Introduction:

Al Hussein electricity station is one of the best in Jordan, it had been

established in 1973, it works with steam turbine engine side by side with a
gas turbine, and nowadays its capacity can be approximated to be 396 mega
watts.

The station had been established at 4 stages; the gas ones had a capacity of
14.5 mega watts & the steam ones with capacity of 33 mega watts.

At the first stage; they established 2 gas units and two steam units

Second stage; established another steam unit; each one has capacity of 33
mega watts.

Stage three: at the third stage they had established 3 more steam units; the
capacity of each is 66 mega watts.

Stage four: there they established one more steam unit with capacity of 66
mega watts.

Al Aqaba station: it generates about 42% of the requirement of Jordan, it

contains of 5 steam station each one has 130 mega watts capacity, it uses
sea water for cooling, and also they used the natural gas to generate
electricity for the environment;

Also there are many other stations like: Marka station, el kerba el samra…
etc.

There are also some experiments to use the wind energy to generate
electricity like: el Ebrahimiye station in Irbid and another one in Tafilah, as
well as another one which is still under construction in Jerash, also there are
many projects which are under discussion to see how useful they will be like
Wadi Araba station and Hofa, Fojeej…etc.

Also for the dams, in Jordan there are 9 dams with capacity of 220 m3. They
use these dams to generate electricity as well. But it is still on limited way.

For the solar energy, there are good ways to use it specially for heating the
water in houses, but also they are many experiments to use it, especially for
lighting the roads in the kingdom, it will be a useful power because:

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 1- Geographic place (radiation power, temperature, wind velocity).
2- Technology used.
3- Performance of the components.

Nowadays, there is also going to use the nuclear energy for generating
electricity, it is still at the beginning but the studies said that it will be an
economic way for electricity.

Electric Energy:
It is a kind of energy which is available in the natural. We can get it
from nature as shocks or friction, but it is not effect or economic. So they
used other ways to get it like chemical reaction in the batteries or from the
mechanical motion to electrical energy by using copper wire

To generate electricity we can divide the ways into two types depending on
whether it consumes fuel or not as:

1- Fuel consumes ways, like steam station and hydraulic stations.

2- Non fuel stations, like solar systems and wind energy stations.

Electric power stations:

In the stations they generates electricity as a huge amount of energy, it
can be thousands of mega watts.

Mostly the stations located near the fuel resources, where the convert the
electrical potential by electrical transformers to high voltage (33 KV- 400
KV), to make it ready for being transferred from the station to its
consuming points. For transferring this energy they need big towers
where we put at the top of the tower the electrical wires where the
current will pass through. Then they deliver the energy at low voltage
(110-220 V) using a large transformers.

Electrostatic Generator:
An electrostatic generator, or electrostatic machine, is a mechanical device that produces static
electricity, or electricity at high voltage and low continuous current. The knowledge of static
electricity dates back to the earliest civilizations, but for millennia it remained merely an
interesting and mystifying phenomenon, without a theory to explain its behavior and often
confused with magnetism. By the end of the 17th Century, researchers had developed practical

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means of generating electricity by friction, but the development of electrostatic machines did not
begin in earnest until the 18th century, when they became fundamental instruments in the studies
about the new science of electricity. Electrostatic generators operate by using manual (or other)
power to transform mechanical work into electric energy. They develop electrostatic charges of
opposite signs rendered to two conductors, using only electric forces. They work by using
moving plates, drums, or belts to carry electric charge to a high potential electrode. The charge is
generated by one of two methods: either the turboelectric effect (friction) or electrostatic
induction.

Types of Power Stations:

1- Steam Power Stations: (energy converter)
This kind uses different types of fuel, depends on what is
available like coal or liquid fuel as well as the natural and
industrial gas.

It is big stations; low cost for it is great performance, as well as it

can be used to desalination; which make it as a double use
stations.

Site Selection of Steam Power Station:

1- To be near to the fuel resources.

2- The condenser needs much amount of water. So it is
required that the station must be near the cooling water
resource. So most of the time it is located near beaches or at
the river side’s.
3- To be near consuming points. For saving the cost of making
transferring system.

How does it work?

It depends on the available fuel type, and burning it in the

combustion chambers; then to use the heat energy to heat the
water inside the boilers, then to change its states to gas state at a
specified temperature and pressure, then to deliver this steam to

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the steam turbines which already designed for this purpose, so
the fast steam revolves the turbine with fast speed, so the heat
energy converts to mechanical energy on the pivot of the turbine,
by direct connection between the turbine pivot and the electrical
motor(alternator), when the pivot revolves it is deliver the motion
to the electrical motor pivot which convert this energy to
electricity by using the magnetic property (rotor) and the fixed
part from the generator ( stator), so the electricity generates on
the side of the stator

Components of steam station:

1- Furnace: big vessel used to burn the fuel, it had various

shapes depending on the fuel type, and it is connected to
storing unites and transferring, trading and exhausting
systems.
2- Boiler: Big vessel contains pure water, which is heated by
burning the fuel which transfers it to steam. Most of the time
the furnace and the boiler are located on the same place to
ensure the direct contact between them. the boiler sizes
varies depending on the
a- Station size.
b- Steam amount per time unit.
1- Turbine: it is solid turbine, it had a cylindrical pivot which
contains concaved plates, when the steam clash with the
plates, it makes it to revolve, which effect the pivot to
revolve with speed of 3000 rpm, turbines varies in size and
shape depending on the steam speed, steam size and steam
pressure, as well as its temperature; also the size of the
station.
2- Generator: it is electrical device, contains two parts, one
moved (rotor) and another fixed (stator), the rotor direct
connected to the turbine pivot. And the two parts are
covered with a copper wire to take the magnetic field from
the rotor and deliver it to stator as electricity current.

