M. J.

Roberts - 10/7/06

Chapter 2 - Mathematical Description of

Continuous-Time Signals
Solutions
CT Functions

1. ()
If g t = 7e
2t
3 write out and simplify

(a) ()
g 3 = 7e
9

g ( 2
t ) = 7e ( ) = 7e

2 2
t
3
7 + 2t
(b)
(c) g ( t / 10 + 4 ) = 7e
t /5
11

(d) g ( jt ) = 7e
j 2t
3

g ( jt ) + g (
jt )
j 2t
+ e j 2t
(e)
2
= 7e
e
3

2
= 7e
3 cos 2t( )
 jt
3  
jt
3 
g  + g
 2   2  e
jt + e jt
(f)
2
=7
2
= 7 cos t ()
2. ()
If g x = x 2
4x + 4 write out and simplify

(a) ()
g z = z 2
4z + 4

g (u + v ) = (u + v ) ( )
2
(b)
4 u + v + 4 = u 2 + v 2 + 2uv
4u
4v + 4

( ) ( )
4e + 4 = e ( )
2 2
(c) g e jt = e jt jt j 2t

4e jt + 4 = e jt
2

g ( g ( t )) = g ( t
4t + 4 ) = ( t
4t + 4 )
4 ( t )
2
(d) 2 2 2

4t + 4 + 4

( ( ))
g g t = t 4
8t 3 + 20t 2
16t + 4

(e) ()
g 2 = 4
8+ 4 = 0

3. What would be the value of g in each of the following MATLAB

instructions?

(a) t = 3 ; g = sin(t) ; 0.1411

(b) x = 1:5 ; g = cos(pi*x) ; [-1,1,-1,1,-1]

Solutions 2-1

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

(c) f = -1:0.5:1 ; w = 2*pi*f ; g = 1./(1+j*w’) ;

 0.0247 + j0.155
 
0.0920 + j0.289 
 1 
 
0.0920
j0.289 
 0.0247
j0.155

4. Let two functions be defined by

(
1 , sin 20 t  0 ) t , sin 2 t  0 ( )
()
x1 t =  and ()
x2 t =  .
(

1 , sin 20 t < 0 ) 
t , sin 2 t < 0 ( )
Graph the product of these two functions versus time over the time range,

2 < t < 2 .
x(t)
2

t
-2 2

-2

Transformations of CT Functions

5. () ( )
For each function, g t , graph g
t ,
g t , g t
1 , and g 2t . () ( ) ( )
(a) (b)
g(t) g(t)

4 3

-1
2
t 1
t

-3

g(-t) g(-t) -g(t) -g(t)

4 3 3

-1 1
-2
t 1
t 2
t t
-1
-3 4 -3

Solutions 2-2

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

g(t-1) g(t-1) g(2t) g(2t)

4 3 4 3
-1
2
1 3
t 1 2
t 1
t 1
t
2
-3 -3

6. Find the values of the following signals at the indicated times.

(a) () () ( ) ( ) (
x t = 4 tri t , x 1 / 2 = 4 tri 1 / 2 = 4 1
1 / 2 = 2 )
(b) x ( t ) = 2 rect ( t / 4 ) , x (
1) = 2 rect (
1 / 4 ) = 2
sin ( 3 / 2 )
x ( t ) = 10sinc ( t ) , x ( 3 / 2 ) = 10
2
(c) =
=
0.21221
3 / 2 3
(d) x ( t ) = 5rect ( t / 2 ) sgn ( 2t ) , x (1) = 5rect (1 / 2 ) sgn ( 2 ) = 2.5

(e) () ( )
x t = 2 tri  2 t
1  + 6 rect t / 4 , ( )
( ) ( ) (
x 3 / 2 = 2 tri  2 3 / 2
1  + 6 rect 3 / 8 = 2 tri 1 + 6 = 6 ) ()
(f) () (
x t = 9 rect t / 10 sgn 3 t
2 ) (( )) () (
, x 1 = 9 rect 1 / 10 sgn
3 =
9 ) ( )
(g) () (( ) )
x t = 10sinc t + 2 / 4 , x -6 = 10sinc
1 = 0 ( ) ( )
7. For each pair of functions in Figure E-7 provide the values of the constants, A,
t0 and a in the functional transformation g 2 t = Ag1 t
t0 / w . () (( ) )

Solutions 2-3

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

(a) (a)
2 2
1 1

g1(t)

g2(t)
0 0
-1 -1
-2 -2
-4 -2 0 2 4 -4 -2 0 2 4
t t
(b) (b)
2 2
1 1
g1(t)

g2(t)
0 0
-1 -1
-2 -2
-4 -2 0 2 4 -4 -2 0 2 4
t t
(c) (c)
2 2
1 1
g1(t)

g2(t)
0 0
-1 -1
-2 -2
-4 -2 0 2 4 -4 -2 0 2 4
t t
Figure E-7

Answers: (a) A = 2,t0 = 1, w = 1 , (b) A =
2,t0 = 0, w = 1 / 2 ,

(c) A =
1 / 2,t0 =
1, w = 2

8. For each pair of functions in Figure E-8 provide the values of the constants, A,
t0 and a in the functional transformation g 2 t = Ag1 w t
t0 . () ( ( ))
A = 2, t0 = 2, w = -2
8 8

4 4
g1(t)

g2(t)

0 0
(a)
-4 -4

-8 -8
-10 -5 0 5 10 -10 -5 0 5 10
t t
A = 3, t0 = 2, w = 2
8 8

4 4
g (t)

g (t)

0 0
1

(b)
-4 -4

-8 -8
-10 -5 0 5 10 -10 -5 0 5 10
t t

Solutions 2-4

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

A = 3, t0 = 3, w = 1/3
8 8

4 4

g (t)

g (t)
0 0

2
(c)
-4 -4

-8 -8
-10 -5 0 5 10 -10 -5 0 5 10
t t
A = 2, t0 = 2, w = 1/3
8 8

4 4
g1(t)

g2(t)
0 0
(d)
-4 -4

-8 -8
-10 -5 0 5 10 -10 -5 0 5 10
t t
A = 3, t0 = 2, w = 1/2
8 8

4 4
g1(t)

g2(t)

0 0
(e)
-4 -4

-8 -8
-10 -5 0 5 10 -10 -5 0 5 10
t t
Figure E-8
9. ()
In Figure E-9 is plotted a CT function, g1 t which is zero for all time outside the
range plotted. Let some other functions be defined by
 t
3
()
g 2 t = 3g1 2
t ( ) , ()
g 3 t =
2 g1 t / 4 ( ) , ()
g 4 t = g1 
 2 

Find these values.

