Formulas for IPhO a/ sin α = b/ sin β = 2R 3.

a/ sin α = b/ sin β = 2R 3. Read carefully the recommendations in prob- points on the drawn line, then the projections of
7. Inscribed angles with identical endpoints are lem’s text. Pay attention to problem’s formulation the velocities equal; b) the instantaneous center
I Mathematics — sometimes insignificant details may carry vi- of rotation can be found via two velocity vectors
equal. They equal half of the corresponding cent-
1. Taylor’s series: ral angle. tal information. If you have solved for some time (either from the intersection point of perpendic-
F (x) = F (x0 ) +
X
(n)
F (x0 )(x − x0 ) /n! n Conclusions: hypotenuse of a right triangle is unsuccessfully, then read the text again — per- ulars or from similar triangles).
the diameter of circumventer; if the sum of quad- haps you misunderstood the problem. 5. Non-inertial reference system:
Special case — linear approximation:
F (x) ≈ F (x0 ) + F ′ (x − x0 )
rangle’ s opposite angles is a straight angle, then 4. Make long and time-consuming transforma- ~v2 = ~v0 + ~v1 , ~a2 = ~a0 + ~a1 + ω 2R ~ + ~aCor
it’s apexes lie on a circumference. tions then, when everything else is done. BUT
Applications are simpler, if x ≪ 1: 6. Ballistic problem:
8. Taking derivatives: always write down all initial expressions, what
sin x ≈ x, cos x ≈ 1 − x2 /2, ex ≈ 1 + x need to be transformed. y ≤ v02 /(2g) − gx2 /2v02 .
(f g)′ = f g ′ + f ′ g, f [g(x)]′ = f ′ [g(x)]g ′
ln(1 + x) ≈ x, (1 + x)n ≈ 1 + nx (sin x)′ = cos x, (cosx)′ = − sin x 5. If the problem seems to be hopelessly diffi- 7. For finding fastest pathes, Fermat’s and Huy-
2. Perturbation method: next and more precise (e )′ = ex , (ln x)′ = 1/x, (xn )′ = nxn−1
x
cult, then it usually has an extremely simple solu- gens’s principles can be used.
solution is based on the previous one. (arctan x)′ = 1/(1 + x2p ) tion (and a simple answer). This is valid only for 8. To find a vector, it is enough to find its dir-
3. Solutions of the linear differential equation ′ ′
(arcsin x) = −(arccos x) = 1/ 1 − x2 Olympiad problems, because they definitely have ection and a projection to a single (possibly in-
′′ ′
with constant coefficients ay + by + cy = 0 9. Integration: the formulas are the same as for a solution. clined) axes.
can be represented as: derivation, but in reverse order (inverse opera- 6. In experiments a) sketch schema of the ex-
y = A exp(λ1 x) + B exp(λ2 x), tion!), e.g. Z periment; b) think, how to increase the precision IV Dynamics
where λ1,2 is the solution of the so called charac- of the results; c) write down (as a table) all your
xn dx = xn+1 /(n + 1). 1. Newton’s 3rd law for translational and rota-
teristic equation aλ2 + bλ + c = 0 if λ1 6= λ2 . direct measurements.
tional motion:
If the solution of the characteristic equation is Special Zcase of substitution method:
complex, while a, b and c are real numbers, then f (ax + b)dx = F (ax + b)/a. III Kinematics F~ = m~a, M ~ = I~ε (M ~ = ~r × F~ ).
λ1,2 = γ ± iω and ~ and ~ε are basically
In case of 2D geometry M
10. Numerical methods 1. Translational motion — derivatives, integrals: scalars and M = F l = Ft r, where l is arm of
y = Ceγx sin(ωx + ϕ0 ).
Newton’s formula for finding function’s d~x
Z Z
~v = , ~x = ~v dt (x = vx dt jne.) a force.
