CHAPTER1.

INTRODUCTION

It is amazing how technology has been improving during the years; technology
had improved in many mechanical, electrical and technical sections. As students in
mechanical engineering department, one of our courses is the turbo machinery course,
which is an elective course in the fourth year, this course concerns with pumps and
.turbines in various kinds explaining all about the theory of the calculations

In general turbine is a device that is used to produce electricity, it consists of

many parts (rotor, armature which is a stationary hollow cylinder in which the rotor is
inside) when the external shaft (blades) moves by means of flowing water or
.expansion of any gas. Electricity is produced

:There are many types of turbines

HYDROTURBINES ( Francis, Kaplan,.1

Pelton Wheel): flowing water pushes against
the turbine blades causing the spinning of the
rotor which produces electricity; they are
:divided into two main groups
(Reaction turbines(Francis, Kaplan-a
(Impulse Turbines ( Pelton Wheel -b

GAS TURBINES: fuels are burned to create.1

hot gases which go through the turbine
causing spinning of rotor and generating
.electricity

STEAM POWERPLANT TURBINE: fuels.2

such as petroleum, coal are burned to heat
the water which turns to steam which goes
through the turbine spinning the rotor and
.generating electricity

WIND TURBINE: wind causes the motion.3

.of rotor which generates the electricity

Electricity generation is the aim of our project. Electricity is simply the

process of converting mechanical motion into electric current by the use of the
.turbine

In our project electricity is generated by the use of the motion of water in the
dams by placing a Francis turbine at the end of the dam, the water flow in the river
case the water with high pressure to flow against the turbine blades causing them to
turn, so this motion causes the rotor to spin inside the stator wrapped with coil on its
.walls with a magnet, creating the electric current

CHAPTER2. TURBINES
Turbines are rotary devices that absorb the energy from the
fluids. The theory behind it is simple, in which the fluid had a
potential & kinetic energy, so in a suitable arrangement, we can
make pressure difference between two reservoirs, so there will be a
flow there, and by making the flow through the turbine, the turbine
will start to move. There are too many types of turbines, depending
on the flow type, devices used, and also the elevation and the head
.required
Turbine 2.1

Turbine is a rotary device that

converts the mechanical motion into
another form of energy like work or
.electricity

Too many kinds of turbines are used,

simple ones like water turbine; wind mill,
and the complex ones like the steam
.turbine, gas turbine

Theory of Operation 2.1.1

The working fluid has a potential and

kinetic energy, and can be compressible or
in compressible; so in order to get this
.energy we use turbines
When the water flows throw the turbine channel, which is most of
the time consists of nozzles in order to increase the speed which will
directly affect the kinetic energy of the water, and by directing this
this flow to the turbine rotor, the rotor will start to spin with very
high speed, the rotor is connected to the turbine from one side, and
to the electrical generator from the other side, so when rotor start
.to turn, it delivers the required mechanical energy to the generator

:Impulse Turbines 2.1.1.1

Impulse means that the integral of the force with respect to

the time, when a body changes the momentum of the body, A small
force applied for a long time can produce the same momentum change as a large force
applied briefly, because it is the product of the force and the time for which it is
.applied that is important

In turbines, such as Pelton wheel, the nozzles direct water

with a high heads to be a power jet. Which creates momentum,
when this jet hits the runner, it is been destroyed there, so the
runner absorbs the resulting force. The efficiency here depends on
the velocity at the exit; as much as it can be low the efficiency will
.be higher
The wheel of pitch diameter D has buckets around its periphery, so spaced that
the jet always strikes more than one at a time. The buckets have the form shown at the
upper left, where the water enters at a splitter and is diverted to each side, where the
velocity is smoothly reversed. Bucket sizes are from 2.5 to 4 times the jet diameter.
The total head supplying the nozzle is h, the sum of the pressure head and the
approach velocity head. The theoretical jet velocity is V = √ (2gh). Let's analyze an
ideal wheel, and assume that this is actually the jet velocity. The peripheral velocity of
.the runner is u