(a) ()
g 2 1 =
3 (b) ( )
g 3
1 =
3.5

1

(c)  () () 3
 g 4 t g 3 t  = 
1 =

t = 2 2
3
2
( ) (d)  g (t ) dt
4

3

()
The function g 4 t is linear between the integration limits and the area under it is a
triangle. The base width is 2 and the height is -2. Therefore the area is -2.

Solutions 2-5

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

1

 g (t ) dt =
2
4

3
g1(t)
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 t
-1
-2
-3
-4
Figure E-9

10. ( )
A function, G f , is defined by

( )
G f = e
j 2 f rect f / 2 ( ) .

Graph the magnitude and phase of G f
10 + G f + 10 ( ) ( ) over the range,

20 < f < 20 .

( )
First imagine what G f looks like. It consists of a rectangle centered at f = 0 of
width, 2, multiplied by a complex exponential. Therefore for frequencies greater than
one in magnitude it is zero. Its magnitude is simply the magnitude of the rectangle
function because the magnitude of the complex exponential is one for any f.

( ) (
e
j 2 f = cos
2 f + j sin
2 f = cos 2 f
j sin 2 f ) ( ) ( )
(
e
j 2 f = cos 2 2 f + sin 2 2 f = 1 ) ( )
( )
The phase (angle) of G f is simply the phase of the complex exponential between
f =
1 and f = 1 and undefined outside that range because the phase of the
rectangle function is zero between f =
1 and f = 1 and undefined outside that
range and the phase of a product is the sum of the phases. The phase of the complex
exponential is

 sin 2 f  ( )
 sin 2 f  ( )
( ( )

e
j 2 f =
cos 2 f
j sin 2 f ( )) = tan
1


 cos 2 f  (

1
 =
tan 
) 
 cos 2 f  ( )

e
j 2 f =
tan
1 tan 2 f ( ( ))
The inverse tangent function is multiple-valued. Therefore there are multiple correct
answers for this phase. The simplest of them is found by choosing

e
j 2 f =
2 f
Solutions 2-6

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

which is simply the coefficient of j in the original complex exponential expression.

A more general solution would be
e
j 2 f =
2 f + 2n , n an integer . The
solution of the original problem is simply this solution except shifted up and down
by 10 in f and added.

 f
10   f + 10 
( ) (
G f
10 + G f + 10 = e ) (

j 2  f
10 )
rect 
 2   + e ( ) rect 

j 2  f +10

 2 

|G( f )|
1

f
-20 20

Phase of G( f )
π

f
-20 20

-π

11. Write an expression consisting of a summation of unit step functions to represent a

signal which consists of rectangular pulses of width 6 ms and height 3 which occur
at a uniform rate of 100 pulses per second with the leading edge of the first pulse
occurring at time t = 0 .


() ( ) (
x t = 3  u t
0.01n
u t
0.01n
0.006  )
n=0

12. Write an expression consisting of a summation of triangle functions to represent a

periodic triangular wave whose maximum value is 5 and whose minimum value is 2
with a period of 20 µs and a value of 5 at time t = 0 .

( ( )) ( ( )))


()
x t = 3.5 + 1.5   tri 2  105 t
2  10
5 n
tri 2  105 t
10
5 2n
1
 (
n=


Derivatives and Integrals of CT Functions

13. Graph the derivatives of these functions.

(All graphes at end.)

(a) ()
g t = sinc t ()

Solutions 2-7

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

( ) ( ) =  t cos ( t )
sin ( t )
 2t cos  t
 sin  t
()
g t =
( t ) t
2 2

(b) () (
g t = 1
e
t ) u (t ) This function is constant zero for all time before time,
t = 0 , therefore its derivative during that time is zero. This function is a
constant minus a decaying exponential after time, t = 0 , and its derivative in
that time is therefore also a positive decaying exponential.

e
t , t > 0
()
g t = 
0 , t < 0

Strictly speaking, its derivative is not defined at exactly t = 0 . Since the value of a
physical signal at a single point has no impact on any physical system (as long as it
is finite) we can choose any finite value at time, t = 0 , without changing the effect of
this signal on any physical system. If we choose 1/2, then we can write the derivative
as
()
g t = e
t u t . ()

(a) (b)
x(t) x(t)
1 1
t t
-4 4 -1 4
-1 -1
dx/dt dx/dt
1 1
t t
-4 4 -1 4
-1 -1

14. (a) () ( )
If g t = tri t / 2 what is the value of the first derivative of

(
g t
1 , ) d
dt
( ( ))
g t
1 , at t = 2 ?

0 , t <
2

d
( ( ))
1 / 2 ,
g t =

2<t<0
0<t<2
dt 
1 / 2 ,
0 , t>2

0 , t <
1

d
( ( ))1 / 2 ,
g t
1 = 

1< t <1
1< t < 3
dt 
1 / 2 ,
0 , t>3

Solutions 2-8

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

At t = 2 ,
d
dt
( ( ))
g t
1 =
1 / 2 .