4. Complex numbers f (x) = 0 zero crossing points: dt 2. Newton’s 3rd law: if system’s state is de-
z = a + bi = |z|eiϕ , z̄ = a − ib = |z|e−iϕ xn+1 = xn − f (xn )/f ′ (xn ). d~v d2 ~x
Z
~a = = , ~v = ~adt scribed by one parameter ξ, its derivative over
b Trapezoidal rule: dt Z dt2
|z|2 = z z̄ = a2 + b2 , ϕ = arg z = arcsin time ξ,˙ potential energy Π(ξ) and kinetic energy
|z| Z b vx
Z Z
b−a −1 −1
t = vx dx = ax dvx , x = dvx K = µξ˙2 /2, then µξ¨ = −dΠ(ξ)/dξ. Conclu-
Rez = (z + z̄)/2, Imz = (z − z̄)/2 f (x)dx ≈ [f (x0 ) + 2f (x1 ) + . . . ax
a 2n sion: force is potential energy derivative over co-
|z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 |, arg z1 z2 = arg z1 + arg z2 +2f (xn−1 ) + f (xn )] If a = Const., then previous integrals can be
eiϕ = cos ϕ + i sin ϕ found easily, e.g. ordinate.
11. Derivatives and integrals of vectors: either 3. If system consists of mass points mi :
2 cos ϕ = eiϕ + e−iϕ , 2i sin ϕ = eiϕ − e−iϕ x = v0 t + at2 /2 = (v 2 − v02 )/2a.
by components or (in case of derivative) geomet-
mj , P~ =
X X X
5. Vector and scalar products of vectors are dis- rically — according to triangle rule. 2. Rotary motion — analogy to translational
~rc = mi~ri / mi~vi
tributive: a(b + c) = ab + ac. Cross product is ~ =
X X
motion; e.g. ω = dϕ/dt, ε = dω/dt; L mi~ri × ~vi , K = mi vi2 /2
anticommutative: ~a × ~b = −~b × ~a.
II General recommendations ~a = ~τ dv/dt + ~nv 2 /R X Z
~a · ~b = ab cos ϕ, |~a × ~b| = ab sin ϕ. Iz = mi (x2i + yi2 ) = (x2 + y 2 )dm.
Definition of the mixed product: 1. Check all formulas for veracity: a) exam- 3. Curvilinear motion — same as point 1, but
ine dimensions; b) test simple special cases (e.g. vectors must be replaced by linear velocities, ac- 4. In a system, which moves relative to mass
(~a, ~b, ~c) ≡ (~a · [~b × ~c]) = ([~a × ~b] · ~c) = (~b, ~c, ~a). center with velocity ~vc (index c marks system re-
asymptotes); c) verify the plausibility of solu- celerations and path lengths.
In case of double vector product: lated to mass center):
tion’s qualitative properties. 4. Motion of rigid body: a) projections of velo- ~ ~
~a × [~b × ~c] = ~b(~a · ~c) − ~c(~a · ~b). ~ 2
2. If in the problem’s text is an extraordinary co- cities of two points on the line, which connects L = Lc + MΣ Rc × ~vc , K = Kc + MΣ vc /2
6. Cosine and sine laws: incidence (e.g. two things equal), then look for the points, are equal; if one connects two points 5. Steiner’s theorem (b — distance of point mass
c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos ϕ the solution’s key there. with a line and projects the velocities of these from rotational axis): I = Ic + mb2 .
6. Changeover from one reference system to an-
other: P~ = P~c + MΣ~vc
7. For a system as a whole:
F~Σ = dP~ /dt, M
~ Σ = dL/dt
~ lision with friction). Additional equations: e)
8. Inertial momentum relative to mass cen-
ter and z-axis can also be calculated so: Iz0 =
P 2 2
i,j mi mj [(xi − xj ) + (yi − yj ) /2MΣ ].
9. Inertial momentum relative to the origin of
coordinates: 2θ = Ix + Iy + Iz .
10. Physical pendulum:
ω 2 (l) = g/(l + b2 /l), b2 = I/m
q
ω(l) = ω(l̃ − l) = g/l̃, l̃ = l + b2 /l
11. Coefficients of inertial momentum: cylinder
1/2, solid sphere 2/5, thin spherical shell 2/3,
rod 1/12 (about end 1/3), square 1/6.
