Professional Documents
Culture Documents
HYDROGEOLOGY of the
INDOGANGETIC ALLUVIUM
an assignment submitted to Dr.A.P.Pradeepkumar, Reader
Vrindhanath.M.C
3rd semester
MSc Disaster Management
School of Environmental Sciences
Mahatma Gandhi University
Kottayam
Kerala
India
www.sesmgu.org
www.disasterresearch.net
Jan 2011
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HYDROGEOLOGY of the INDOGANGETIC ALLUVIUM Vrindhanath.M.C
INDOGANGETIC ALLUVIUM
The Indian landmass consists of three physiographic domains; the Himalayas, Indo
Gangetic Plain (IGP), and Peninsular Shield. The IndoGangetic Plain is a 400800 km
wide, low relief, eastwest zone between the Himalaya in the north and the Peninsula in
the south . It is a sinking basin that came into being about 50 Ma ago due to epiorogenic
movements of Himalaya and was subsequently filled up by the sediments deposited by
northerly and southerly drainage under the influence of climate changes, mainly from
the Middle Miocene (Rowley 1996).
The Indus and Ganges river basins are among the world’s largest and most productive
ecosystems. Home to three quarters of a billion people; the combined basin area extends
over 2.25 million km2 from the mouth of the Ganges to that of the Indus. The basin
provides water for the economic base of agriculture, forestry, fisheries, and livestock, as
well as the urban and industrial water requirements of about one billion people. More
than 90% of total water use is for agriculture, followed by 8% for domestic use (IGB
Brochure, 2003). The IndusGanges plains form the largest consolidated area of irrigated
food production on the globe with a net cropped area of 114 million ha. Groundwater
development (i.e. the percentage of annual net draft to annual available groundwater
resources), has been very rapid in the last two decades with development reaching
77.7% in the Indus and 33.5% in the Ganges part of the combined basin area (Sikka and
Gichuki, 2006).
While agricultural technologies and the harnessing of water have proceeded apace, land
and water degradation are taking an increasing toll on the basin economy. Future food
security in this area, which is the key breadbasket for South Asia, is threatened by a
combination of land and water degradation, stagnating productivity, reduced harvested
area, and rapidly increasing populations and, concomitantly, food demand .Much of the
groundwater use in the basin area is not sustainable. While past development of tube
well irrigation was an important factor in increasing food production and reducing
poverty, the basin is now being confronted with major groundwater management
challenges: overexploitation of groundwater and declining water tables in the drier
Indus and western Ganges part of the basin, water logging and secondary salinization
in high intensity irrigation command areas, and rapidly growing pollution of water
resources.
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HYDROGEOLOGY of the INDOGANGETIC ALLUVIUM Vrindhanath.M.C
The IndoGangetic Basin, though blessed with a vast network of dams, canals, and
strong irrigation bureaucracy, has lost its historical supremacy of the surface irrigation
systems to the more informal, demandbased and equitable groundwater irrigation.
Most canal commands in the region are shrinking with groundwater taking over the
critical role of irrigation provisioning. In large parts of the IndoGangetic Basin finding
a farmer who either does not have his own pump or does not purchase water from his
neighboring pumpowner may be a difficult task (Shah, 2006). The present size of the
groundwater economy in the region is substantial, and it is groundwater irrigation that
largely account for the variations in the value of agricultural output per hectare.
Groundwater irrigation is helping in catalyzing the spread of the green revolution into
new areas that were not covered by surface irrigation in the 1970s. Despite this, the
development, use, sharing and groundwater markets, and the agricultural production
and large social benefits produced by the groundwater resource are not uniform and
depend heavily upon the prevailing hydrology and socioecology of the given
region/state in the vast basin, albeit with very interesting twists. Understanding
sustainable groundwater management in the developing world requires blending of
three distinct perspectives: (a) the resource, (b) the user, and (3) the institutional.
GROUND WATER IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE
The study of our scriptures reveals that ancient Indian thinkers such as Sarasvatu,
Manu with scientific bent were not only interested in exploring the means of storing
rainwater but also exploring the methods to locate ground water sources. Many
Sanskrit works like Brihatsamhita of Varahamihira, Arthasastra of Kautilya etc.,
describe the interior of the earth to be full of water channels, like the veins in the human
body, further subdividing into hundreds and thousands of streams at different levels
causing life of different plants and trees on the earth. These works claim that on the
basis of certain plants and trees, ground water resources can be explored in the areas
where surface water is not available. There are other methods like smell of soil and
character of rocks using which it can also be assessed whether water is sweet, saline,
acidic or bitter
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HYDROGEOLOGY of the INDOGANGETIC ALLUVIUM Vrindhanath.M.C
water was being used for irrigation purposes at that time. Sinking of wells and a variety
of water devices were well known from Vedic times.