(b) () ( ( ))
If g t = sinc 2 t + 1 what is the value of 10 g t / 10 at t = 4 ? ( )
10 g ( t / 10 ) = 10sinc ( 2 ( t / 10 + 1))

(
sin 2.8
) = 0.0668
( ) ((
At t = 4 , 10 g t / 10 = 10sinc 2 4 / 10 + 1 = 10sinc 2.8 = 10 )) ( ) 2.8

15. Find the numerical value of each integral.

(a)
8 8 8 8

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
  t + 3
2 4t  dt =   t + 3 dt
2   4t dt = 0
2  1 / 4   t dt =
1 / 2 ()

1
1
1
1
(b)
5/ 2 5/ 2  5/ 2 

( )
  2 3t dt =  (
  3t
2n dt = ) 1
 
3 1/ 2 n=

( ) 1
 t
2n / 3 dt = 1 + 1 + 1 = 1
3
1/ 2 1/ 2 n=


16. Graph the integral from negative infinity to time, t, of the functions in Figure E-16
which are zero for all time t < 0 .

 g ( ) d , which, in geometrical terms, is the accumulated area

t
This is the integral,



()
under the function, g t , from time,
 to time, t. For the case of the two back-to-
back rectangular pulses, there is no accumulated area until after time, t = 0 , and then
in the time interval, 0 < t < 1 , the area accumulates linearly with time up to a
maximum area of one at time, t = 1. In the second time interval, 1 < t < 2 , the area is
linearly declining at half the rate at which it increased in the first time interval,
0 < t < 1 , down to a value of 1/2 where it stays because there is no accumulation of
area for t > 2.

In the second case of the triangular-shaped function, the area does not accumulate
linearly, but rather non-linearly because the integral of a linear function is a second-
degree polynomial. The rate of accumulation of area is increasing up to time, t = 1,
and then decreasing (but still positive) until time, t = 2 , at which time it stops
completely. The final value of the accumulated area must be the total area of the
triangle, which, in this case, is one.
g(t) g(t)

1 1
1 2 3
t t
1 1 2 3
2

Figure E-16

Solutions 2-9

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

∫ g(t) dt ∫ g(t) dt

1 1
1
2
t t
1 2 3 1 2 3

Even and Odd CT Functions

17. An even function, g(t), is described over the time range, 0 < t < 10 , by

2t , 0<t<3

()
g t = 15
3t , 3 < t < 7 .

2 , 7 < t < 10


(a) ()
What is the value of g t at time, t =
5 ?

() () ( )
Since g t is even, g t = g
t  g
5 = g 5 = 15
3  5 = 0 . ( ) ()
(b) What is the value of the first derivative of g(t) at time, t =
6 ?

()
Since g t is even,
d  d 
d
() d
( )
g t =
g
t   g t  ()
=
 g t  =

3 = 3 . () ( )
dt dt  dt t =
6  dt t =6

18. Find the even and odd parts of these functions.

(a) ()
g t = 2t 2
3t + 6

( ) ( )
2
2t 2
3t + 6 + 2
t
3
t + 6 4t 2 + 12
()
ge t =
2
=
2
= 2t 2 + 6

( ) ( )
2
2t 2
3t + 6
2
t + 3
t
6
6t
()
go t =
2
=
2
=
3t

(b) () (
g t = 20cos 40 t
 / 4 )
( )
20cos 40 t
 / 4 + 20cos
40 t
 / 4 ( )
()
ge t =
2

( ) ( ) ( )
Using cos z1 + z2 = cos z1 cos z2
sin z1 sin z2 , ( ) ( )

Solutions 2-10

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

  ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 
20 cos 40 t cos
 / 4
sin 40 t sin
 / 4

 
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

+20 cos
40 t cos
 / 4
sin
40 t sin
/ 4
()
ge t = 
2

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
20 cos 40 t cos  / 4 + sin 40 t sin  / 4 
 

 
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
+20 cos 40 t cos  / 4
sin 40 t sin  / 4

()
ge t =
2

() ( ) ( )
g e t = 20cos
/ 4 cos 40
t = 20 / 2 cos 40
t ( ) ( )
( )
20cos 40 t
 / 4
20cos
40 t
 / 4 ( )
()
go t =
2

( ) ( ) ( )
Using cos z1 + z2 = cos z1 cos z2
sin z1 sin z2 , ( ) ( )

  ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 
20 cos 40 t cos
 / 4
sin 40 t sin
 / 4

 
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )


20 cos
40 t cos
 / 4
sin
40 t sin
 / 4
()
go t =
2

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
20 cos 40 t cos  / 4 + sin 40 t sin  / 4 
 

 
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

20 cos 40 t cos  / 4
sin 40 t sin  / 4

()
go t =
2

() ( ) ( )
g o t = 20sin
/ 4 sin 40
t = 20 / 2 sin 40
t ( ) ( )
2t 2
3t + 6
(c) ()
g t =
1+ t

2t 2
3t + 6 2t 2 + 3t + 6
+
()
ge t = 1 + t
2
1
t

( 2t 2
)( ) (

3t + 6 1
t + 2t 2 + 3t + 6 1 + t )( )
(1 + t )(1
t )
()
ge t =
2

Solutions 2-11

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

4t 2 + 12 + 6t 2 6 + 5t 2
()
ge t = =
(
2 1
t2 ) 1
t2

2t 2
3t + 6 2t 2 + 3t + 6


()
go t = 1 + t
2
1
t

( 2t 2
)( ) (

3t + 6 1
t
2t 2 + 3t + 6 1 + t )( )
(1 + t )(1
t )
()
go t =
2

6t
4t 3
12t 2t 2 + 9
()
go t = =
t
(
2 1
t2 ) 1
t2

( ) ( ) ( ) = sin ( t )
sin  t /  t + sin
 t /
 t
(d) () ()
g t = sinc t ge t = () 2 t
g (t ) = 0
o

(e) () (
g t = t 2
t 2 1 + 4t 2 )( )
() (
g t = t 2
t 2 1 + 4t 2
odd

   
)( )
even even

() ()
Therefore g t is odd, g e t = 0 and g o t = t 2
t 2 1 + 4t 2 () ( )( )
(f) () (
g t = t 2
t 1 + 4t )( )
( )( ) ( )(
t 2
t 1 + 4t +
t 2 + t 1
4t )( )
()
ge t =
2
()
g e t = 7t 2

( )( ) ( )(
t 2
t 1 + 4t

t 2 + t 1
4t )( )
()
go t =
2
() (
g o t = t 2
4t 2 )
19. Graph the even and odd parts of the functions in Figure E-19.