12. Often applicable conservation laws:
energy (elastic, no friction),
momentum (sum of external forces is zero; also
only in the direction of one axis),
angular momentum (if sum of external torques
is zero, e.g. there are no external forces or their
arm of force is zero; also applicable with respect
to one point).
13. Non-inertial reference systems: in them acts
additional inertial force m~a, centrifugal force
~ and Coriolis force (is zero, if body is at
mω 2 R
standstill; work is zero, because it is perpendicu-
lar to velocity).
14. Tilted coordinate system: in case of an in-
clined plane it is often practical to choose axes
along and perpendicular to the plane; gravita-
tional acceleration has then both x- and y- com-
ponents. Axes may not be perpendicular, but
then are finding the components of a vector in
the direction of axes and projecting the vector to
axes very different procedures.
15. Collision of bodies: maintained are a) total 1. Dissipated oscillator:
momentum, b) total angular momentum, c) an-
gular momentum of each body relative to point
of collision immediately before and after the col-
lision (for the last body, this equation could be
deduced from previous equations [a)–c)], d) total
energy (for elastic collision); kinetic energy may
be maintained only along one axis (elastic col-
if sliding stops, then the velocities of collision
planes of both impacting bodies were equal in
collision point; d) if sliding does not stop, then
the momentum is delivered relative to surface
normal under angle arctan µ.
16. Every motion of rigid body can be represen-
ted as rotation around the instantaneous center
of rotation (in the sense of velocity field). NB!
Distance of the point from the instantaneous
center of rotation is not its radius of curvature
of trajectory.
17. Tension in a string: in case of a massive
string hanging, tension’s horizontal component
is constant and vertical changes according to
the string’s mass underneath. Pressure force
of a string resting on a smooth surface is de-
termined by its radius of curvature and tension:
N = T /R. Analogy: surface tension pressure
p = 2σ/R; to derive, investigate pressure force
along diameter.
18. Adiabatic invariant: if parameters of a peri-
odically moving system change very little during
one period, then the area of the shape on phase
plane (in p-x coordinate system) is very precisely
constant (though not absolutely constant).
19. For investigating stability use a) principle
of minimum potential energy or b) principle of
small virtual displacement.
20. Virial theorem for finite movement:
a) F ∝ |~r|, then hKi = hΠi;
b) F ∝ |~r|−2 , then 2 hKi = − hΠi.
V Oscillations and waves
ẍ + 2γ ẋ + ω02 = 0 (γ < ω0 ).
Solution of this equation is (look I.2.):
q to point B is such, that the wave travels the least ginary surface surrounds point sources of light,
x = x0 e−γt sin( ω02 − γ 2 t − ϕ0 ).
2. CoupledPoscillator’s general equation of mo- 2. Snell’s law:
tion: ẍi = j aij xj . sin α1 / sin α2 = n2 /n1 = v1 /v2 .
3. N coupled oscillators have N natural oscil- 3. If refraction index changes continuously, then
lations ωi (all oscillators oscillate with same fre-we imaginarily divide the media into layers of
quency ωi , but with different amplitudes: xj = constant n and apply Snell’s law. Light ray can
xj0 sin(ωi t + ϕj ). General solution is superpos- travel along a layer of constant n, if the require-
ition of all natural oscillations and contains op- ment of total internal reflection is fulfilled, n′ =
tional constants Xi and φi : n/r (where r is curvature radius).
X
xj = Xi xj0 sin(ωi t + ϕj + φi ) 4. If refraction index depends only on z-
i coordinate, then
4. If system can be described by one parameter kx , ky = Const., |~k|/n = Const.
2
ξ and it is known, that Π(ξ) = κξ /2 [where 5. The thin lens equation (pay attention to
κ = Π′′ (0)] and K = µξ˙2 /2, then ω 2 = κ/µ. signs):
5. If in a fixed point wave’s frequency is ν and 1/a + 1/b = 1/f = D.
wavelength is λ, then phase velocity is 6. Newton’s equation (binds distances of image
vf = νλ = ω/k. and original from focal plane): x1 x2 = f 2 .