HYDROGEOLOGY OF THE COUNTRY
The ground water behavior in the Indian subcontinent is highly complicated due to the
occurrence of diversified geological formations with considerable lithological and
chronological variations, complex tectonic framework, climatological dissimilarities and
various hydro chemical conditions. Studies carried out over the years have revealed
that aquifer groups in alluvial / soft rocks even transcend the surface basin boundaries.
Broadly two groups of rock formations have been identified depending on
characteristically different hydraulics of ground water, Porous Formations and Fissured
Formations. Porous formations have been further subdivided into Unconsolidated and
Semi – consolidated formations.
POROUS FORMATIONS (UNCONSOLIDATED FORMATIONS)
The areas covered by alluvial sediments of river basins, coastal and deltaic tracts
constitute the unconsolidated formations. These are by far the most significant ground
water reservoirs for large scale and extensive development. The hydrogeological
environment and ground water regime in the IndoGangaBrahmaputra basin indicate
the existence of potential aquifers having enormous fresh ground water reserve.
Bestowed with high incidence of rainfall and covered by a thick pile of porous
sediments, these ground water reservoirs get replenished every year and are being used
heavily. In these areas, in addition to the Annual Replenishable Ground Water
resources available in the zone of water level fluctuation (Dynamic Ground Water
Resource), there exists a huge ground water reserve in the deeper passive recharge zone
below the zone of fluctuation as well as in the deeper confined aquifers which remains
largely unexplored as yet. Although the mode of development of ground water is
primarily through dug wells, dug cum bore well and cavity wells, thousands of tube
wells have been constructed during last few decades.
POROUS (SEMI CONSOLIDATED)
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HYDROGEOLOGY of the INDOGANGETIC ALLUVIUM Vrindhanath.M.C
northeastern India, these waterbearing formations are quite productive. The Upper
Gondwanas, which are generally arenaceous, in general, constitute prolific aquifers.
FISSURED FORMATIONS (CONSOLIDATED FORMATIONS)
IGNEOUS AND METAMORPHIC
The most common rock types under this category are granites, gneisses, charnockites,
khondalites, quartzites, schists and associated phyllites, slates, etc. These rocks possess
negligible primary porosity but attain porosity and permeability due to fracturing and
weathering. Ground water yield also depends on rock type and grade of
metamorphism. Generally, the Granites, Khondalites and Biotite gneisses have better
yield potential as compared to Charnockites.
VOLCANIC ROCKS
The predominant types of volcanic rocks are the basaltic lava flows of Deccan Plateau.
The highly variable water bearing properties of different flow units control ground
water occurrence in Deccan Traps. The Deccan Traps have usually poor to moderate
permeability depending on the presence of primary and secondary fractures.
CONSOLIDATED SEDIMENTARY ROCKS EXCLUDING CARBONATE ROCKS
Consolidated sedimentary rocks occur in Cuddapahs, Vindhyans and their equivalents.
The formations consist of conglomerates, sandstones, shales, slates and quartzites. The
presence of bedding planes, joints, contact zones and fractures controls the ground
water occurrence, movement and yield potential.
CARBONATE ROCKS
Limestones in the Cuddapah, Vindhyan and Bijawar group of rocks dominates the
carbonate rocks other than the marbles and dolomites. In carbonate rocks, the
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HYDROGEOLOGY of the INDOGANGETIC ALLUVIUM Vrindhanath.M.C
circulation of water creates solution cavities thereby increasing the permeability of the
aquifers. The solution activity leads to widely contrasting permeabilities within short
distances.
HYDROGEOLOGY OF THE INDUSGANGES BASIN
The Great Indian Sedimentary Basin, drained by the Indus—Ganges Brahmaputra river
system, is one of the largest and most productive groundwater provinces of the world.
It is flanked by the Great Himalaya in the north and the Deccan Shield in the south . The
history of development of this basin and its sedimentary units is closely related to the
orogenic and geotectonic events of the late and post Himalayan times. The basin runs a
length of over 2400 km from Punjab in the west to Assam in the east. Its width is
variable, the maximum being over 400 km and the minimum as small as 25 km.
Quaternary alluvial deposits form a major component of the surface geology on
nonpeninsular India, covering about half the land area. Alluvium occupies major parts
of Gujarat and Rajasthan, most of Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab and West Bengal, as
well as northern Bihar and northern Assam. Hydrogeologically, the IndoGangetic
basin from north to south is divisible into six regions, namely, the Himalayan region,
subHimalayan region, Bhabar zone, Tarai zone, Central Ganga Plains (CGP) and
marginal alluvial plains. The Himalayan Region confined between the Siwalik range in
the south and the Zaskar range in the north represents hilly and rugged terrain
consisting of a variety of rock formations, which are continuously undergoing
disintegration through glaciofluvial action. Larger part of this region remains under
snow cover throughout the year. The Great Himalayas are the gathering grounds which
feed a multitude of glaciers, some of which are among the largest in the world outside
the Polar circles (Wadia, 1990). The Indus basin has the largest number of glaciers
(3,538), followed by the Ganga basin (1,020) and the Brahmaputra (662) (WWF, 2005).