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 3- Condenser: big solid vessel. The steam enters from the top
side of the condenser after it loses much of its pressure and
temperature, and from the bottom flow a water current, and
due to the heat transfers between them the steam back to
be pure water and resent to the boilers again.
4- Chimney: long cylindrical chimney built from bricks, it is
used to exhaust the exhausted gases to a high height to
make a less pollution.
5- Auxiliaries: a large numbers from mechanical and electrical
devices and speed controllers which helps to complete the
work.

1- Nuclear Power Station:

It can be considered as heating station, because it works on
the same principle; which is generating electricity from
steam.
But the difference is instead of the furnace, here we have a
nuclear reactor where we get the heat as a result of a
nuclear reaction, then this huge energy transferred to the
steam in the boilers, then to the turbines and then to the
generators.

2- Hydraulic Power Stations:

It is using the moving water (rivers and lakes) which are
nearly high where we can think of fallen water to generate
energy. So they building dams at these places and also the
stations there, also they can make waterfall or natural one to
direct generation of electricity.

The principle here is to use the potential energy of water which

gained by position and transfer it to electricity.

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Components of Hydro-Electric Station:

1- Penstock: one or more pipes located at the bottom of the

dam or at the top of the waterfalls and connected to the
turbines, there are valves at the first and at the end of the
pipe for controlling purposes.
2- Turbines: turbine and generators located in vertical order,
generator up and turbine down; so when the gate in the
penstock opened, the water flows inside the pipes with high
speed; which rotates the turbine, so the rotor in the
generators moved which make the electricity current at the
sides of the stator.
3- Draught tubes: special tube to bull the flow water outside
the turbine.
4- Auxiliaries: extra but important devices which use to
complete the work like: pumps, gates, valves, speed
correctors.

4-Tidal Power Stations:

The tidal flow is a natural event, which causes an increase in sea
level due to moon gravity. When the moon is in the nearest point
the water rises, and when the moon in the far point it is
decreases.

The best place where this type is used is in the north coast of
France where the tidal has a height of 30m. So the turbines
distributed in such away it fits the tidal flow. The station in France
has a capacity of 400 mega watts.

5-Internal Combustion Engines:

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It is a station uses the liquid fuel, where it burns in the chambers
after been mixing with the air, so the result is a high pressure
gases which can move the pistons in the diesel case or the
turbines in gas turbines.

Diesel power station:

It is fast turn on/off machines. But it consumes high amount of

fuel, so the cost depends on the fuel cost, from other side the
capacity for this kind the capacity is low (3 MW), it is easy to set
up. And it is been used in the emergency states. In this case they
use many engines from this type to get the required energy.

6-Gas turbine:
It has varies capacities (1-250 MW). Its turn on/off period is (2-10
minutes); they are cheap, simple, fast set up ability, and easy
maintenance, also it doesn’t need too much water for cooling. It
can use many types of fuels (rough petrol, neutral gas, industrial
gas …).

But it has disadvantages like: it has short age, the output is not as
much required (15-25 %); also consumes too much fuel to steam
stations.

Components of the station:

1- Air compressor: compressing the atmospheric air to high

pressures.
2- Combustion chamber: mixing air with fuel and then burning
to give high pressure and temperature.
3- Turbine: horizontal pivot turbine, from one side connected to
air compressor and from the other side to the generator, but
by a gear box to decrease the speed because the turbine
rotates at high speed that the generator cannot operate at
it.

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 4- Generator: nowadays there are two turbines in the cycle,
one for the pressure and speed, and the other one
connected to the generator called the power turbine.
5- Auxiliaries:
a- Air filters
b- Start engine mostly diesel or electrical motor.
c- Burn helping devices.
d- Barometer and thermometer.
e- Electrical measurement devices.

7-Wind power station:

Big fans places somewhere we can get a high speed wind, the
fans rotates which gave us a mechanical energy that we can
convert it to electricity.

8-Solar station:
Nowadays it is used to heat the water in the houses, and to light
the roads, but the researchers are looking to generate a large
amount of electricity from this type using the solar cells, and they
did many projects about this where the most famous one was the
solar car when they designed it with a maximum speed of
60km/h.

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Turbine:
A turbine is a rotary engine that extracts energy from a fluid or air flow and
converts it into useful work.
The simplest turbines have one moving part, a rotor assembly, which is a
shaft or drum, with blades attached. Moving fluid acts on the blades, or the
blades react to the flow, so that they move and impart rotational energy to
the rotor. Early turbine examples are windmills and water wheels.
Gas, steam, and water turbines usually have a casing around the blades that
contains and controls the working fluid. Credit for invention of the steam
turbine is given both to the British Engineer Sir Charles Parsons (1854-1931),
for invention of the reaction turbine and to Swedish Engineer Gustav de
Laval (1845-1913), for invention of the impulse turbine. Modern steam
turbines frequently employ both reaction and impulse in the same unit,
typically varying the degree of reaction and impulse from the blade root to
its periphery.
A device similar to a turbine but operating in reverse, i.e. driven, is a
compressor or pump. The axial compressor in many gas turbine engines is a
common example. Here again, both reaction and impulse are employed and
again, in modern axial compressors, the degree of reaction and impulse will
typically vary from the blade root to its periphery.
Claude Burdin coined the term from the Latin turbo, or vortex, during an
1828 engineering competition. Benoit Fourneyron, a student of Claude
Burdin, built the first practical water turbine.
Theory of operation

A working fluid contains potential energy (pressure head) and kinetic energy
(velocity head). The fluid may be compressible or incompressible. Several
physical principles are employed by turbines to collect this energy: turbine is
gay