Group velocity vg = dω/dt. 7. Parallax method for determination of the im-
6. For linear waves (electromagnetic waves, age position: find auxiliary body’s position where
sound and surface waves with small amplitude) it is at standstill, if viewpoint shifts relative to im-
arbitrary wavelet is superpositions of single si- age.
nusoidal waves. Standing wave is the sum of two 8. Geometrical constructions for finding path of
identical waves traveling in opposite directions. light ray through lenses:
a) ray passing through center of lens does not re-
7. Speed of sound in gas
p p p fract;
cs = (∂p/∂ρ)adiab = γp/ρ = v̄ γ/2.
b) ray parallel to optical axis (or its elongation)
8. Speed of sound in elastic material cs = passes through focus;
p
E/ρ.
c) parallel rays converge in focal plane;
9. Doppler’s effect: if cs ≫ vk , then d) Image of a plane through a lens is a plane, im-
∆ν = ν0 vk /cs . age of a line is a line and image of a point is a
point. Line and elongations of its image converge
10. Huygens’ principle: wavefront can be con-
in lens’ plane.
structed step by step, placing an imaginary wave
source in every point of previous wave front. Res- 9. Luminous flux Φ [unit is lumen (lm)] char-
ults are curves separated by distance ∆x = acterizes the intensity of light, which is per-
cs ∆t, where ∆t is time step and cs is the velo- ceived by the eye, while light passes through
city in given point. Waves travel perpendicular some (imaginary) surface. Luminous intensity
to wavefront. [unit is candela (cd)] is luminous flux radiated by
light source into solid angle: I = Φ/Ω. Illumin-
ance [unit is lux (lx)] is luminous flux incident
VI Geometrical optics. Photometry. upon a surface per unit area: E = Φ/S.
1. Fermat’s principle: waves path from point A 10. Gauss theorem for luminous flux: if ima-
time. that radiate equally in every direction, then Φ =
4π Ei ; illuminance irradiated by point source 7. Reflection from optically denser dielectric 4. Special methods: resistivity of infinite circuit, IX Electromagnetism
P

of light E = I/r2 . media: phase shift π. Semi-transparent thin film resistance between neighbour nodes in infinite
1. F = kq1 q2 /r2 , Π = kq1 q2 /r — Kepler’s
11. If a grease stain on a paper is as bright as introduces also phase shifts. grid.
laws are applicable (Ch. XII).
the surrounding paper, then the paper is equally 8. Fabri-Perot interferometer: two parallel 5. Alternating current: same as direct current; H
~ S~ = 0,
illuminated from both sides. semitransparent mirrors with reflection index r,
2. Gauss’ theorem: Bd
ZR = R, ZC = 1/iωC, ZL = iωL; I I
1 − r ≪ 1. Width of transmission spectra is ~ S
εε0 Ed ~ = Q, ~gdS~ = −4πGM.
∆ν ≈ ν1 (1 − r). Can be derived by a) adding re- ϕ = arg Z, Ueff = |Z|Ieff
VII Wave optics X
flections, reflections of reflection, etc. (geomet- P = |U ||I| cos(arg Z) = Ii2 Ri . 3. Circulation theorem
1. Diffraction — general method (is based on ric progression) or b) finding amplitudes of waves I I ~
Bdl
I
6. Characteristic times: ~ ~l = 0 (= Φ̇),
Ed = I, ~gd~l = 0.
Huygens’ principle): if obstacles divide wavefront traveling in opposite directions from limit condi- √ µµ0
into one or more pieces of plane wave, then the tion. τRC = RC, τLR = L/R, ωLC = 1/ LC.
4. Magnetic field caused by current element:
pieces of wavefront can be filled by imaginary Approach to stationary current distribution hap-
9. Coherent electromagnetic waves: electric µµ0 I ~er × d~l
light sources and their interference can be in- pens exponentially, ∝ e−t/τ . ~ =
dB .
fields are added; vector diagram can be used, 4π r2
vestigated.
angle between vectors is phase shift; NB! refrac- 7. Energy conservation for electric circuits:
2. Two slit interference (width of the slit is tion index n = n(ω). 5. F~ = e(~v × B~ + E),
~ F~ = I~ × Bl. ~
∆W + Q = U q,
a ≪ d): angles of maximum are sin ϕmax k =
I ∝ nE 2 .