The intergranular pore spaces, openings, fissures, fractures, Joints and bedding planes
developed promote the infiltration of rainwater which reappears down slope as spring
and seepage (Valdiya and Bartarya, 1989). Here groundwater occurs in the secondary
porosity of the formation and is unconfined.
The subHimalayan region lies to the south of the Himalayan zone and is occupied by
the Siwalik ranges. They forma system of low foothills with an average height of 900–
1,500m (Wadia, 1990). The groundwater here mostly is unconfined and sometimes
semiconfined. The depth to the water table ranges between 10 and 20 m below ground
level (bgl). The tube wells are reported to be capable of yielding 50 to 80 m3/hr in
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HYDROGEOLOGY of the INDOGANGETIC ALLUVIUM Vrindhanath.M.C
Siwaliks of Uttarakhand and 100 to 120 m3/hr in the intermontane valleys in Himachal
Pradesh (CGWB, 2008). The coefficient of permeability varies between 15 and 250
m/day. The northern belt of the IndoGangetic alluvial tract (near the Himalayan
foothills) is characterized by coarse materials (principally bouldergravel) forming the
piedmont terrain. It is referred to as Bhabar in Uttar Pradesh and Kandi in Jammu &
Kashmir and Punjab. This formation has been formed by lateral coalescence of alluvial
cone and fan deposits brought down by innumerable streams (Wadia, 1990). The rivers
crossing Bhabar lose large quantity of flow to the gravels. Groundwater is unconfined
and the water table is deep (30mor more). The groundwater has a hydraulic gradient of
around 3 m/km. The hydraulic conductivity ranges between 25 to 250 m/day. The
Bhabars are capable of yielding about 100–300 m3/hr of water (CGWB, 2008).
The Bhabar belt is overlain by the Terai belt of stratified bands of dominantly coarse
sediments with clay. This occupies a narrow belt and its contact with the Bhabar is well
marked by a spring line. The presence of highly porous and permeable fan deposits
ensures large supplies of groundwater from the Terai belt for agricultural and industrial
use. The Terai has an upper unconfined aquifer and a lower interconnected system of
confined aquifers. Between the Bhabar and the confined aquifers of the Terai belt is a
vast zone where recharge is encouraged by high rainfall and hilly streams. The
piezometric head of the aquifer ranges between 6 to 9 m above ground level. The
coefficient of permeability ranges between 17 and 108 m/day. The yield of tubewells
tapping the Terai zones ranges between 50–200 m3/hr (CGWB, 2008).
The Central Ganga plain forms one of the richest aquifers of the world. The typical
channel deposit of the Ganga River, from the bottom upward, comprises coarse sand
mixed with gravel, mediumto fine—grained sand to silt and a capping of thin clay.
This clay cap and some fine sand layers are washed away during the flood period, and
a fresh body of sand with a fining upward sequence is deposited again each year during
the flood, thus building up a thick terrigenous clastic deposit until the river next
changes its course. In the Central Ganga Plains, extensive exploratory studies have
indicated the presence of four aquifer groups within a depth of 700 m bgl. The
individual aquifers vary in thickness from a few meters up to 300 m. Although locally
separated, aquifers are hydraulically connected at a regional scale (Karanth, 1987). The
range of aquifer parameters in the Central Ganga Plains is shown in Table 1.
Groundwater occurs under water table conditions in the shallow aquifers, and is semi
confined to confined in the deeper aquifers. The yield of tubewells in this area ranges
between 90–200 m3/hr (CGWB, 2008).
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HYDROGEOLOGY of the INDOGANGETIC ALLUVIUM Vrindhanath.M.C
Groundwater Availability
Groundwater resources can be classified as static and dynamic. The static resource is
the amount of groundwater available in the permeable portion of the aquifer below the
zone of water level fluctuation. The dynamic resource is the amount of groundwater
available in the zone of water level fluctuation. Sustainable groundwater development
requires that only the dynamic resources are tapped. Exploitation of static groundwater
resources could be considered during extreme conditions, but only for essential
purposes. The static fresh groundwater resource of the Indus and Ganga basin are listed
below.
River basin Alluvium/ Unconsolidated rocks Hard rocks Total
Indus 1,334.9 3.3 1,338.2
Ganga 7,769.1 65 7,834.1
Groundwater resources in the Ganga basin are nearly six times that of the Indus basin.