Page 9 of 30
Impulse turbines
These turbines change the direction of flow of a high velocity fluid or
gas jet. The resulting impulse spins the turbine and leaves the fluid
flow with diminished kinetic energy. There is no pressure change of the
fluid or gas in the turbine rotor blades (the moving blades), as in the
case of a steam or gas turbine; the entire pressure drop takes place in
the stationary blades (the nozzles).
Before reaching the turbine, the fluid's pressure head is changed to velocity
head by accelerating the fluid with a nozzle. Pelton wheels and de Laval
turbines use this process exclusively. Impulse turbines do not require a
pressure casement around the rotor since the fluid jet is created by the
nozzle prior to reaching the blading on the rotor. Newton's second law
describes the transfer of energy for impulse turbines.
Reaction turbines
These turbines develop torque by reacting to the gas or fluid's
pressure or mass. The pressure of the gas or fluid changes as it passes
through the turbine rotor blades. A pressure casement is needed to
contain the working fluid as it acts on the turbine stage(s) or the
turbine must be fully immersed in the fluid flow (such as with wind
turbines). The casing contains and directs the working fluid and, for
water turbines, maintains the suction imparted by the draft tube.
Francis turbines and most steam turbines use this concept. For
compressible working fluids, multiple turbine stages are usually used
to harness the expanding gas efficiently. Newton's third law describes
the transfer of energy for reaction turbines.
t In the case of steam turbines, such as would be used for marine
applications or for land-based electricity generation, a Parsons type reaction
turbine would require
approximately double the number
of blade rows as a de Laval type
impulse turbine, for the same
degree of heat drop. Whilst this
makes the Parsons turbine much
longer and heavier, the overall
efficiency of a reaction turbine is
slightly higher than the equivalent
impulse turbine for the same heat
drop.
Steam turbines and later, gas
turbines developed continually
during the 20th Century, continue
to do so and in practice, modern
turbine designs will use both
reaction and impulse concepts to

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varying degrees whenever possible. Wind turbines use an airfoil to generate
lift from the moving fluid and impart it to the rotor (this is a form of reaction).
Wind turbines also gain some energy from the impulse of the wind, by
deflecting it at an angle. Cross flow turbines are designed as an impulse
machine, with a nozzle, but in low head applications maintain some
efficiency through reaction, like a traditional water wheel. Turbines with
multiple stages may utilize either reaction or impulse blading at high
pressure. Steam Turbines were traditionally more impulse but continue to
move towards reaction designs similar to those used in Gas Turbines. At low
pressure the operating fluid medium expands in volume for small reductions
in pressure. Under these conditions (termed Low Pressure Turbines) blading
becomes strictly a reaction type design with the base of the blade solely
impulse. The reason is due to the effect of the rotation speed for each blade.
As the volume increases, the blade height increases, and the base of the
blade spins at a slower speed relative to the tip. This change in speed forces
a designer to change from impulse at the base, to a high reaction style tip.
Classical turbine design methods were developed in the mid 19th century.
Vector analysis related the fluid flow with turbine shape and rotation.
Graphical calculation methods were used at first. Formulae for the basic
dimensions of turbine parts are well documented and a highly efficient
machine can be reliably designed for any fluid flow condition. Some of the
calculations are empirical or 'rule of thumb' formulae and others are based
on classical mechanics. As with most engineering calculations, simplifying
assumptions were made.
Velocity triangles can be used to calculate the basic performance of a
turbine stage. Gas exits the stationary turbine nozzle guide vanes at
absolute velocity Va1. The rotor rotates at velocity U. Relative to the rotor;
the velocity of the gas as it impinges on the rotor entrance is Vr1. The gas is
turned by the rotor and exits, relative to the rotor, at velocity Vr2. However,
in absolute terms the rotor exit velocity is Va2. The velocity triangles are
constructed using these various velocity vectors. Velocity triangles can be
constructed at any section through the blading (for example: hub , tip,
midsection and so on) but are usually shown at the mean stage radius. Mean
performance for the stage can be calculated from the velocity triangles, at
this radius, using the Euler equation:

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Whence:

Modern turbine design carries the

calculations further. Computational fluid
dynamics dispenses with many of the
simplifying assumptions used to derive
classical formulas and computer software
facilitates optimization. These tools have
led to steady improvements in turbine
design over the last forty years.
The primary numerical classification of a
turbine is its specific speed. This number
describes the speed of the turbine at its
maximum efficiency with respect to the
power and flow rate. The specific speed is
derived to be independent of turbine size.
Given the fluid flow conditions and the
desired shaft output speed, the specific
speed can be calculated and an
appropriate turbine design selected.
The specific speed, along with some
fundamental formulas can be used to
reliably scale an existing design of known performance to a new size with
corresponding performance.
Off-design performance is normally displayed as a turbine map or
characteristic.
Types of turbines
• Steam turbines are used for the generation of electricity in thermal
power plants, such as plants using coal or fuel oil or nuclear power.
They were once used to directly drive mechanical devices such as
ships' propellers (e.g. the Turbinia), but most such applications now
use reduction gears or an intermediate electrical step, where the
turbine is used to generate electricity, which then powers an electric
motor connected to the mechanical load. Turbo electric ship machinery
was particularly popular in the period immediately before and during
WWII, primarily due to a lack of sufficient gear-cutting facilities in US
and UK shipyards.
• Gas turbines are sometimes referred to as turbine engines. Such
engines usually feature an inlet, fan, compressor, combustor and
nozzle (possibly other assemblies) in addition to one or more turbines.