:Pelton Wheel 2.1.1.1.1

It is a kind of impulse turbines, invented in 1880 by

an American engineer (Lester A.Pelton). It can be used for a
massive high such as 1800 m, and needs less amount of
water, the jet is delivered by the nozzles at a very high
velocity to the buckets, so by conservation of momentum,
the rotor ( runner) will start to rotate. Thus it will deliver a
.mechanical energy as motion to be useful in use
The buckets deflect the jet through an angle of
about 160 and 1658 in the same plane as the
jet. After that the water is discharged in the
tailrace. The whole energy transfer from the
.nozzle to the tailrace is been done at constant pressure processes

The buckets are so shaped that water

enters tangentially in the middle and
discharges backward and flows again
tangentially in both the directions to avoid
thrust on the wheel. The casing of a Pelton
wheel does not perform any hydraulic
function. But it is necessary to safeguard the
runner against accident and also to prevent
the splashing water and lead the water to
.the tailrace

:Velocity triangles 2.1.1.1.2

.The velocity triangles for the Pelton wheel are as shown

Because the jet entry angle is approximately zero, the inlet
velocity can be taken as straight line, if we
:consider the bucket at rest, then V1 is
V1 = jet velocity 2 bucket speed = C1
(U1.......... (Eqn2.1

α is the angle for the jet when it leaves

the bucket, and the relative velocity for the
 exit is V2 . The absolute velocity C2 at the exit can be calculated by
;adding bucket speed U2 to the relative velocity V2
:The efficiency of the Pelton wheel is
(η= Energy transferedEnergy available in the jet ..................... (Eqn2.2

If α= 1800, the maximum hydraulic efficiency is 100%. In practice,

deflection
.Angle is in the order of 160–1650

:Losses and efficiencies of Pelton wheel 2.1.1.1.3

While conveying the water to the nozzle through the pipes, the
head losses occur there because of the friction and the bend there,
also the losses can occur in the nozzle and expressed by the
.velocity coefficient Cv

Jet efficiency (ηj) includes the losses in the nozzle, and the
mechanical efficiency (ηm) includes the bearing friction and windage
.losses. Following efficiency is usually used for Pelton wheel

Pipe line transmission efficiency =Energy at the end of the pipeEnergy

(available at reservior............ (Eqn2.3

The jet efficiency of the nozzle = Energy at the nozzle out letEnergy at nozzle
(inlet= C12/2gH.... (Eqn2.4

Nozzle velocity coefficient; CV= Actual Jet VelocityTheoritical jet velocity=

(C1/2gH.... (Eqn2.5

Therefore the nozzle jet efficiency became: ηj= Cv2

.

.The characteristics of an impulse turbine are shown in Fig

The peak values of efficiency do not vary much. This happens
as the nozzle
Velocity remaining constant in magnitude and direction as the flow
,rate changes
Gives an optimum value of U/C1 at a fixed speed. Due to losses,
,such as windage
Mechanical and friction cause the small variation. Fig. shows the
curves for
Power vs. speed. Fixed speed condition is important because
generators are
.Usually run at constant speed
Design Example: at power station, Pelton wheel produces 1260
KW, under head of 610m, hl=46 m, Deflection angle 1650 the
relative velocity of water reduces 10% due to friction, the bucket/jet
speed ratio is 0.46, The bucket circle diameter of the wheel is
890mm and there are two jets. Find the theoretical hydraulic
efficiency, speed of rotation of the wheel, and diameter of the
nozzle if the actual hydraulic efficiency is 0.9 times that calculated
.above. Assume nozzle velocity coefficient, CV=0.98

:Solution

ηh= P0.5*m*C12
,At the nozzle

H=610-46= 564 m
C1=Cv2gH = 0.98*2*9.81*564= 103.1 m/s
,Now, using Euler’s Equation
Wm= U1Cw1-U2Cw2