The Ganga basin falls under ‘safe’ category on (GWdevelopment <70%) compared to
the Indus basin (overexploited category) based their status of groundwater
development. This implies that annual groundwater consumption is more than the
annual groundwater available in the Indus basin.
The bestyielding aquifers of northern India are the Quaternary alluvial deposits of the
Gangetic plain. These constitute a major source of water supply. Good groundwater
yields are also found in many of the Tertiary sediments. Groundwater storage in
crystalline basement rocks is restricted to the fractures and groundwater yields are
determined by fracture density. This can be significant in some areas: groundwater
yields of around 10–50 m3/day were reported from dug wells in fractured basement
rocks of the Gambhir River Basin of Rajasthan for example (Umar and Absar, 2003).
In the arid regions of northern India, groundwater is often the only source of available
drinking water. Overexploitation of aquifers in some areas has resulted in falling water
levels. Singh and Singh (2002) reported decreases in groundwater levels of 1–2 m/year
in some boreholes. At the same time as a result of irrigation, some canal levels have
been rising at a rate of 1 m/year. Experiments in some areas are being conducted to
assess the feasibility of aquifer storage and recovery to alleviate the water shortage
problem.
Ground water exploration in IndoGangetic plains has shown existence of potential
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HYDROGEOLOGY of the INDOGANGETIC ALLUVIUM Vrindhanath.M.C
aquifers down to 1000 m. or more. Annual replenishable ground water resources of this
region are ~200 BCM which is more than 45% of the country. Besides, it also has vast in
storage ground water resources down to the depth of 450 m. Deeper confined aquifers
get their recharge from distant recharge zone and have ground water of varying ages.
In some of the areas, the deeper aquifers are under autoflow conditions. The quality of
ground water in these aquifers is also good. These aquifers can support large scale
development through both shallow and deep tubewells. In the states of Punjab and
Haryana, the stage of ground water development is very high ranges from 103 to 145 %.
The eastern and north eastern parts of the country mainly in the states of Assam, Bihar,
West Bengal and UP have huge ground water resources both in unconfined and
confined aquifers. The annual replenishable resources of 165 BCM has been assessed in
these states. The ground water draft is ~77 BCM and stage of ground water
development is ~47 %.
STATE WISE DISTRIBUTION OF GROUND WATER
BIHAR
The major part of the state is covered with indogangetic alluvium besides consolidated
formations in the southern parts. Groundwater development in the phreatic zone is
generally through dug wells and shallow tube wells. The yield of these wells generally
ranges from 13lps. The annual replenishible ground water resource of the state has
been estimated as 29.19 bcm and the net ground water availability is 27.42bcm. the
annual ground water draft for all uses is 10.77bcm and stage of ground water
development of the state is 39%. Besides the ground water of the phreatic zone, there
exists a huge ground water potential at deeper depth. The wells tapping deeper
aquifiers in alluvial areas yield between 3070 lps whereas in the consolidated
formation, yield varies from 315 lps.
HARYANA
Major part of the state is occupied by alluvium. The southern part of the state is
underlain by consolidated formation of Delhi system and in the northern part, Siwaliks
are present. The ground water development of the phreatic zone is mainly through
shallow tube wells and dug wells in the alluvial areas, the yield of wells at places go
upto 10 lps. Annual replenishible ground water resources of the state have been
estimated as 9.31 bcm and the net ground water availability is 8.63 bcm. The annual
ground water draft is 9.45 bcm and the stage of ground water development is 109 %.
The dynamic fresh ground water resource is being exhaustively utilized. However the
exploration carried out in the deeper aquifer indicate huge ground water potential. The
tube wells tapping deeper aquifers have been found to yield between 1040 lps.
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HYDROGEOLOGY of the INDOGANGETIC ALLUVIUM Vrindhanath.M.C
DELHI
Delhi region is a part of Indo Gangetic plain. Geologically the Delhi state is occupied by
quartzite of Delhi system and alluvial deposit classified into older and newer alluvium.
In the flood plains of Yamuna, in general, fresh water aquifers exist down to 3045m.
The phreatic aquifer is mainly exploited through shallow tube wells. The yield of wells
in alluvial areas varies from 25 lps. Annual replenishible ground water resource of the
state has been estimated as 0.30 bcm and net annual ground water availability is 0.28
bcm. The annual ground water draft is 0.48 bcm and the stage of ground water
development is 170 %. The deeper aquifer explored through bore wells in the quartzite
areas recorded yield of 15lps. The wells tapping deeper aquifer in the older alluvium
yield from210 lps.