To graph the even part of graphically-defined functions like these, first graph g
t . ( )
()
Then add it (graphically, point by point) to g t and (graphically) divide the sum by

Solutions 2-12

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

( )
two. Then, to graph the odd part, subtract g
t from g t (graphically) and divide ()
the difference by two.
g(t) g(t)

1 1

t t
1 1 2

-1

Figure E-19
g e(t) g e(t)

1 1

t t
1 1 2

-1

g o(t) g o(t)

1 1

t t
1 1 2

-1
,
(a) (b)

20. ()
Graph the indicated product or quotient g t of the functions in Figure E-20.

(a) (b)
1 1
-1 -1
t t
1 1
-1 -1
g(t) g(t)
1
1
Multiplication Multiplication
-1
t 1
t
-1 1
-1

g(t) g(t)

1 1
-1
t t
1 -1 1
-1 -1

Solutions 2-13

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

(c) (d)

1 1
t t
-1 1

g(t) g(t)
Multiplication Multiplication
1 1
t t
1 1

g(t) g(t)

-1 1
t
-1 1
-1 1
t

(e) (f)
1
1
t
... ... 1
-1 1 t -1
-1 g(t)
g(t) 1
Multiplication
1
Multiplication 1
t
t -1
-1 1

g(t)
g(t)
1

... ... 1
-1 1 t
1
t
-1 -1

(g) (h)

1 1
t -1 -1 1
t
-1

g(t) g(t)
π
Division Division
1
t t
1 1

g(t) g(t)
1
t
-1 -1 1
t
Figure E-20

21. Use the properties of integrals of even and odd functions to evaluate these integrals in
the quickest way.

Solutions 2-14

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

1 1 1 1

(a) ( 2 + t dt = )  2
dt +  t
dt = 2  2dt = 4

1
1 even
1 odd 0

1/ 20 1/ 20 1/ 20

(b)  (
 4cos 10 t + 8sin 5 t  dt =
  ) ( )  ( )
4cos 10 t dt +  8sin 5 t dt




( )

1/ 20
1/ 20
1/ 20
even odd
1/ 20 1/ 20

 ( )
 4cos 10 t + 8sin 5 t  dt = 8
  ( )  cos (10 t ) dt = 10
8

1/ 20 0

1/ 20

(c)  (
4 t cos 10 t dt = 0 )

1/ 20 odd
 

  
even

odd

 cos 10 t
( ) ( ) dt 
1/10
1/10 1/10 1/10
cos 10 t
(d)  (
t sin 10 t dt = 2

 
)  ( )
t sin 10 t dt = 2 
t
 10
+  10 

1/10 odd

odd
0
 0
0

even

 
( )
1/10
1/10
 1 sin 10 t 


t
 sin 10  t (
dt == 2  100 + ) 1
 = 50
( )
2

1/10 odd  10 

 odd
 0
even

( )
1 1 1
1
 e
dt = 2  e dt = 2  e
t dt = 2 
e
t  = 2 1
e
1  1.264

t
t
(e)
0

1 even 0 0
1



t
(f) t
e
dt = 0



1 odd even
odd

Periodic CT Functions

22. Find the fundamental period and fundamental frequency of each of these functions.

(a) ()
g t = 10cos 50
t ( ) f0 = 25 Hz , T0 = 1 / 25 s

(b) ()
g t = 10cos 50
t +
/ 4 ( ) f0 = 25 Hz , T0 = 1 / 25 s

(c) () (
g t = cos 50
t + sin 15
t ) ( )
The fundamental period of the sum of two periodic signals is the least common
multiple (LCM) of their two individual fundamental periods. The fundamental
frequency of the sum of two periodic signals is the greatest common divisor (GCD)
of their two individual fundamental frequencies.
Solutions 2-15

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

( )
f0 = GCD 25,15 / 2 = 2.5 Hz , T0 = 1 / 2.5 = 0.4 s

(d) () ( ) ( )
g t = cos 2 t + sin 3 t + cos 5 t
3 / 4 ( )

(
f0 = GCD 1,3 / 2,5 / 2 = 1 / 2 Hz , T0 =) 1
1/ 2
=2s

23. ()
One period of a periodic signal, x t , with period, T0 , is graphed in Figure E-23.
()
Assuming x t has a period T0 , what is the value of x t at time, t = 220ms ? ()
x(t)
4
3
2
1

5ms 10ms 15ms 20ms

t
-1
-2
-3
-4
T0

Figure E-23

Since the function is periodic with period 15 ms, x 220ms = x 220ms
n  15ms ( ) ( )
where n is any integer. If we choose n = 14 we get

( ) (
x 220ms = x 220ms
14  15ms = x 220ms
210ms = x 10ms = 2 . ) ( ) ( )
24. In Figure E-24 find the fundamental period and fundamental frequency of g t . ()
g(t) ... ... t
1
(a) ... ... (b)
1
t
... ...
+ g(t)

t
1

... ... t
1
(c)
... ...
+ g(t)

t
1
Figure E-24

(a) f0 = 3 Hz and T0 = 1 / 3 s
(b) ( )
f0 = GCD 6,4 = 2 Hz and T0 = 1 / 2 s
(c) f0 = GCD ( 6,5) = 1 Hz and T0 = 1 s

Solutions 2-16

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

Signal Energy and Power of CT Signals

25. Find the signal energy of these signals.

 1/ 2

() () ()
2
(a) x t = 2 rect t Ex =  2 rect t dt = 4  dt = 4


1/ 2

(b) () ( () (
x t = A u t
u t
10 ))


( () ( ))
10
2
Ex =  A u t
u t
10 dt = A  dt = 10 A
2 2

 0

(c) () () (
x t = u t
u 10
t )
 0 

 () ( )
2
Ex = u t
u 10
t dt =  dt +  dt  


 10

(d) () () ( )
x t = rect t cos 2
t


( ( ))
1/ 2 1/ 2

() ( ) 1
( )
2
Ex =  rect t cos 2 t dt =  cos 2 t dt =  1 + cos 4 t dt
2


1/ 2
2
1/ 2

 
 1/ 2 1/ 2  1
1
( )
E x =   dt +  cos 4 t dt  =
2 
1/ 2


1/ 2
2


 =0 

(e) () () ( )
x t = rect t cos 4
t

( ( ))
1/ 2 1/ 2

() ( ) ( ) 1
2
Ex =  rect t cos 4 t dt =  cos 2 4 t dt =
2
1/ 2
1 + cos 8 t dt


1/ 2

 
1  1
1/ 2 1/ 2

( )
E x =   dt +  cos 8 t dt  =
2 
1/ 2


1/ 2
2


 =0 

(f) () () ( )
x t = rect t sin 2
t

( ( ))
1/ 2 1/ 2

() ( ) 1
( )
2
Ex =  rect t sin 2 t dt =  sin 2 t dt =  1
cos 4 t dt
2


1/ 2
2
1/ 2
Solutions 2-17

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

 
 1/ 2 1/ 2  1
1
E x =   dt
 cos 4 t dt  =
2 
1/ 2
( )


1/ 2
2


 =0 

26. ()
A CT signal is described by x t = Arect t + B rect t
0.5 . What is its signal () ( )
energy?


