 15% of their
animal protein.
• Fisheries and aquaculture are also a source of income for
millions of people worldwide.
• threatening food security
• increasing the prevalence of diseases
• altering distributions of fish stocks
• effect vegetation and reef-building species such as corals and
mangroves
• Low lying islands will disappear
Acidification
– Ocean
Acidification

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Acidification – Ocean Acidification

• The pH scale measures
how acidic or basic a
substance is.
• The pH scale ranges from
0 to 14.
• A pH of 7 is neutral.
• A pH less than 7 is acidic.
• A pH greater than 7 is
basic.

• pH is the scale on which
acidity is measured, and
so it describes how
much acid is in a liquid.
• The amount of hydrogen
ions in a liquid
determines how acidic
the liquid is.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Acidification
– Ocean
Acidification
Acidification
– Ocean
Acidification
Through a series of
chemical reactions,
carbonic acid releases
hydrogen ions (H+), which
decreases seawater pH,
and decreases the
concentration of
carbonate ions (CO32-),
which provide chemical
building blocks for marine
organisms’ shells and
skeletons.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022

• decreasing the ocean’s pH,
• Absorption of nutrients (N,P,Fe,etc.)
• Coral formation
• Metabolism

• Present ocean acidification occurs
approximately ten times faster than anything
experienced during the last 300 million years,
jeopardizing the ability of ocean systems to
adapt to changes in ocean chemistry due to
CO2.
• change marine ecosystems and impact many
ocean-related benefits to society such as
coastal protection or provision of food and
income.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
https://www.iucn.org/resources/issues-briefs/ocean-
acidification#:~:text=Ocean%20acidification%20is%20happening%20in,as%20the%20'deadly%20trio'.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Deoxygenation
• Ocean warming leads to deoxygenation
• a reduction in the amount of oxygen dissolved in the ocean
• one of the most pernicious, yet under-reported side-effects
of human-induced climate change.
• The primary causes of deoxygenation are eutrophication
(increased nutrient run-off from land and sewage pollution)
and nitrogen deposition from the burning of fossil fuels,
coupled with the widespread impacts from ocean warming.
• Oxygen loss from warming has alarming consequences for
global oceanic oxygen reserves, which have already been
reduced by 2% over a period of just 50-years (from 1960 to
2010).
Deoxygenation

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
Deoxygenation
• At a global-scale, warming-induced oxygen loss is
driving progressive persistent changes in nutrient
cycling and recycling, species distributions, marine
ecosystem services and habitat availability.
• Whereas at a regional scale, the formation of low
oxygen zones and harmful algal blooms become more
frequent.
• Oxygen decline will impact marine ecosystems and the
dependent human population. Even the smallest fall in
oxygen levels, when near already existing thresholds,
can create significant issues with far-reaching and
complex biological and biogeochemical implications.
What can be done?

• Limiting greenhouse gas emissions
There is an urgent need to achieve the mitigation targets
set by the Paris Agreement on climate change and hold
the increase in the global average temperature to well
below 2°C above pre-industrial levels. This will help
prevent the massive and irreversible impacts of growing
temperatures on ocean ecosystems and their services.
• Protecting marine and coastal ecosystems
Well-managed protected areas can help conserve and
protect ecologically and biologically significant marine
habitats. This will regulate human activities in these
habitats and prevent environmental degradation.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
What can be done?

• Restoring marine and coastal ecosystems
Elements of ecosystems that have already experienced
damage can be restored. This can include building artificial
structures such as rock pools that act as surrogate habitats
for organisms, or boosting the resilience of species to
warmer temperatures through assisted breeding techniques.
• Improving human adaptation
Governments can introduce policies to keep fisheries
production within sustainable limits, for example by setting
precautionary catch limits and eliminating subsidies to
prevent overfishing. Coastal setback zones which prohibit all
or certain types of development along the shoreline can
minimise the damage from coastal flooding and erosion.
New monitoring tools can be developed to forecast and
control marine disease outbreaks.
What can be done?

• Strengthening scientific research
Governments can increase investments in
scientific research to measure and monitor
ocean warming and its effects. This will provide
more precise data on the scale, nature and
impacts of ocean warming, making it possible
to design and implement adequate and
appropriate mitigation and adaptation
strategies.

Lecture Notes in
CAPTURE FISHERIES
8 August 2022
What if we do nothing?
Thank You!


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Lecture Notes in

Fisheries Development Network

Fisheries Development Network

Overview of the Earth’s Atmosphere

• The atmosphere is a gas.

• The atmosphere is a fluid.

• There is a surface but no “top” – the

Thin Gaseous envelope

Fisheries Development Network

Composition of the Atmosphere

Composition of the Atmosphere

• The “dry atmosphere”: 78% N2, 21% O2, 1% Ar

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Composition of the Atmosphere

• Water Vapor: H2O 0-4%

◼ The Hydrological Cycle

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Composition of the Atmosphere

CO2 is neither the strongest atmospheric GHG pound-for-pound nor

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Composition of the Atmosphere

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Composition of the Atmosphere

Composition of the Atmosphere

• Ozone, CFCs and NOx

• Ozone at high altitudes (stratosphere) is “good”;

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Clouds are not gas,

Ground based smog,

Ozone – is the primary ingredient of smog!

Aerosols & Pollutants

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Composition of the Atmosphere

Suspended particles in the atmosphere are

Weather vs. Climate

Weather is the dynamical

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◼ air temperature • Certain weather elements, like

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Koppen Climate Classification

• developed by Wladimir Koppen more than a

“The Koppen climate

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Classification of tropical climates by their amount of

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• endure frigid temperatures year-round.

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Seasons near the Equator

• experience little seasonal variation.

Seasons near the Poles

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Climate of the Philippines

• The Climate of the Philippines is tropical and

Temperature and Humidity in the Philippines