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• Transonic turbine. The gas flow in most turbines employed in gas
turbine engines remains subsonic throughout the expansion process. In
a transonic turbine the gas flow becomes supersonic as it exits the
nozzle guide vanes, although the downstream velocities normally
become subsonic. Transonic turbines operate at a higher pressure ratio
than normal but are usually less efficient and uncommon. This turbine
works well in creating power from water.
• Contra-rotating turbines. With axial turbines, some efficiency
advantage can be obtained if a downstream turbine rotates in the
opposite direction to an upstream unit. However, the complication can
be counter-productive. A contra-rotating steam turbine, usually known
as the Ljungström turbine, was originally invented by Swedish Engineer
Fredrik Ljungström (1875-1964), in Stockholm and in partnership with
his brother Birger Ljungström he obtained a patent in 1894. The design
is essentially a multi-stage radial turbine (or pair of 'nested' turbine
rotors) and met with some success, particularly in marine applications,
where its compact size and low weight lent itself well to turbo-electric
applications. In this radial arrangement, the overall efficiency is
typically less than that of Parsons or de Laval turbines.
• Statorless turbine. Multi-stage turbines have a set of static (meaning
stationary) inlet guide vanes that direct the gas flow onto the rotating
rotor blades. In a statorless turbine the gas flow exiting an upstream
rotor impinges onto a downstream rotor without an intermediate set of
stator vanes (that rearrange the pressure/velocity energy levels of the
flow) being encountered.
• Ceramic turbine. Conventional high-pressure turbine blades (and
vanes) are made from nickel based alloys and often utilize intricate
internal air-cooling passages to prevent the metal from overheating. In
recent years, experimental ceramic blades have been manufactured
and tested in gas turbines, with a view to increasing Rotor Inlet
Temperatures and/or, possibly, eliminating air-cooling. Ceramic blades
are more brittle than their metallic counterparts, and carry a greater
risk of catastrophic blade failure. This has tended to limit their use in
jet engines and gas turbines, to the stator (stationary) blades.
• Shrouded turbine. Many turbine rotor blades have shrouding at the
top, which interlocks with that of adjacent blades, to increase damping
and thereby reduce blade flutter. In large land-based electricity
generation steam turbines, the shrouding is often complemented,
especially in the long blades of a low-pressure turbine, with lacing
wires. These are wires which pass through holes drilled in the blades at
suitable distances from the blade root and the wires are usually brazed
to the blades at the point where they pass through. The lacing wires
are designed to reduce blade flutter in the central part of the blades.

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 The introduction of lacing wires substantially reduces the instances of
blade failure in large or low-pressure turbines.
• Shroud less turbine. Modern practice is, wherever possible, to
eliminate the rotor shrouding, thus reducing the centrifugal load on the
blade and the cooling requirements.
• Bladeless turbine uses the boundary layer effect and not a fluid
impinging upon the blades as in a conventional turbine.

• Water turbines
○ Pelton turbine, a type of impulse water turbine.
○ Francis turbine, a type of widely used water turbine.
○ Kaplan turbine, a variation of the Francis Turbine.
○ Voith, water turbine.
• Wind turbine. These normally operate as a single stage without
nozzle and interstage guide vanes. An exception is the Éolienne Bollée,
which has a stator and a rotor, thus being a true turbine.

Other
• Velocity compound "Curtis". Curtis combined the de Laval and Parsons
Turbine by using a set of fixed nozzles on the first stage or stator and
then a rank of fixed and rotating blade rows, as in the Parsons or de
Laval, typically up to ten compared with up to a hundred stages of a
Parsons design. The overall efficiency of a Curtis design is less than
that of either the Parsons or de Laval designs, but it can be
satisfactorily operated through a much wider range of speeds,
including successful operation at low speeds and at lower pressures,
which made it ideal for use in ships' power plant. In a Curtis
arrangement, the entire heat drop in the steam takes place in the
initial nozzle row and both the subsequent moving blade rows and
stationary blade rows merely change the direction of the steam. It
should be noted that the use of a small section of a Curtis
arrangement, typically one nozzle section and two or three rows of
moving blades is usually termed a Curtis 'Wheel' and in this form, the
Curtis found widespread use at sea as a 'governing stage' on many
reaction and impulse turbines and turbine sets. This practice is still
commonplace today in marine steam plant.
• Pressure Compound Multistage Impulse or Rateau. The Rateau
employs simple Impulse rotors separated by a nozzle diaphragm. The
diaphragm is essentially a partition wall in the turbine with a series of
tunnels cut into it, funnel shaped with the broad end facing the

Page 14 of 30
 previous stage and the narrow the next they are also angled to direct
the steam jets onto the impulse rotor.
Uses of turbines:
Almost all electrical power on Earth is produced with a turbine of some type.
Very high efficiency steam turbines harness about 40% of the thermal
energy, with the rest exhausted as waste heat.
Most jet engines rely on turbines to supply mechanical work from their
working fluid and fuel as do all nuclear ships and power plants.
Turbines are often part of a larger machine. A gas turbine, for example, may
refer to an internal combustion machine that contains a turbine, ducts,
compressor, combustor, heat-exchanger, fan and (in the case of one
designed to produce electricity) an alternator. However, it must be noted
that the collective machine referred to as the turbine in these cases is
designed to transfer energy from a fuel to the fluid passing through such an
internal combustion device as a means of propulsion, and not to transfer
energy from the fluid passing through the turbine to the turbine as is the
case in turbines used for electricity provision etc.
Reciprocating piston engines such as aircraft engines can use a turbine
powered by their exhaust to drive an intake-air compressor, a configuration
known as a turbocharger (turbine supercharger) or, colloquially, a "turbo".
Turbines can have very high power density (i.e. the ratio of power to weight,
or power to volume). This is because of their ability to operate at very high
speeds. The Space Shuttle's main engines use turbo pumps (machines
consisting of a pump driven by a turbine engine) to feed the propellants
(liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen) into the engine's combustion chamber.
The liquid hydrogen turbo pump is slightly larger than an automobile engine
(weighing approximately 700 lb) and produces nearly 70,000 hp (52.2 MW).
Turbo expanders are widely used as sources of refrigeration in industrial
processes.
Turbines could also be used as powering system for a remote controlled
plane that creates thrust and lifts the plane of the ground. They come in
different sizes and could be as small as soda can, still be strong enough to
move objects with a weight of 100kg.
Shrouded tidal turbines:
An emerging renewable energy technology is the shrouded tidal turbine enclosed in
a venture shaped shroud or duct producing a sub atmosphere of low pressure
behind the turbine. It is often claimed that this allows the turbine to operate at
higher efficiency (than the Betz limit of 59.3%) because the turbine can typically
produce 3 times more power than a turbine of the same size in free stream. This,
however, is something of a misconception because the area presented to the flow is
that of the largest duct cross-section. If this area is used for the calculation, it will
be seen that the turbine still cannot exceed the Betz limit. Further, due to frictional