PUNJAB
The state is mainly underlain by quarternary alluvium of considerable thickness which
abuts against the semi consolidated formation of siwalik system towards northeast. The
development of phreatic aquifer is through shallow tube wells, filter points and dug
wells. The yield of these well goes upto 10 lps. The annual replenishible ground water
resources of the state have been assessed as 23.78 bcm and the net annual ground water
availability is 21.44 bcm. The annual ground water draft is 31.16 bcm and the stage of
ground water development is 145% leaving little scope of further development of
dynamic resource except a few pockets. The deeper aquifer are yet to be developed
optimally, the exploration data indicates that the deeper aquifers are capable of
sustaining heavy duty tube wells with yield of 1545 lps.
UTTAR PRADESH
The state of UP is characterized with three distinct hydrogeological units bhabar, terai
and central ganga plains. Bhabar is mainly the recharge zone having the deeper water
levels. The ground water development in the phreatic aquifer is through hand pumps,
dug wells, dug cum bore wells and shallow tube wells. The yield from these wells has
been found upto 40 lps. The annual replenishible ground water resource of the state has
been assessed as 76.35 bcm and the net annual ground water availability is 70.18 bcm.
The annual ground water draft is 48.78 bcm and the stage of ground water development
is 70%. The exploration carried out in the deeper zones indicates the ample scope for
ground water development. The tube wells tapping areas in bhabar and terai zones, the
yield ranges from 3060 lps, whereas the tube wells tapping the central ganga plains, the
yield ranges from 2575 lps.
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HYDROGEOLOGY of the INDOGANGETIC ALLUVIUM Vrindhanath.M.C
WEST BENGAL
Nearly two third of the state is occupied by unconsolidated sediments, the western part
of the state is partly occupied by hard rocks. The phreatic aquifer is generally developed
through dug well, dug cum bore well and shallow tube wells. The yield of these wells
varies from 15 lps. The annual replenishible ground water resources of the state has
been estimated as 30.36 bcm and the net annual ground water availability is 27.46 bcm.
The annual ground water draft is 11.65 bcm and the stage of ground water development
is 42%. The ground water exploration has indicated potential aquifers in the deeper
zones. Wells tapping fracture zones in hard rock areas yield from 25 lps, whereas in
unconsolidated sediments, the yield varies from 1030 lps.
ASSAM
Major area of the state is underlain by unconsolidated formations in Brahmaputra
valley other than consolidated and semiconsolidated formations in the hilly areas.
Shallow tube wells constructed in alluvial areas yield upto 25 lps. The annual
replenishible ground water resources of the state has been estimated as 27.23 bcm and
the net annual ground water availability is 24.89 bcm. The annual ground water draft is
5.44 bcm and the stage of ground water development is 22%. All the districts have been
categorized as been safe. Besides the dynamic ground water resource, there is scope for
ground water development from the deeper aquifers in bhramaputra valley. The deep
wells tapping bhabar area yield fom 7 to 16 lps, in Terai and plain areas, the yield varies
from 20 to 60 lps.
RAJASTHAN
Nearly 40% of the state area is occupied by the hard rocks. Unconsolidated and semi
consolidated formations occupy major part of the state. Windblown sands form
moderately potential aquifer at places in the western Rajasthan. The dug wells tapping
yield is upto 10 lps. The annual replenishible ground water resource in the state is 11.56
bcm and the net annual ground water availability is 10.38 bcm. Annual ground water
drift is 12.99 bcm and stage of ground water development is 125 % leaving little scope
for further development of dynamic ground water resources except in a few pockets.
The Aeolian sediments form the potential deeper aquifers with yield of 2540 lps. Wells
tapping the semi consolidated formation; yield varies from 1040 lps. The wells tapping
the Deccan traps and carbonate rocks yield from 510 lps. Whereas in the wells tapping
igneous and metamorphic formations, the yield is limited to 5 lps.
GUJARAT
Major part of the state is underlain by hard rocks comprising of gneisses, schists,
phyllites, sandstones and basalts. Remaining area in north and central Gujarat is
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HYDROGEOLOGY of the INDOGANGETIC ALLUVIUM Vrindhanath.M.C
occupied by soft rocks including coastal alluvium. The development of groundwater
from phreatic zone is mainly through dug wells and shallow tube wells. The yield from
dug wells varies from 15 lps. The annual replenishable ground water resource of the
state has been estimated as 15.81 bcm and net annual ground water availability is 15.02
bcm. The annual ground water drift is 11.49 bcm and the stage of ground water
development is 76%. Besides above, deeper aquifers have also been found as good
water yielding. The yield of the well tapping the consolidated formations rages between
13 lps, and those tapping semiconsolidated and alluvium ranges between 1050 lps.
Groundwater Quality
Groundwater quality is highly dependent on the nature of the aquifers and on the
ambient climatic conditions. Ground waters of calcium bicarbonate type with near
neutral pH values typify the wetter regions of the north and northeast of the region
where alluvial sediments constitute the most important aquifer.