() ( )
2
Ex =  Arect t + B rect t
0.5 dt



Since these are purely real functions,



 ( Arect (t ) + B rect (t
0.5))

2
Ex = dt




Ex =  (A () ( )
rect 2 t + B 2 rect 2 t
0.5 + 2 AB rect t rect t
0.5 dt () ( ))
2



1/ 2 1 1/ 2

Ex = A  dt + B  dt + 2 AB  dt = A + B 2 + AB
2 2 2

1/ 2 0 0

27. Find the average signal power of the periodic signal x(t) in Figure E-27.
x(t)
3
2
1

-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
t
-1
-2
-3

Figure E-27

t0 +T0 1
4  t3 
2 1 1

 x (t ) ()
1 2 1 2 1 4 2 8
dt =  x t dt =  2t dt =  t dt =   =
2
P=
T0 t0
3
1 3
1 3
1 3  3 
1 9

28. Find the average signal power of these signals.

T /2 T /2

() 1
T  T 
A2

A2
2
(a) x t =A Px = lim A dt = lim dt = lim T = A2
T  T T  T

T / 2
T / 2

Solutions 2-18

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

T /2 T /2

() () 1
() 1 1T 1
2

T  T   dt = lim T
(b) x t =u t Px = lim u t dt = lim =
T  T T  2 2

T / 2 0

(c) ()
x t = Acos 2
f0t +  ( )
T /2 T /2
1 0
( ) A2 0
( )
2

T0
T / 2 T0
T / 2
Px = Acos 2 f0t +  dt = cos 2 2 f0t +  dt
0 0

( ) 
T0 / 2
A2  sin 4 f0t + 2
T /2

Px =
A2 0
2T0
T / 2
(
1 + cos 4 f0t + 2 dt = ( t +
2T0  4 f0
))


T / 2
0
0

 
Px =
A 
2
T0 +
(
sin 4 f0T0 / 2 + 2


sin
4 f0T0 / 2 + 2  A2
=
) ( )
2T0  4 f0 4 f0

 
2
 =0 

The average signal power of a periodic power signal is unaffected if it is shifted in

time. Therefore we could have found the average signal power of Acos 2
f0t ( )
instead, which is somewhat easier algebraically.

CT Functions

29. Given the function definitions on the left, find the function values on the right.

(a) ()
g t = 100sin 200
t +
/ 4 ( )
( ) (
g 0.001 = 100sin 200
 0.001 +
/ 4 = 100sin
/ 5 +
/ 4 = 98.77 ) ( )
() () () ()
2
(b) g t = 13
4t + 6t 2 g 2 = 13
4 2 + 6 2 = 29

(c) ()
g t =
5e
2t e
j 2 t

( )
g 1 / 4 =
5e
2/ 4 e
j 2 / 4 =
5e
1/ 2 e
j / 2 =
j3.03

30. Let the CT unit impulse function be represented by the limit,

() ( ) ( )
x = lim 1 / a tri x/ a , a > 0 .

a0

The function, (1 / a ) tri ( x / a ) has an area of one regardless of the value of a.

Solutions 2-19

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

(a) ( ) ( ) ( )?
What is the area of the function,
4x = lim 1 / a tri 4x / a
a0

This is a triangle with the same height as (1 / a ) tri ( x/ a ) but 1/4 times the base
width. Therefore its area is 1/4 times as great or 1/4.

(b) ( ( ) ( )
What is the area of the function, 
6x = lim 1 / a tri
6x / a
a0
)?
This is a triangle with the same height as (1 / a ) tri ( x/ a ) but 1/6 times the base
width. (The fact that the factor is “-6” instead of “6” just means that the triangle is
reversed in time which does not change its shape or area.) Therefore its area is 1/6
times as great or 1/6.

(c) ( ) (
What is the area of the function,
bx = lim 1 / a tri bx / a for b positive
a0
) ( )
and for b negative ?

It is simply 1 / b .

31. Using a change of variable and the definition of the unit impulse, prove that

((
 a t
t0 )) = (1 / a ) (t
t ) 0
.


()

x =0 , x0 ,   (x) d x = 1



( ) (
  a t
t0  = 0 , where a t
t0  0 or t  t0 )


Strength =    a (t
t ) dt 0


Let
( )
a t
t0 =  and  adt = d 
Then, for a > 0,
 
d 1
Strength =   
a
( ) 1 1
=    d = =
a
 a a
( )



and for a < 0,


 
d 1
Strength =    ( )
a
( )1
=    d =
   d =
=
a a

1 1
a a
( )


Therefore for a > 0 and a < 0,

Strength =
1
a
(1
and   a t
t0  =  t
t0 .
a
) ( )
32. Using the results of Exercise 31, show that

(a)

Solutions 2-20

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

( ) ( )   ( x
n / a)

1 ax = 1 / a
n=


From the definition of the periodic impulse, 1 ax =   ax
n . ( ) ( )


 
Then, using the property from Exercise 31, 1 ax =    a x
n / a  =
1
a
( ) ( )  ( x
n / a) .