Page 15 of 30
losses in the duct, it is unlikely that the turbine will be able to produce as much
power as a free-stream turbine with the same radius as the duct.
Although situating the rotor in the throat of the duct allows the blades to be
supported at their tips (thus reducing bending stress from hydrodynamic thrust) the
financial impact of the large amount of steel in the duct must not be omitted from
any energy cost calculations.
As shown in the CFD generated figure, it can be
seen that a downstream low pressure (shown by
the gradient lines) draws upstream flow into the
inlet of the shroud from well outside the inlet of
the shroud. This flow is drawn into the shroud and
concentrated (as seen by the red colored zone).
This augmentation of flow velocity corresponds to
a 3-4 times increase in energy available to the
turbine. Therefore a turbine located in the throat
of the shroud is then able to achieve higher
efficiency, and an output 3-4 times the energy the
turbine would be capable of if it were in open or
free stream. However, as mentioned above, it is
not correct to conclude that this circumvents the
Betz limit. The figure shows only the near-field
flow, which is accelerated through the duct. A far-
field image would show a more complete picture of
how the free-stream flow is affected by the obstruction.
Considerable commercial interest has been shown in recent times in shrouded tidal
turbines as it allows a smaller turbine to be used at sites where large turbines are
restricted. Arrayed across a seaway or in fast flowing rivers shrouded tidal turbines
are easily cabled to a terrestrial base and connected to a grid or remote
community. Alternatively the property of the shroud that produces an accelerated
flow velocity across the turbine allows tidal flows formerly too slow for commercial
use to be utilized for commercial energy production.
While the shroud may not be practical in wind, as a tidal turbine it is gaining more
popularity and commercial use. A non-symmetrical shrouded tidal turbine (the type
discussed above) is mono directional and constantly needs to face upstream in
order to operate. It can be floated under a pontoon on a swing mooring, fixed to the
seabed on a mono pile and yawed like a wind sock to continually face upstream. A
shroud can also be built into a tidal fence increasing the performance of the
turbines. Several companies (for example, Lunar Energy) are proposing bi-
directional ducts that would not be required to turn to face the oncoming tide every
six hours.
Cabled to the mainland they can be grid connected or can be scaled down to
provide energy to remote communities where large civil infrastructures are
not viable. Similarly to tidal stream open turbines they have little if any
environmental or visual amenity impact.

The Boiler:

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A boiler is a closed vessel in which water or other fluid is heated. The heated or vaporized fluid
exits the boiler for use in various processes or heating application.
Materials:
The pressure vessel in a boiler is usually made of steel (or alloy steel), or historically of wrought
iron. Stainless steel is virtually prohibited (by the ASME Boiler Code) for use in wetted parts of
modern boilers, but is used often in superheating sections that will not be exposed to liquid boiler
water. In live steam models, copper or brass is often used because it is more easily fabricated in
smaller size boilers. Historically, copper was often used for fireboxes (particularly for steam
locomotives), because of its better formability and higher
thermal conductivity; however, in more recent times, the high
price of copper often makes this an uneconomic choice and
cheaper substitutes (such as steel) are used instead.
For much of the Victorian "age of steam", the only material
used for boiler making was the highest grade of wrought iron,
with assembly by riveting. This iron was often obtained from
specialist ironworks, such as at Creator Moor (UK), noted for
the high quality of their rolled plate and its suitability for high-
reliability use in critical applications, such as high-pressure
boilers. In the 20th century, design practice instead moved
towards the use of steel, which is stronger and cheaper, with
welded construction, which is quicker and requires less labor.
Cast iron may be used for the heating vessel of domestic water
heaters. Although such heaters are usually termed "boilers",
their purpose is usually to produce hot water, not steam, and
so they run at low pressure and try to avoid actual boiling. The
brittleness of cast iron makes it impractical for high pressure
steam boilers.
Fuel:
The source of heat for a boiler is combustion of any of several fuels, such as wood, coal, oil, or
natural gas. Electric steam boilers use resistance- or immersion-type heating elements. Nuclear
fission is also used as a heat source for generating steam. Heat recovery steam generators
(HRSGs) use the heat rejected from other processes such as gas turbines.
Configurations:
Boilers can be classified into the following configurations:
• "Pot boiler" or "Haycock boiler": a primitive "kettle" where a fire heats a partially-filled
water container from below. 18th Century Haycock boilers generally produced and stored
large volumes of very low-pressure steam, often hardly above that of the atmosphere.
These could burn wood or most often, coal. Efficiency was very low.
• Fire-tube boiler. Here, water partially fills a boiler barrel with a small volume left above
to accommodate the steam (steam space). This is the type of boiler used in nearly all
steam locomotives. The heat source is inside a furnace or firebox that has to be kept
permanently surrounded by the water in order to maintain the temperature of the heating
surface just below boiling point. The furnace can be situated at one end of a fire-tube