Salinity is a notable problem in the most arid areas, exacerbated by salinization related
to irrigation. In many arid areas, evaporate salts are observed as surface encrustations
(Umar and Absar, 2003). Soil and groundwater salinization as a result of irrigation has
been documented in Haryana, Rajasthan and Punjab states in particular (Kamra et al.,
2002; Khan, 2001). Salinity can also be a problem in some of the lowlying coastal areas
as a result of saline intrusion.
Pollutant inputs related to farming, domestic wastes (including latrines) and industry
have had an impact on water quality throughout many parts of northern India.
Discussion of pollution impacts from organic compounds and pathogenic organisms is
beyond the scope of this report, but of the inorganic constituents, nitrate is an important
manifestation of such pollutant inputs. High concentrations of nitrate have been found
in some ground waters.
In addition, fluoride and arsenic have become increasingly recognized as problem
elements in a number of groundwater sources, though they rarely occur together in
high concentrations under the hydrogeological conditions pertaining in the region. An
estimated 62 million people nationwide are believed to suffer from problems with
fluorosis (dental or skeletal) as a result of longterm exposure to highfluoride drinking
water (Susheela, 1999). These are principally in the arid and semiarid regions though
some have recently, somewhat surprisingly, also been identified in the wetter state of
Assam (Chakraborti et al., 2000). An estimated 5 million people are likely to be drinking
water with concentrations of arsenic greater than the national standard of 50 μg/l,
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HYDROGEOLOGY of the INDOGANGETIC ALLUVIUM Vrindhanath.M.C
NITROGEN SPECIES
Nitrate in groundwater may be produced by inputs from surface pollutants (e.g.
fertilizers, domestic wastes). Concentrations may also be increased by evaporation
under hot, arid conditions. Concentrations of nitrate in the range 0.5–29 mg/l (as NO3
N) were reported by Umar and Absar (2003) for groundwater from alluvial sediments
of the Gambhir River Basin of Rajasthan. The WHO guideline value of nitrate is 11.3
mg/l for drinking water. High concentrations of nitrate (up to 44 mg/l as NO3N) were
also reported by Handa (1975) for ground waters from Rajasthan. The high
concentrations were accompanied by high salinity and may reflect evaporative
concentration processes rather than pollutant inputs. Low or undetectable
concentrations of nitrate are expected in the anaerobic ground waters of the alluvial and
deltaic aquifers of West Bengal, Assam and Bihar.
High concentrations of ammonium (>1 mg/l as NH4N) are a feature of the anaerobic
groundwater conditions in West Bengal, but these are believed to be a natural
phenomenon related to breakdown of organic matter in the aquifers rather than to
pollution.
SALINITY
Arid regions of northcentral India (notably Rajasthan, Haryana) commonly have
ground waters with high salinity values, affecting their acceptability for drinking and
irrigation purposes. Kamra et al. (2002) reported variable electrical conductance values,
in the range 100–3000 μS/cm (equivalent to a totaldissolvedsolids concentration of
around 100–1800 mg/l), for groundwater from Haryana state in areas affected by
irrigationinduced salinization.. Chloride concentrations were in the range 40–335 mg/l
and sulphate in the range 53–256 mg/l. The high salinity reflects naturally high rates of
evapotranspiration as well as salinity changes resulting from longterm irrigation.
Uptake of surface evaporate salts contributes to the salinization process. Khan (2001)
also found electrical conductance values of 1000–2000 μS/cm in groundwater from the
Bandi River area of Rajasthan, though this was considered by the authors to be linked to
industrial pollutants recharged to the aquifer via the river.
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HYDROGEOLOGY of the INDOGANGETIC ALLUVIUM Vrindhanath.M.C
In the wetter regions of north and eastern India, salinity of groundwater is much lower,
except in coastal regions (e.g. 24 North and South Parganas, West Bengal) where it is
affected by saline intrusion. Adyalkar et al. (1981) for instance described ground waters
of dominantly sodiumchloride type (electrical conductance values up to 4500 μS/cm)
from alluvial aquifers in 24 South Parganas of West Bengal.
FLUORIDE
Fluoride has long been recognised as one of the most significant natural groundwater
quality problems affecting arid and semiarid regions of India.
High fluoride concentrations in groundwater have been reported in many states, the
worstaffected northern states being Rajasthan, Haryana and Gujarat. Many exceed the
WHO guideline value of 1.5 mg/l. Meenakshi et al. (2004) found fluoride concentrations
in the range 0.3–6.9 mg/l in groundwater from Jind district, Haryana and reported that
this area has unacceptably high fluoride concentrations for drinking purposes. Though
many of the fluoride occurrences are linked to crystalline basement rocks including
granites, some sedimentary aquifers also appear affected.