(b) ( )
Show that the average value of
1 ax is one, independent of the value of a

The period is 1 / a . Therefore

t0 +1/ a 1/ 2a 1/ 2a

( )
1 ax =
1
1/ a  ( )
1 ax dx = a  ( )
1 ax dx = a   ( ax ) dx
t0
1/ 2a
1/ 2a

Letting
= ax
1/ 2

( )
1 ax =   ( ) d = 1

1/ 2

(d) ( ) (
Even though
at = 1 / a
t ,
1 ax  1 / a
1 x ) () ( ) ( ) ()
( )   ( ax
n)  (1 / a )   ( x
n) = (1 / a ) ( x )
 
1 ax = 1
n=
 n=


( ) (

1 ax  1 / a
1 x ) () QED

Scaling and Shifting Functions

33. Graph these CT singularity and related functions.

(a) () (
g t = 2u 4
t ) (b) () ( )
g t = u 2t

(c) ()
g t = 5s gn t
4 ( ) (d) ()
g t = 1 + s gn 4
t ( )
(e) ()
g t = 5ramp t + 1 ( ) (f) ()
g t =
3ramp 2t ( )
(g) () (
g t = 2
t + 3 ) (h) ()
g t = 6
3t + 9 ( )

Solutions 2-21

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

(a) (b) (c) (d)

g(t) g(t) g(t) g(t)
5
2 1 2
t
4
t t t
4 -5 4

(e) (f) (g) (h)

g(t) g(t) g(t) g(t)
10 1 2 2
t

-6
t t t
-1 1 -3 -3

(i) ()
g t =
4 2 t
1 ( ( )) (j) ()
g t = 21 t
1 / 2 ( )
(k) ()
g t = 8
1 4t ( ) (l) ()
g t =
6 2 t + 1 ( )
(m) ()
g t = 2 rect t / 3 ( ) (n) ()
g t = 4 rect t + 1 / 2 (( ) )
(o) ()
g t = tri 4t ( ) (p) ()
g t =
6 tri t
1 / 2 (( ) )
(i) (j) (k) (l)
g(t) g(t) g(t) g(t)
-1 1 3
1 2 2 ... ... t
t

... ... ... ...

-2 t t -6
1 1
4

(m) (n) (o) (p)

g(t) g(t) g(t) g(t)
2 1 -1 1 3
4 t

t t
-3 3
-2
t -1 1 -6
2 2 4 4

(q) ()
g t = 5sinc t / 2 ( ) (r) ()
g t =
sinc 2 t + 1 ( ( ))
(s) ()
g t =
10drcl t,4 ( ) (t) ()
g t = 5drcl t / 4,7 ( )

Solutions 2-22

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

(q) (r)
g(t) g(t)
-1
5 t

t -1
2
(s) (t)
g(t) g(t)
10 5

t
4
t
8
-10 -1

-3rect(t-2) 0.1rect t-3

4 ( )
3 5
2 2 0.1
(u) t (v)
-3
t
1 3 5

-4tri 3+t
2 ( ) 4sinc[5(t-3)]
4
(w) t (x)
-5 3 -1
-4 t
-1 1 2 3 4 5 6

4sinc(5t-3)
4

t
(y) -1 1 2 3 4 5 6

34. Graph these CT functions.

(a) () () (
g t = u t
u t
1 ) (b) () (
g t = rect t
1 / 2 )
(c) ()
g t =
4 ramp t u t
2 () ( ) (d) () () ( )
g t = s gn t sin 2
t

Solutions 2-23

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

(e) ()
g t = 5e
t / 4 u t () (f) ()
g t = rect t cos 2
t() ( )
(g) ()
g t =
6 rect t cos 3 t() ( ) (h) ()
g t = rect t tri t () ()

(a) (b) (c) (d)

g(t) g(t)
g(t) g(t)
1 1
2 4
t 1
-8
t t t
1 1 -16
-1 1

(e) (f) (g) (h)

g(t) g(t) g(t) g(t)
6
1 1
5 -1 1
1
2 2 t t 2
-1 1
t -1 2 2 t
4 -6 -1 1
2 2

(i) () () (
g t = rect t tri t + 1 / 2 ) (j) () ( )
g t = u t + 1 / 2 ramp 1 / 2
t ( )
(k) ()
g t = tri2 t() (l) ()
g t = sinc 2 t ()
(m) ()
g t = sinc t () (n) ()
g t =
d
dt
( ( ))
tri t

(o) () (
g t = rect t + 1 / 2
rect t
1 / 2 ) ( )
t
(p) () ( )
g t =     + 1
2  +  
1 ( ) ( )
d 




(i) (j) (k) (l)

g(t) g(t) g(t) g(t)
1 1 1 1

t t
t t -1 1 -1 1
-1 1 -1 1
2 2 2 2

(m) (n) (o) (p)

g(t) g(t) g(t) g(t)
1 1 1 1
1 t 1 t 1 t
-1 -1 -1
-1 -1 -1
1 t

Solutions 2-24

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

() ( ) ( )
3
(q) g t = 3tri 2t / 3 + 3rect t / 3 ,
t
-3 3
2 2

() ( ) ( )
3
(r) g t = 6 tri t / 3 rect t / 3
t
-3 3
2 2

(s) ( ) ( )
4sinc 2t sgn
t
-1
2
1
2
t
,

-4
4

(t) () () (( ) )
g t = 2 ramp t rect t
1 / 2 t
2

(u) () (( ) ) (
g t = 4 tri t
2 / 2 u 2
t ) t
,
2

(v) () ( )
g t = 3rect t / 4
6 rect t / 2 ( ) -2 -1 1 2
t

-3

(w) () ( )
g t = 10drcl t / 4,5 rect t / 8 ( )
(g)
g(t)
10

t
-8 -2 8

35. Graph the following CT functions.

Solutions 2-25

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

(a) () ( )
g t = 3 3t + 6 4 t
2 (( ))
Using the impulse scaling property, g t =  t + 3 / 2  t
2 () () ( ) ( )
g(t)
3
2
1

t
2
(b) ()
g t = 21
t / 5 ( )
g(t)
 

() ( ) ( )
10
g t = 2  
t / 5
n = 10   t + 5n ,
n=
 n=
 ... ...
t
-10 -5 5 10 15 20

(c) () ()
g t =
1 t rect t / 11 ( )
g(t)


() ( )   (t
n) =   (t
n)
5
1
g t = rect t / 11 ,
n=
 n=
5

t
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5

(d) ()
g t = 5sinc t / 4
2 t ( ) ()
 

()
g t = 5sinc t / 4( ) ( )
  t
2n = 5  sinc n / 2  t
2n ( ) ( )
n=
 n=


g(t)
5

t
2 6 10

Solutions 2-26

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

(e) ( )   (  )
 ( 
1) d 

g t = 2 2



g(t)

t
-2 -1 1 2 3

36. ()
A function, g t , has the following description. It is zero for t <
5 . It has a slope
of –2 in the range
5 < t <
2 . It has the shape of a sine wave of unit amplitude and
with a frequency of 1 / 4 Hz plus a constant in the range,
2 < t < 2 . For t > 2 it
decays exponentially toward zero with a time constant of 2 seconds. It is continuous
everywhere.