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 which lengthens the path of the hot gases, thus augmenting the heating surface which can
be further increased by making the gases reverse direction through a second parallel tube
or a bundle of multiple tubes (two-pass or return flue boiler); alternatively the gases may
be taken along the sides and then beneath the boiler through flues (3-pass boiler). In the
case of a locomotive-type boiler, a boiler barrel extends from the firebox and the hot
gases pass through a bundle of fire tubes inside the barrel which greatly increase the
heating surface compared to a single tube and further improve heat transfer. Fire-tube
boilers usually have a comparatively low rate of steam production, but high steam storage
capacity. Fire-tube boilers mostly burn solid fuels, but are readily adaptable to those of
the liquid or gas variety.
• Water-tube boiler. In this type, the water tubes are arranged inside a furnace in a number
of possible configurations: often the water tubes connect large drums, the lower ones
containing water and the upper ones, steam and water; in other cases, such as a mono
tube boiler, water is circulated by a pump through a succession of coils. This type
generally gives high steam production rates, but less storage capacity than the above.
Water tube boilers can be designed to exploit any heat source and are generally preferred
in high pressure applications since the high pressure water/steam is contained within
small diameter pipes which can withstand the pressure with a thinner wall.
• Flash boiler. A specialized type of water-tube boiler.
• Fire-tube boiler with Water-tube firebox. Sometimes the two above types have been
combined in the following manner: the firebox contains an assembly of water tubes,
called thermic siphons. The gases then pass through a conventional fire tube boiler.
Water-tube fireboxes were installed in many Hungarian locomotives, but have met with
little success in other countries.
• Sectional boiler. In a cast iron sectional boiler, sometimes called a "pork chop boiler" the
water is contained inside cast iron sections. These sections are assembled on site to create
the finished boiler.
Safety:
Historically, boilers were a source of many serious injuries and property destruction due to
poorly understood engineering principles. Thin and brittle metal shells can rupture, while poorly
welded or riveted seams could open up, leading to a violent eruption of the pressurized steam.
Collapsed or dislodged boiler tubes could also spray scalding-hot steam and smoke out of the air
intake and firing chute, injuring the firemen who loaded coal into the fire chamber. Extremely
large boilers providing hundreds of horsepower to operate factories could demolish entire
buildings.
A boiler that has a loss of feed water and is permitted to boil dry can be extremely dangerous. If
feed water is then sent into the empty boiler, the small cascade of incoming water instantly boils
on contact with the superheated metal shell and leads to a violent explosion that cannot be
controlled even by safety steam valves. Draining of the boiler could also occur if a leak occurred
in the steam supply lines that were larger than the make-up water supply could replace. The
Hartford Loop was invented in 1919 by the Hartford Steam Boiler and Insurance Company as a
method to help prevent this condition from occurring, and thereby reduce their insurance claims.

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Superheated steam boilers:

Most boilers heat water until it boils, and then

the steam is used at saturation temperature
(i.e., saturated steam). Superheated steam
boilers boil the water and then further heat the
steam in a superheated. This provides steam at
much higher temperature, but can decrease the
overall thermal efficiency of the steam
generating plant due to the fact that the higher
steam temperature requires a higher flue gas
exhaust temperature. There are several ways to
circumvent this problem, typically by
providing a feed water heating "economizer", and/or a combustion air heater in the hot flue gas
exhaust path. There are advantages to superheated steam and this may (and usually will) increase
overall efficiency of both steam generation and its utilization considered together: gains in input
temperature to a turbine should outweigh any cost in additional boiler complication and expense.
There may also be practical limitations in using "wet" steam, as causing condensation droplets
will damage turbine blades.
Superheated steam presents unique safety concerns because, if there is a leak in the steam piping,
steam at such high pressure/temperature can cause serious, instantaneous harm to anyone
entering its flow. Since the escaping steam will initially be completely superheated vapor, it is
not easy to see the leak, although the intense heat and sound from such a leak clearly indicates its
presence.
The superheated works like coils on an air conditioning unit, however to a different end. The
steam piping (with steam flowing through it) is directed through the flue gas path in the boiler
furnace. This area typically is between 1,300 °C (2,372 °F)-1,600 °C (2,912 °F). Some super
heaters are radiant type (absorb heat by radiation), others are convection type (absorb heat via a
fluid i.e. gas) and some are a combination of the two. So whether by convection or radiation the
extreme heat in the boiler furnace/flue gas path will also heat the superheated steam piping and
the steam within as well. It is important to note that while the temperature of the steam in the
superheated is raised, the pressure of the steam is not: the turbine or moving pistons offer a
"continuously expanding space" and the pressure remains the same as that of the boiler. The
process of superheating steam is most importantly designed to remove all droplets entrained in
the steam to prevent damage to the turbine blading and/or associated piping.
Supercritical steam generators:
Supercritical steam generators (also known as Benson boilers) are frequently used for the
production of electric power. They operate at "supercritical pressure". In contrast to a "subcritical
boiler", a supercritical steam generator operates at such a high pressure (over
3,200 psi/22.06 MPa 3,200 psi/220.6 bar that actual boiling ceases to occur, and the boiler has no
water - steam separation. There is no generation of steam bubbles within the water, because the
pressure is above the "critical pressure" at which steam bubbles can form. It passes below the
critical point as it does work in the high pressure turbine and enters the generator's condenser.
This is more efficient, resulting in slightly less fuel use. The term "boiler" should not be used for
a supercritical pressure steam generator, as no "boiling" actually occurs in this device.