IRON & MANGANEESE
Surprisingly little information is available on the concentrations of iron and manganese
in northern Indian groundwater. High concentrations are expected in anaerobic
groundwater conditions and under strongly acidic conditions. Anaerobic conditions are
known to be a feature of the confined and semiconfined alluvial and deltaic aquifers of
West Bengal and concentrations of iron and manganese commonly exceed 1 mg/l in
these ground waters (PHED, 1991; CGWB, 1999). Das et al. (2003) also reported high
concentrations of iron (range 0.01–4.23 mg/l) in groundwater from Guwahati City,
Assam in similar alluvial deposits. High concentrations of iron and manganese may be
expected in other parts of the alluvial plain where anaerobic conditions exist. Although
iron in drinking water is not considered a health hazard at the concentrations usually
observed, it may give rise to acceptability problems through adverse taste and colour.
High concentrations of manganese are believed to have detrimental health effects and
may be problematic if present at concentrations significantly above the WHO guideline
value of 0.5 mg/l.
ARSENIC
Problems with arsenic in groundwater are severe and most prevalent in the state of
West Bengal. Arsenicrelated diseases were first identified there during the 1980s,
although they have only been appreciated internationally since the mid 1990s (e.g. Das
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HYDROGEOLOGY of the INDOGANGETIC ALLUVIUM Vrindhanath.M.C
et al., 1996). Concentrations of <10–3200 μg/l have been reported (CGWB, 1999).
Arsenic occurs predominantly in groundwater from the youngest, Holocene, alluvial
deposits. These aquifers have variable thicknesses but where high arsenic
concentrations occur they tend to be in boreholes with depth ranges of around 10–80 m
(CGWB, 1999). Groundwater from older (deeper) Pleistocene deposits appears to have
low arsenic concentrations. Ground waters from the laterite upland of western
Bangladesh and the older Barind and Ilambazar formations also tend to have low
arsenic concentrations (PHED, 1991). Several studies have also reported generally low
concentrations (<50 μg/l) in groundwater from dug wells, presumably because these
are relatively oxic compared to groundwater from drilled boreholes.
Up to eight districts in West Bengal have recognised higharsenic groundwater, the
worstaffected being Malda, Murshidabad, Nadia, 24 North Parganas and 24 South
Paraganas . These lie to the east of the Bhagirathi–Hugli river system, along the border
with Bangladesh. More than 100,000 arsenic analyses are said to have been carried out
on groundwater samples from West Bengal, though maps of pointsource data showing
the spatial distribution of arsenic are lacking. Arsenic concentrations are highly variable
from well to well even within the same village, as is typical of higharsenic ground
waters elsewhere. Prediction of arsenic concentrations at the village scale is therefore
difficult or impossible. More recent reports have also documented arsenic problems in
Quaternary aquifers in Bihar, Tripura, and eastern Uttar Pradesh (Mahalanobis, 2004).
Arsenicrelated health problems in the village of Semria Ojha Patti in Bihar prompted a
recent groundwater survey.. This showed a severe problem in the village but to date,
the documentation for arsenic occurrence more widely in Bihar, as well as in Tripura
and Uttar Pradesh, is poor and the scale of the problem in these states is therefore
unclear.
Kamra et al. (2002) reported high concentrations of arsenic (along with lead, cadmium
and nickel) in groundwater from the alluvial plains of Haryana state, although the
quality of the chemical analyses from the study is uncertain and further investigation
would be warranted to verify the concentrations reported.
IODINE
Few analyses are available for iodine in groundwater in northern India. Concentrations
are likely to reflect climatic conditions, with higher concentrations likely in more saline
ground waters from arid areas. In the wetter alluvial plains of northeastern India,
iodinedeficient ground waters (typically containing just a few μg/l) may occur and
may give an inadequate iodine intake to populations without supplementary iodine
from food sources.
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HYDROGEOLOGY of the INDOGANGETIC ALLUVIUM Vrindhanath.M.C
SELENIUM
High concentrations of selenium have been reported in some arid areas of north
western India though this is not thought to be widespread. Selenium is toxic to humans
and the WHO guideline value for selenium in drinking water is 10 μg/l. Some 1000 ha
of seleniferous soils have been described in northeastern Punjab (Dhillon and Dhillon,
2003). High concentrations of groundwater selenium are commonly associated with
high salinity and with water logging and soil salinization related to irrigation practices.
Concentrations were found to be higher in the shallow boreholes (24–36 m) compared
to deeper boreholes (up to 76 m). This is most likely related to evaporation processes,
although if conditions become increasingly reducing with depth, this may also have an
effect as selenium is typically most soluble under oxic conditions. The ground waters
from the seleniferous region were alkaline (pH 7.8–8.8) with sodium and bicarbonate as
the dominant ions.
OTHER TRACE ELEMENTS
URANIUM
The concentrations of uranium in groundwater of Indian aquifers are largely unknown.