(a) Write an exact mathematical description of this function.

0 , t <
5


10
2t ,
5 < t <
2
()
g t =
( )
sin  t / 2 ,
2<t<2

6e
t / 2 , t>2


(b) ()
Graph g t in the range,
10 < t < 10 .

(c) ( )
Graph g 2t in the range,
10 < t < 10 .

(d) ( )
Graph 2 g 3
t in the range,
10 < t < 10 .

(e) (( ) )
Graph
2 g t + 1 / 2 in the range,
10 < t < 10 .

Solutions 2-27

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

g(t) g(2t)
t t
-10 10 -10 10

-8 -8
2g(3- t) -2g(( t+1)/2)
t 16
-10 10

-16 t
-10 10

37. Using MATLAB, for each function below plot the original function and the
transformed function.

% Plotting functions and transformations of those functions

close all ;
% (a) part
tmin = -2 ; tmax = 2 ; N = 400 ;
dt = (tmax - tmin)/N ; t = tmin + dt*[0:N]’ ;
g0 = g322a(t) ; g1 = 5*g322a(2*t) ;
subplot(2,1,1) ; p = plot(t,g0,’k’) ; set(p,’LineWidth’,2) ;
grid on ;
ylabel(‘g(t)’) ;
subplot(2,1,2) ; p = plot(t,g1,’k’) ; set(p,’LineWidth’,2) ;
grid on ;
xlabel(‘t’) ; ylabel(‘5g(2t)’) ;

% (b) part
figure ;
tmin = -3 ; tmax = 8 ; N = 100 ;
dt = (tmax - tmin)/N ; t = tmin + dt*[0:N]’ ;
g0 = g322b(t) ; g1 = -3*g322b(4-t) ;
subplot(2,1,1) ; p = plot(t,g0,’k’) ; set(p,’LineWidth’,2) ;
grid on ;
ylabel(‘g(t)’) ;
subplot(2,1,2) ; p = plot(t,g1,’k’) ; set(p,’LineWidth’,2) ;
grid on ;
xlabel(‘t’) ; ylabel(‘-3g(4-t)’) ;

% (c) part
figure ;
tmin = 0 ; tmax = 96 ; N = 400 ;
dt = (tmax - tmin)/N ; t = tmin + dt*[0:N]’ ;
g0 = g322c(t) ; g1 = g322c(t/4) ;
subplot(2,1,1) ; p = plot(t,g0,’k’) ; set(p,’LineWidth’,2) ;
grid on ;
ylabel(‘g(t)’) ;
subplot(2,1,2) ; p = plot(t,g1,’k’) ; set(p,’LineWidth’,2) ;
grid on ;
xlabel(‘t’) ; ylabel(‘g(t/4)’) ;

% (d) part

Solutions 2-28

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

figure ;
fmin = -20 ; fmax = 20 ; N = 200 ;
df = (fmax - fmin)/N ; f = fmin + df*[0:N]’ ;
G0 = G322d(f) ; G1 = abs(G322d(10*(f-10)) + G322d(10*(f+10))) ;
subplot(2,1,1) ; p = plot(f,G0,’k’) ; set(p,’LineWidth’,2) ;
grid on ;
ylabel(‘G(f)’) ;
subplot(2,1,2) ; p = plot(f,G1,’k’) ; set(p,’LineWidth’,2) ;
grid on ;
xlabel(‘f’) ; ylabel(‘|G(10(f-10)) + G(10*(f+10))|’) ;

function y = g322a(t)
g = (1-abs(t)).*(-1 < t & t < 1) ;
y = 10*cos(20*pi*t).*g ;

function y = g322b(t)
y = -2*(t <= -1) + 2*t.*(-1 < t & t <= 1) + ...
(3-t.^2).*(1 < t & t <= 3) - 6*(t > 3) ;

function y = g322c(t)
y = real(exp(j*pi*t) + exp(j*1.1*pi*t)) ;

function y = G322d(f)
y = abs(5./(f.^2 - j*2 + 3)) ;

(a)
() ( ) ()
g t = 10cos 20
t tri t 5g 2t( ) vs. t

Original g(t)
10

t
-2 2

-10

Transformed g(t)
50

t
-2 2

-50
(b)

2 , t <
1

2t ,
1 < t < 1
()
g t = (

3g 4
t ) vs. t
3
t , 1 < t < 3
2


6 , t > 3

Solutions 2-29

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

Original g(t)
2
t
-4 8

-6

Transformed g(t)
20

t
-4 8
-10
(c)
() (
g t = Re e j
t + e j1.1
t ) ( )
g t/4 vs. t
Original g(t)
2

t
100

-2

Transformed g(t)
2

t
100

-2
(d)

( )
G f =
5
f
j2 + 3
2 ( ( )) ( (
G 10 f
10 + G 10 f + 10 )) vs. f

Original g(t)
1.5

t
-20 20

Transformed g(t)
1.5

t
-20 20

Solutions 2-30

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

38. The voltage illustrated in Figure E38 occurs in an analog-to-digital converter. Write a
mathematical description of it.

Signal in A/D Converter

x(t)
5

t (ms)
-0.1 0.3

Figure E38 Signal occurring in an A/D converter

 t
5  10
5   t
1.5  10
4 

()
x t = tri 
 5  10 

5 
+ tri 
 5  10

5 


39. A signal occurring in a television set is illustrated in Figure E39. Write a

mathematical description of it.