{[(U {(U+V1)-[U-V2*cos (180-α=

U {(C1-U) (1-k*cos α)} where V2=kV1=
U=0.46 C1
K=0.9
Put all them in the equation
Wm= 5180.95

The theoretical hydraulic efficiency is

ηh= Power outputEnergy available in the jet=5180.950.5*103.12= 97.4%

The actual efficiency is = 97.4*0.9 = 0.8766 = 87.66%

The bucket speed = 0.46 * 103.1 = 47.426 m/s
Rotation speed = 47.426*602π*0.445 = 1018 rpm
=Actual efficiency = actual powerenergy of the jet= 1260* 1030.5*m*C12
m= 269 Kg/s
 ,Therefore, to find the nozzle inlet diameter
,m= ρC1A
A= π4d2
D= 0.058 m = 58 mm

:Reaction Turbines 2.1.1.2

Reaction turbines react to the

fluid pressure, or in other words, it can
.be described by Newton’s third law

In this type the rotor or the turbine

must be fully submerged into the
water. They can be used for medium
(30-300m/98-984ft) and low heads
.(<30m/98ft), pressure drop occurs in the fixed and moving blades

,The rotor must be enclosed in a casing

So the pressure is on a different pressure than the
Atmosphere pressure. As the water flows over the
Curved blades, the pressure Head is transformed
Into velocity head. So the water leaving the blade
.Has a large relative velocity but small absolute velocity
Therefore, most of the initial energy of water is given to the runner.
In reaction turbines, water leaves the runner at Atmospheric
pressure. The pressure difference between entrance and exit points
.of the runner is known as reaction pressure

The main difference between the reaction and impulse turbines

is that the water under high heads, high pressure has its energy
converted to kinetic energy, so we have to kind of work there, the
first one work done by reacting the water drops on the rotor blades;
the other part is due to kinetic energy difference. In reaction
turbines, water flows from the reservoir to the turbine through
.penstocks

:Kaplan Turbine 2.1.1.2.1

The Kaplan turbine is a propeller-type

water turbine which has adjustable blades.
It was developed in 1913 by the Austrian
.professor Viktor Kaplan
The Kaplan turbine was an evolution
of the Francis turbine. Its invention allowed
efficient power production in low-head
applications that was not possible with
.Francis turbines
 Kaplan turbines are now widely used throughout the world in high-flow, low-
.head power production

Theory of Operation 2.1.1.2.1.1

Kaplan turbine is a reaction turbine, so it
depends on the fluid change in pressure as it
moves in the turbine and gives its energy to
.the rotor
Inlet of the turbine has a scroll shaped
tube; water is directed tangentially through the
wicket gate and the spirals to the propeller
.runner, and forcing it to move
The outlet is a specially shaped draft tube
that helps decelerate the water and recover
.kinetic energy
In this type, it is not necessary that the
turbine located at the lowest point of flow; as
long as the draft tube is full of water, but on the other hand, increases the suction is
imparted on the blades by draft tube, so the resulting pressure drop may lead to
.cavitations
For efficient operation, different geometries of the wicket gate and blades are
performed. Typically the efficiency of Kaplan turbine is around 90%, but it decreases
.with low head applications
:Kaplan Turbine Types 2.1.1.2.1.2
Propeller turbines: no adjustable vanes, used for small heads, it can produce -1
hundreds of watts by a few feet of heads. It can produce up to 100 MW using large
.propeller
Bulb (Tubular) Turbine: designed to water delivery tube, A large bulb is centered -2
in the water pipe which holds the generator, wicket gate and runner. Tubular turbines
.are a fully axial design, whereas Kaplan turbines have a radial wicket gate
Pit Turbines: are bulb turbines with a gear box. This allows for a smaller generator -3
.and bulb
Straflo Turbines: axial turbines and generator outside the water flow, connecter to -4
.periphery of the runner
S- Turbines: eliminate the need for a bulb housing by placing the generator outside -5
of the water channel. This is accomplished with a jog in the water channel and a shaft
.connecting the runner and generator
VLH Turbine an open flow, very low head "Kaplan" turbine slanted at an angle to -6
the water flow. It has a large diameter, is low speed using a permanent magnet
.(alternator with electronic power regulation and is very fish friendly (<5% mortality
Tayson Turbines: are a fixed propeller turbine designed to be submerge in a fast -7
flowing river, either permanently anchored in the river bed, or attached to a boat or
.barge
:Francis Turbines 2.1.1.2.2
 The Francis turbine is a type of water turbine that was developed by James B.
Francis. It is an inward flow reaction turbine that combines radial and axial flow
.concepts
They operate in a head range of ten meters to several hundred meters and are
.primarily used for electrical power production
:Theory of Operation 2.1.1.2.2.1
Francis turbine is a reaction turbine, which
means that it depends on the pressure drop through
the turbine; there will be a need for a case to contain
the water flow. Turbine is located between the high
pressure source and the low pressure water exit,
.mostly at the base of the dam
The inlet of the turbine has a spiral shape, the
guide vanes directed the water tangentially to the
runner, so it will force the runner to spin, and the
.vanes can be adjustable for an efficient operation
At the exit, water acts on cup shaped runner
features, leaving with no swirl and very little kinetic or potential energy. The turbine's
.exit tube is shaped to help decelerate the water flow and recover the pressure
Francis turbine is used for the large heads (20-700 m), and their output varies
from few kilowatts up to one gigawatt. The efficiency of Francis turbines are typically
.90%