The current WHO guideline value for uranium in drinking water is 2 μg/l though this
is likely to increase to 9 μg/l in the revised (3rd edition, 2004) guidelines. High
concentrations of uranium (12–114 μg/l) were reported for groundwater in Bathinda
district of Punjab state (Singh et al., 1995), with concentrations up to 20 μg/l in
Amritsar. Singh et al. (1994) also found concentrations up to 21 μg/l in Himachal
Pradesh. It is possible that uranium concentrations close to or above the new WHO
guideline value occur elsewhere in the shallow ground waters from the Quaternary
alluvial aquifers, although data are so far lacking to substantiate this. High uranium
concentrations have been found in groundwater from geologically similar aquifers in
neighbouring Bangladesh (BGS and DPHE, 2001), especially from dug wells where
concentrations up to 42 μg/l were found.
RADON
There have also been a number of reports of the presence of dissolved radon in
groundwater from northern India. Radon is a radioactive gas known to be a carcinogen.
Despite its known health effects, no WHO guideline value exists for radon in drinking
water because of the difficulties in defining a regionallyapplicable value given the
relative importance of inhalation compared to ingestion from drinking water. Radon
concentrations in groundwater also change significantly on abstraction, aeration,
storage and boiling. Radon is a radioactive decay product of uranium and high radon
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HYDROGEOLOGY of the INDOGANGETIC ALLUVIUM Vrindhanath.M.C
Ground water plays an important role in meeting the water requirements of
agriculture, industrial and domestic sectors in our country. Its importance as a precious
natural resource can be gauged for the fact that more than 85% of India’s rural sector
water requirements, 50% of its urban sectors water requirements and more than 50% of
its irrigation requirements are being met from
ground water resources. It is also a key buffer against drought and abnormal variations
in rainfall. The highly diversified occurrence and considerable variations in the
availability and the use of ground water in the country makes its management a
challenging task.
The Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) is entrusted with the responsibilities
of scientific management studies, exploration monitoring, assessment, augmentation,
and regulation of ground water resources of the country. The data generated from
17
HYDROGEOLOGY of the INDOGANGETIC ALLUVIUM Vrindhanath.M.C
various studies provide a scientific base for user agencies for water resources planning.
CGWB has taken initiatives to identify various key issues for ground water
management. In the demand side management, socioeconomic aspects play an
important role to arrest the decline in ground levels. The measures for demand side
management can be successfully implemented only with people’s participation.
Therefore, the masses should be educated on the needs and ways for regulation,
conservation and augmentation of ground water resources.
REFERRENCES
• Amrita Malik, Dinesh Mohan, Kunwar.P.Singh, Sarita Singh, Vinod K Singh,
Evaluation of ground water quality in northern Indogangetic alluvium
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102010)
• J.Hu, S.K.Jain, M.Jin, V.Kumar, Y.Luo, S.P. Rai, B.R.Sharma, D. Sharma, J.L.
Shrestha, A.Zahid, A comparative analysis of the hydrogeology of the Indus
Gangetic and Yellow River basins.
• M.Bardhan, Evolution of the regional hydrogeologic units of the great Indian
sedimentary basin in relation to prevailing tectonic movements.
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• Sanjay Kumar, Strategies for ground water management.
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2010)
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.gov.in/
GroundWater
/GW_assessment.htm
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2010)
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HYDROGEOLOGY of the INDOGANGETIC ALLUVIUM Vrindhanath.M.C
• British Geological Survey, Water Aid, Ground water Quality: Northern India
www.wateraid.org/other/startdownload.asp?DocumentID=54 (accessed on
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102010)
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(IGP)
www.earthscienceindia.info/PDF/ESI_Vol_I_08/.../Saini.pdf (accessed on
1810 2010)
• CGWB, Faridabad 2010, Ground water quality in shallow aquifers of India
www.cgwb .gov.in/
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www.cgwb .gov.in/
(accessed on 18102010)
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Basins: Summary Situation Analysis
www. cpwfbfp.pbworks.com/f/IGB_
situation
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Resources in India
www.cgwb.gov.in/documents/papers/.../Paper%201B.M.Jha.pdf (accessed
on 22102010)
• Bharat Sharma, Aditi Mukherjee, Ravish Chandra, Adlul Islam, Bhaskar Dass,
Md. Razu Ahmed, Groundwater Governance in the IndoGangetic Basin: an
Interplay of Hydrology and Socioecology
www.ifwf2.org/addons/download_presentation.php?fid=1003 (accessed on
22102010)
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HYDROGEOLOGY of the INDOGANGETIC ALLUVIUM Vrindhanath.M.C
• Sunderrajan Krishnan, Tushaar Shah, IndoGangetic Basin in India:
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www.waterandfood.org/.../ India
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