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History of supercritical steam generation:
Contemporary supercritical steam generators are sometimes referred as Benson boilers. In 1922,
Mark Benson was granted a patent for a boiler designed to convert water into steam at high
pressure.
Safety was the main concern behind Benson’s concept. Earlier steam generators were designed
for relatively low pressures of up to about 100 bar, corresponding to the state of the art in steam
turbine development at the time. One of their distinguishing technical characteristics was the
riveted drum. These drums were used to separate water and steam, and were often the source of
boiler explosions, usually with catastrophic consequences. However, the drum can be completely
eliminated if the evaporation process is avoided altogether. This happens when water is heated at
a pressure above the critical pressure and then expanded to dry steam at subcritical pressure. A
throttle valve located downstream of the evaporator can be used for this purpose.
As development of Benson technology continued, boiler design soon moved away from the
original concept introduced by Mark Benson. In 1929, a test boiler that had been built in 1927
began operating in the thermal power plant at Gartenfeld in Berlin for the first time in subcritical
mode with a fully open throttle valve. The second Benson boiler began operation in 1930 without
a pressurizing valve at pressures between 40 and 180 bar at the Berlin cable factory. This
application represented the birth of the modern variable-pressure Benson boiler. After that
development, the original patent was no longer used. The Benson boiler name, however, was
retained.
Two current innovations have a good chance of winning acceptance in the competitive market
for once-through steam generators:
• A new type of heat-recovery steam generator based on the Benson boiler, which has
operated successfully at the Cottam combined-cycle power plant in the central part of
England,
• The vertical tubing in the combustion chamber walls of coal-fired steam generators which
combines the operating advantages of the Benson system with the design advantages of
the drum-type boiler. Construction of a first reference plant, the Yaomeng power plant in
China, commenced in 2001.
Hydronic boilers:
Hydronic boilers are used in generating heat for residential and industrial purposes. They are the
typical power plant for central heating systems fitted to houses in northern Europe (where they
are commonly combined with domestic water heating), as opposed to the forced-air furnaces or
wood burning stoves more common in North America. The hydronic boiler operates by way of
heating water/fluid to a preset temperature (or sometimes in the case of single pipe systems, until
it boils and turns to steam) and circulating that fluid throughout the home typically by way of
radiators, baseboard heaters or through the floors. The fluid can be heated by any means...gas,
wood, fuel oil, etc, but in built-up areas where piped gas is available, natural gas is currently the
most economical and therefore the usual choice. The fluid is in an enclosed system and
circulated throughout by means of a motorized pump. The name can be a misnomer in that,
except for systems using steam radiators, the water in a properly functioning hydronic boiler
never actually boils. Most new systems are fitted with condensing boilers for greater efficiency.
These boilers are referred to as condensing boilers because they condense the water vapor in the
flue gases to capture the latent heat of vaporization of the water produced during combustion.

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Hydronic systems are being used more and more in new construction in North America for
several reasons. Among the reasons are:
• They are more efficient and more economical than forced-air systems (although initial
installation can be more expensive, because of the cost of the copper and aluminum).
• The baseboard copper pipes and aluminum fins take up less room and use less metal than the
bulky steel ductwork required for forced-air systems.
• They provide more even, less fluctuating temperatures than forced-air systems. The copper
baseboard pipes hold and release heat over a longer period of time than air does, so the
furnace does not have to switch off and on as much. (Copper heats mostly through
conduction and radiation, whereas forced-air heats mostly through forced convection. Air has
much lower thermal conductivity and higher specific heat than copper; however, convection
results in faster heat loss of air compared to copper. See also thermal mass.)
• They do not dry out the interior air as much.
• They do not introduce any dust, allergens, mold, or (in the case of a faulty heat exchanger)
combustion byproducts into the living space.
Forced-air heating does have some advantages, however. See forced-air heating.
Accessories:
Boiler fittings and accessories
• Safety valve: It is used to relieve pressure and prevent possible explosion of a boiler.
• Water level indicators: They show the operator the level of fluid in the boiler, also
known as a sight glass, water gauge or water column is provided.
• Bottom blow down valves: They provide a means for removing solid particulates that
condense and lay on the bottom of a boiler. As the name implies, this valve is usually
located directly on the bottom of the boiler, and is occasionally opened to use the
pressure in the boiler to push these particulates out.
• Continuous blow down valve: This allows a small quantity of water to escape
continuously. Its purpose is to prevent the water in the boiler becoming saturated with
dissolved salts. Saturation would lead to foaming and cause water droplets to be carried
over with the steam - a condition known as priming.
• Flash Tank: High pressure blow down enters this vessel where the steam can 'flash'
safely and be used in a low-pressure system or be vented to atmosphere while the
ambient pressure blows down flows to drain.
• Automatic Blow down/Continuous Heat Recovery System: This system allows the
boiler to blow down only when makeup water is flowing to the boiler, thereby
transferring the maximum amount of heat possible from the blow down to the makeup
water. No flash tank is generally needed as the blow down discharged is close to the
temperature of the makeup water.
• Hand holes: They are steel plates installed in openings in "header" to allow for
inspections & installation of tubes and inspection of internal surfaces.
• Steam drum internals, a series of screen, scrubber & cans (cyclone separators).

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 • Low- water cutoff: It is a mechanical means (usually a float switch) that is used to turn
off the burner or shut off fuel to the boiler to prevent it from running once the water goes
below a certain point. If a boiler is "dry-fired" (burned without water in it) it can cause
rupture or catastrophic failure.
• Surface blow down line: It provides a means for removing foam or other lightweight
non-condensable substances that tend to float on top of the water inside the boiler.
• Circulating pump: It is designed to circulate water back to the boiler after it has
expelled some of its heat.
• Feed water check valve or clack valve: A non-return stop valve in the feed water line.
This may be fitted to the side of the boiler, just below the water level, or to the top of the
boiler.
• Top feed: A check valve (clack valve) in the feed water line, mounted on top of the
boiler. It is intended to reduce the nuisance of lime scale. It does not prevent lime scale
formation but causes the lime scale to be precipitated in a powdery form which is easily
washed out of the boiler.
• Desuperheater tubes or bundles: A series of tubes or bundles of tubes in the water
drum or the steam drum designed to cool superheated steam. Thus is to supply auxiliary
equipment that doesn't need, or may be damaged by, dry steam.
• Chemical injection line: A connection to add chemicals for controlling feed water pHs
Steam accessories
• Main steam stop valve:
• Steam traps:
• Main steam stop/Check valve: It is used on multiple boiler installations.
Combustion accessories
• Fuel oil system:
• Gas system:
• Coal system:
Other essential items
• Pressure gauges:
• Feed pumps:
• Fusible plug:
• Inspectors test pressure gauge attachment:
• Name plate:
• Registration plate:
Controlling draft:
Most boilers now depend on mechanical draft equipment rather than natural draft. This is
because natural draft is subject to outside air conditions and temperature of flue gases leaving the
furnace, as well as the chimney height. All these factors make proper draft hard to attain and
therefore make mechanical draft equipment much more economical.