6. Simple conclusions of Gauss’ and circulation
kλ/d, k ∈ Z; I ∝ cos2 (πϕd/λ). where q is charge, which traveled through po- theorem:
3. Single slit with width d: angles of minimum 10. Malus’ law: for linearly polarized light I = tential drop U ; work of electromotive force is a) charged wire E ∝ 1/r, direct current B ∝
I0 cos2 ϕ, where ϕ is angle between planes of po- A = Eq. 1/r, b) planar current B = Const., charged
are sin ϕmin k = kλ/d, k ∈ Z, k 6= 0. Central
larization. 8. WC = CU 2 /2, WL = LI 2 /2. plane E = Const.;
maximum is twice as wide. To derive divide the
slit imaginarily into halves, quarters, eighths etc.; 11. Brewster’s angle: reflected and refracted 9. E = −dΦ/dt = −LdI/dt, Φ = BS. c) inside a charged sphere and inside an infinite
look point 1. rays are perpendicular; reflected ray is totally po- cylindric surface E = 0, if current flows along
10. Nonlinear elements: graphical method —
4. Diffraction grating with step d: location larized; incident angle find solution in U -I coordinates as a intersec-
cylindrical surface parallel to the axes, then also
of main maximums is the same as in point 2. tan ϕB = n. B = 0,
tion point of a nonlinear curve and a line repres-
Diffraction grating is analyzed the same way 12. Newton’s biprism: if diffraction picture is d) if charge and current volume density is uni-
enting Ohm/Kirchoff laws. In case of many solu-
as single slit interference. Spectral resolution to be considered, then lenses and prisms can be form, the field is ∝ r (∝ x) for sphere, cylinder
tions investigate stability — some of the solu-
(waves with wavelengths λ and λ + ∆λ can be neglected and only images investigated. and layer.
tions are usually unstable.
distinguished; N is the number of slits and k — 13. Fibers: Mach-Zehnder interferometer is 7. Long solenoid: inside B = Inµµ0 , out-
11. Approximate solving: if τobservable ≫ τRC
diffraction order of main maximum): analogous to a double-slit diffraction; circular side 0, elsewhere Bk ∝ Ω; Φ = N BS and
or τLR . Quasiequilibrium is formed — either
∆λ = λ/kN. resonator — to Fabri-Perot interferometer; Bragg L = Φ/I = V n2 µµ0 .
IC ≈ 0 (wire is ”broken” near C) or EL ≈ 0 (L is
Generally, if the spectral device has optical path filters work similarly to the X-ray case. Single- 8. Measuring magnetic field with a small coil
short-circuited). If ≪, then according change of
difference between the shortest and longest mode fibers: ∆n/n ≈ λ/d.
charge or current is small, ∆Q ≪ Q or ∆I ≪ I; R Upulsed operating mode of galvanometer: q =
in
beams L, then ∆λ/λ ≈ λ/L.
potential of C and flow of current in L are prac- R dt = N S∆B/R.
5. Resolution of an ideal telescope (lens): points VIII Circuits tically constant. 9. Potential energy ofZsystem of charges:
are distinguishable, if angle between them is X qi qj 1
ϕ = 1,22λ/d. 1. U = IR, P = U I. 12. If L 6= 0, then I(t) is continuous function. Π=k = ϕ(~r)dq, dq = ρ(~r)dV.
rij 2
In case of that angle the diffraction maximum of 2. Kirchoff ’X s laws: 13. If in a superconducting contour L = i>j

Const, then according contour current I = 10. To find force between surface parts of uni-
X
the first point overlaps with the first minimum of I = 0, U =0
the second point. node contuor Const (more universally: magnetic flux through formly charged sphere or cylindrical surface, in-
6. Bragg theory: if distance between ion planes 3. Methods of solution: a) method of potentials; contour Φ = Const.). vestigate equivalent pressure force.
is a, then x-ray reflects, if incidence angle meets b) method of contour currents; c) equivalent cir- 14. Mutual inductance: magnetic flux through 11. In a point located in equal distance of all
the restriction: cuits (3-terminals: triangle, star; 2-terminal: r a contour Φ1 = L1 I1 + L12 I2 (I2 — current in charges (e.g. inside a sphere or on an axis of cyl-
2a sin α = kλ. and E in series). second contour). Theorem: L12 = L21 ≡ M . inder), ϕ = kQ/r.