L
e
t
C
1

A
b
s
o
l
u
t
e
. velocity of water at inlet
.D1 = Outer diameter of the runner
.N =Revolution of the wheel per minute
.U1 = Tangential velocity of wheel at inlet
 .V1 = Relative velocity at inlet
.Cr1 = radial velocity at inlet
.α1 =Angle with absolute velocity to the direction of motion
.b1 = Angle with relative velocity to the direction of motion
.H = Total head of water under which turbine is working
.C2; D2; U2; V2; Cr2 = Corresponding values at outlet

:Turbine Losses 2.1.1.2.3

Let
Ps = Shaft power output
Pm = Mechanical power loss
Pr = Runner power loss
Pc = Casing and draft tube loss
Pl = Leakage loss
P = Water power available
.Pl = Hydraulic power loss + Pc+ Ph = Pr
hf = the head loss associated with a flow rate through the runner of
.Qr
Hr= head across the runner
Pl = leakage power loss
Pc= casing power loss
hc= head loss in casing

:Runner power loss due to friction can be calculated from

(Ps = ρ*g*Qr*hf (Nm/s).................................(Eqn2.6

,Leakage power loss due to leakage in flow rate, q

Q = Qr + q.................................................................................
((Eqn2.7
Pl = ρ*g*Hr*q (Nm/s)...............................................................
((Eqn2.8
Pc = ρ*g*hc*Q (Nm/s).............................................................
((Eqn2.9
(ρ*g*Q*H = Pm+ρ*g*(hf*Qr+hc*Q+ Hr*q+ Ps)...................... (Eqn2.10

:The overall efficiency η is 0

η = Shaft power inputfluid power at the

0

(inlet ........................................................ (Eqn2.11

Or

η = PsρgQH ...................................................................................
0

((Eqn2.12

:The hydraulic efficiency ηh is

 ηh = power at the runnerpower at
(inlet ............................................................ (Eqn2.12
or

ηh= Ps+PmρgQH ..............................................................................

((Eqn2.13

The maximum efficiency is

(ηh= U1*Cw1/(g*H).................................................................. (Eqn2.14

Now in we will show the difference of the efficiencies, heads,

,speeds between the three types mentioned above

Pelton Kaplan Francis

Wheel
Specific 0.05-0.4 1.8-5.0 0.4-2.2
(speed(rad/s
(Head(m 100-1770 6-70 20-900
Maximum 500 300 800
(Power(MW
%Max. Efficiency 90 94 95
Regulation Method Needle Stagger angle Stagger angle
valve and of rotor blades of guide vanes
deflector
plate