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There are three types of mechanical draft:
• Induced draft: This is obtained one of three ways, the first being the "stack effect" of a
heated chimney, in which the flue gas is less dense than the ambient air surrounding the
boiler. The denser column of ambient air forces combustion air into and through the
boiler. The second method is through use of a steam jet. The steam jet oriented in the
direction of flue gas flow induces flue gasses into the stack and allows for a greater flue
gas velocity increasing the overall draft in the furnace. This method was common on
steam driven locomotives which could not have tall chimneys. The third method is by
simply using an induced draft fan (ID fan) which removes flue gases from the furnace
and forces the exhaust gas up the stack. Almost all induced draft furnaces operate with a
slightly negative pressure.
• Forced draft: Draft is obtained by forcing air into the furnace by means of a fan (FD fan)
and ductwork. Air is often passed through an air heater; which, as the name suggests,
heats the air going into the furnace in order to increase the overall efficiency of the boiler.
Dampers are used to control the quantity of air admitted to the furnace. Forced draft
furnaces usually have a positive pressure.
• Balanced draft: Balanced draft is obtained through use of both induced and forced draft.
This is more common with larger boilers where the flue gases have to travel a long
distance through many boiler passes. The induced draft fan works in conjunction with the
forced draft fan allowing the furnace pressure to be maintained slightly below
atmospheric.
Condenser:
In systems involving heat transfer, a condenser is a device or unit used to condense a substance
from its gaseous to its liquid state, typically by cooling it. In so doing, the latent heat is given up
by the substance, and will transfer to the condenser coolant. Condensers are typically heat
exchangers which have various designs and come in many sizes ranging from rather small (hand-
held) to very large industrial-scale units used in plant processes. For example, a refrigerator uses
a condenser to get rid of heat extracted from the interior of the unit to the outside air. Condensers
are used in air conditioning, industrial chemical processes such as distillation, steam power
plants and other heat-exchange systems. Use of cooling water or surrounding air as the coolant is
common in many condensers.
Example types of condensers:
• A surface condenser is an example of such a heat-exchange system. It is a shell and tube
heat exchanger installed at the outlet of every steam turbine in thermal power plants.
Commonly, the cooling water flows through the tube side and the steam enters the shell
side where the condensation occurs on the outside of the heat transfer tubes. The
condensate drips down and collects at the bottom, often in a built-in pan called a hotwell.
The shell side often operates at a vacuum or partial vacuum, often produced by attached
air ejectors.
• In chemistry, a condenser is the apparatus which cools hot vapors, causing them to
condense into a liquid. See "Condenser (laboratory)" for laboratory-scale condensers, as
opposed to industrial-scale condensers. Examples include the Liebig condenser, Graham
condenser, and Allihn condenser. This is not to be confused with a condensation reaction

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 which links two fragments into a single molecule by an addition reaction and an
elimination reaction.
In laboratory distillation, reflux, and rotary evaporators, several types of condensers are
commonly used. The Liebig condenser is simply a straight tube within a cooling water
jacket, and is the simplest (and relatively least expensive) form of condenser. The
Graham condenser is a spiral tube within a water jacket, and the Allihn condenser has a
series of large and small constrictions on the inside tube, each increasing the surface area
upon which the vapor constituents may condense. Being more complex shapes to
manufacture, these latter types are also more expensive to purchase. These three types of
condensers are laboratory glassware items since they are typically made of glass.
Commercially available condensers usually are fitted with ground glass joints and come
in standard lengths of 100, 200, and 400 mm. Air-cooled condensers are unjacketed,
while water-cooled condensers contain a jacket for the water.
• Larger condensers are also used in industrial-scale distillation processes to cool distilled
vapor into liquid distillate. Commonly, the coolant flows through the tube side and
distilled vapor through the shell side with distillate collecting at or flowing out the
bottom.
• A condenser unit used in central air conditioning systems typically has a heat exchanger
section to cool down and condense incoming refrigerant vapor into liquid, a compressor
to raise the pressure of the refrigerant and move it along, and a fan for blowing outside air
through the heat exchanger section to cool the refrigerant inside. A typical configuration
of such a condenser unit is as follows: The heat exchanger section wraps around the sides
of the unit with the compressor inside. In this heat exchanger section, the refrigerant goes
through multiple tube passes, which are surrounded by heat transfer fins through which
cooling air can move from outside to inside the unit. There is a motorized fan inside the
condenser unit near the top, which is covered by some grating to keep any objects from
accidentally falling inside on the fan. The fan is used to blow the outside cooling air in
through the heat exchange section at the sides and out the top through the grating. These
condenser units are located on the outside of the building they are trying to cool, with
tubing between the unit and building, one for vapor refrigerant entering and another for
liquid refrigerant leaving the unit. Of course, an electric power supply is needed for the
compressor and fan inside the unit.
• Direct contact condenser
In this type of condenser, vapors are poured into the liquid directly. The vapors lose their
latent heat of vaporization; hence, vapors transfer their heat into liquid and the liquid
becomes hot. In this type of condensation, the vapor and liquid are of same type of
substance.

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Figure1: water
turbine which
will be used in
France.

Figure 2: A plan showing

how turbine and
generator
connected.

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 Figure 3: Condenser.

Figure 4: Gas Turbine.

Figure 5: Water turbine.

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Figure 6: Nuclear plant.

Page 27 of 30
 Figure 7: Steam Power Plant

Figure 8: thermal power plant plane.

Page 28 of 30
 Figure 9: Wind Power Station.

Figure 10:
Wind Fan
Plane.

Page 29 of 30
Figure 11: Inside a hydraulic power plant.

Figure 12:
Hydraulic
Power
Station.

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