 12. To find the charge (or potential) induced by
an electric wire divide a single charge between
symmetric positions: problem becomes sym-
metrical.
13. Conductor shields charges and electric
fields, e.g. locations of charges inside a hollow
sphere can not be seen from outside (it seems as
were the total charge Q located on conductor’s
surface)
14. Capacitances: C = εε0S/d (plane),
4πεε0 r(sphere), 2εε0 l(ln R/r)−1 (coaxial).
15. Dipole moment:
d~e = qi~ri = ~lq, d~µ = I S.
~ 28. Energy density: W = 12 (εε0 E 2 +B 2 /µµ0 ). 3. Uncertainty:
X
16. Energy and torque of dipole:
W = d~ · E ~ (B),
~ ~ = d~ × E
M ~ (B).
~ 4. Spectra: hν = En − Em ; width of line and
~
17. Dipole field: ϕ = kd · ~er /r ; E, B ∝ r−3 .
2 lifetime: Γτ ≈ h̄.
18. Forces acting on a dipole: F = (E~ d~e )′ ,
~ d~µ )′ ; interaction between two dipoles:
F = (B
4 i
F ∝r .
19. Electric and magnetic images: grounded
(superconducting for magnets) planes act as
mirrors. Field of a grounded or not grounded
sphere can be found as a field of fictive charge in-
side one or two spheres. The field in a waveguide
of rectangular cross-section can be obtained as a
superposition of plane waves.
20. Sphere’s (cylinder’s) polarization in homo-
geneous (electric) field: superposition of two ho-
mogeneously charged spheres (cylinders), d ∝
E.
21. Momentum of Eddy’ currents: ∆p ∝ B 2 /a,
where a is characteristic geometrical measure.
22. In case of fast processes inside a conductor
and always inside a superconductor B = 0 and
thus I = 0 (current flows in surface layer).
23. Charge in homogeneous magnetic field:
generalized momentum is constant
p′x = mvx + Bye, p′y = mvy − Bxe.
Moving along cycloid with average speed
v = E/B = F/eB.
24. MHD generator (a — measure along the dir-
~
ection of E):
E = vBa, r = ρa/bc.
25. Hysteresis: S-shaped curve in B-H- or 18. Heat flux P = kS∆T /l (k — thermal con- 5. Total energy of a body moving in an elliptical
(for coil with core) U -I-coordinates: surface sur- ductivity factor); analogy to direct current cir- orbit:
rounded by it is proportional to thermal loss (en- cuits (in correspondence are P and I, ∆T and E = −γM m/2a.
ergy dissipated in core during one period). U ). 6. In case of small ellipticity ε = d/a ≪ 1 tra-
~ ~
R
26. Fields in substances: D = εε0 E = 19. Heat capacity: Q = c(T )dT . jectory can be considered as a circle, but focuses
~ + P~ , where P~ is dielectric polarization vec- 20. Surface tension:
ε0 E are shifted.
tor (volume density of dipole moment); H ~ = U = Sσ, F = lσ, p = 2σ/R. 7. Properties of ellipse: l1 + l2 = 2a, α1 = α2 ,
~ ~ ~ ~
B/µµ0 = B/µ0 − J, where J is magnetization S = πab.
vector (volume density of magnetic moment). XI Quantum mechanics 8. Contact point of an ellipse and a circle with
27. In an interface between two substances Et , common focuses can only be in the end point of
Dn (= εEt ), Ht (= Bt /µ) and Bn are continu-
1. p~ = h̄~k (modulus is h/λ), E = h̄ω = hν.
the longer axis.
ous. 2. Interference: as in wave optics.
9. Runge-Lenz vector:
~ × ~v
L
∆p∆x ≈ h̄, ∆E∆t ≈ h̄. ~ε = + ~er .
29. Current density ~j = ne~v = σE~ = E/ρ. ~ γM m
X Thermodynamics XIII Theory of relativity
5. Oscillator’s (e.g. molecule) natural frequency
1. pV = m µ RT ν0 : En = (n + 12 )hν0 . If there are many natural 1. Lorentz transformations p(turns of 4-
2. Internal energy of one mole U = 2 RT .
P
frequencies, then E = i hni νi . dimensional space-time), β = 1/ 1 − v 2 /c2 :
3. Volume of one mole at standard conditions is 6. Tunneling effect: barrier Γ with width x′ = β(x − vt), y ′ = y, t′ = β(t − vx/c2 )
pl is eas-
22,4 l. ily penetrable, if Γτ ≈ h̄, where τ = l/ Γ/m. p′x = β(px − mv), m′ = β(m − px v/c2 )
4. pV γ = Const. (and T V γ−1 = Const.). 7. Bohr’s model: En ∝ 1/n2. In a circular 2. Length of 4-dimensional vector:
5. γ = cp /cv = (i + 2)/i. orbit there are integer number of wavelengths s2 = c2 t2 − x2 − y 2 − z 2
λ = h/mv. m20 c2 = m2 c2 − p2x − p2y − p2z
6. Boltzman’s distribution:
ρ = ρ0 e −µgh/RT
= ρ0 e −U/kT
. 8. Compton effect — photon is scattered from 3. Adding velocities:
7. Maxwell’s distribution (how many molecules electron, ∆λ = λC (1 − cos θ).
w = (u + v)/(1 + uv/c2 ).
have speed v) ∝ e −mv2 /2kT
. 9. Photoeffect: A + mv 2 /2 = hν. I-U -graph:
current begins already, if U < 0, near large U
4. Doppler effect:
8. If ∆p ≪ p, then ∆p = ρg∆h. p
ν ′ = ν0 (1 − v/c)/(1 + v/c).
1 2
p saturates.
9. p = 3 mnv̄ , v̄ = 2kT /m, ν = vnS.
4 5. Space turns: tanh ϕ = v/c; sinh, cosh, tanh
10. Carnot’s cycle: 2 adiabats, 2 isotherms. η = 10. Stefan-Boltzman: P = σT . instead of sin, cos, tan. Property: cosh2 ϕ −
(T1 − T2 )/T1 . Derivation in S-T -coordinates.
XII Kepler laws sinh2 ϕ = 1.
11. Inverse cycle: η = T1 /(T1 − T2 ) 6. Shortening of length: l′ = l0 /β.
1. F = γM m/r2 , Π = −γM m/r.
12. Entropy: dS = dQ/T . 7. Lengthening of time: t′ = t0 β.
13. I law of thermodynamics: δU = δQ + δA 2. Gravitational pull of two point masses: tra-
jectory of both of them is ellipse, which center is
8. Simultaneity is relative.
14. II law of thermodynamics: ∆S ≥ 0 (and 9. F~ = d(m~v )/dt, where m = m0 β.
ηreal ≤ ηCarnot ). system’ s mass center.
10. Ultrarelativistic approximation: v ≈ c,
15. Gas Zwork (look also p. 10) 3. While moving in a central force field, radius p p
i vector covers equal areas in equal times. p ≈ mc, 1 − v 2 /c2 ≈ 2(1 − v/c).
A = pdV, adiabatic: A = ∆(pV )
2 4. Two planets’ revolution periods squares are
16. Dalton’s law: p = pi .
P
as cubes of longer semiaxis: Corrections/suggestions ⇒ kalda@ioc.ee. Composed
17. Boiling: pressure of saturated vapour is p0 . T12 /T22 = a31 /a32 . by J. Kalda, translated by U. Visk — visk@ut.ee.