Signal in Television
x(t)
5
-10 60
t (µs)

-10
Figure E39 Signal occurring in a television set

 t
2.5  10
6 
()
x t =
10 rect 
 5  10

6 


40. The signal illustrated in Figure E40 is part of a binary-phase-shift-keyed (BPSK)

binary data transmission. Write a mathematical description of it.

BPSK Signal
x(t)
1

t (ms)
4

-1

Figure E40 BPSK signal

Solutions 2-31

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

  t
0.5  10
3
 t
1.5  10
3

 sin (
8000 t rect 

)
10
3 


sin 8000 t rect 

(
10
3  
 
)

()
x t =

3


3 

 + sin 8000 t rect t
2.5  10
sin 8000 t rect t
3.5  10 

( ) ( )
 
3  
3 
 10   10 

41. The signal illustrated in Figure E41 is the response of an RC lowpass filter to a
sudden change in excitation. Write a mathematical description of it.

On a decaying exponential, a tangent line at any point intersects the final value one time
constant later. Theconstant value before the decaying exponential is -4 V and the slope of
the tangent line at 4 ns is -2.67V/4 ns or -2/3 V/ns.

RC Filter Signal
x(t)
4
t (ns)
20
-1.3333

-4

-6

Figure E41 Transient response of an RC filter

(8000 t ) rect (t
0.5  10 )

3
( ) ( ) ( ) (

sin 8000 t rect t
1.5  10
3 + sin 8000 t rect t
2.5  10
3
sin 8000 t rect t
3.5  ) ( ) (
()
x t =
4
2 1
e ( )

t
4 /3
( ) u (t
4) (times in ns)

42. Describe the signal in Figure E42 two ways.

x(t)

15
...
t
4
Figure E42

(a) As a ramp function minus a summation of step functions.

() ()
x t = 3.75ramp t
15 u t
4n ( )
n=0

(b) As a summation of products of triangle functions and rectangle functions.


 t
2
4n   t
4
4n 
()
x t = 15 rect 
 4  tri  4 
n=0

Solutions 2-32

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

43. Mathematically describe the signal in Figure E-43 .

x(t)
Semicircle
9
... ...
t
9
Figure E-43

The semicircle centered at t = 0 is the top half of a circle defined by

()
x 2 t + t 2 = 81
Therefore
()
x t = 81
t 2 ,
9 < t < 9 .

This one period of this periodic function. The other periods are just shifted versions.

 
( )  rect  t
1818n 


( )
2
x t = 81
t
18n
n=


(The rectangle function avoids the problem of imaginary values for the square roots
of negative numbers.)

44. Let two signals be defined by

( )
1 , cos 2
t  1
()
x1 t =  and () (
x 2 t = sin 2
t / 10 ) .
( )
0 , cos 2
t < 1

Plot these products over the time range,
5 < t < 5 .

(a) ( ) ( )
x1 2t x 2
t (b) ( ) ( )
x1 t / 5 x 2 20t

(c) ( ) ( (
x1 t / 5 x 2 20 t + 1 )) (d) (( ) ) ( )
x1 t
2 / 5 x 2 20t

Solutions 2-33

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

(a) (b)
x1(t)x2(t) x1(t)x2(t)

1 1

t t
-5 5 -5 5

-1 -1

(c) (d)
x1(t)x2(t) x1(t)x2(t)

1 1

t t
-5 5 -5 5

-1 -1

45. Given the graphical definition of a function in Figure E-45, graph the indicated
transformation(s).

(a)
g(t)
2
1
() ( )
g t  g 2t
1 g ( t ) 
3g (
t )
-2 2 3 4 5 6
t
-2

()
g t = 0 , t > 6 or t <
2

(b)
g(t)
2 tt+4
1
t () (( ) )
g t 
2 g t
1 / 2
-2 1 2 3 4 5 6
-2
()
g t is periodic with fundamental period, 4

Figure E-45

(a)

Solutions 2-34

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

() ( )
The transformation, g t
g 2t , simply compresses the time scale by a factor of 2.
The transformation g ( t ) 
3g (
t ) time inverts the signal, amplitude inverts the
signal and then multiplies the amplitude by 3.
g(2t)
2
1
-2 2 4 6
t
-2

-3g(-t)
6
3
-4 -2 2 4 6
t
-6
(b)
g(t + 4)
2
1
t
-2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-2
-2g( t -1 )
2
4
2
-2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
t
-4
46. For each pair of functions graphed in Figure E-46 determine what transformation has
been done and write a correct functional expression for the transformed function.

(a)

Solutions 2-35

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

g(t)
2 2

-2 1 2 3 4 5 6
t t
-1 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 1 2 3 4

(b)
g(t)
2

t -2 1 2 3 4 5 6
t
-2 1 2 3 4 5 6 -1
()
In (b), assuming g t is periodic with fundamental period, 2, find two different
transformations which yield the same result

Figure E-46
(a)
It should be visually obvious that the transformed signal has been time inverted and
time shifted. By identifying a few corresponding points on both curves we see that
after the time inversion the shift is to the right by 2. This corresponds to two
successive transformations, t 
t , followed by t  t
2 . The overall effect of the
two successive transformations is then t 
t
2 = 2
t . ( )
Therefore the
transformation is
g t g 2
t () ( )
(b) () ( ) (
) () ( ) ( )
g t 
1 / 2 g t + 1 or g t 
1 / 2 g t
1

47. Let a function be defined by g ( t ) = tri ( t ) . Below are four other functions based on
this function. All of them are zero for large negative values of t.

() (( ) )
g1 t =
5g 2
t / 6 () ( ) ( )
g 2 t = 7 g 3t
4 g t
4

g ( t ) = g ( t + 2 )
4 g (( t + 4 ) / 3)
3
g4 (t ) =
5g (t ) g (t
1 / 2)
(a) Which of these transformed functions is the first to become non-zero
(becomes non-zero at the earliest time)? g3 t ()
(b) Which of these transformed functions is the last to go back to zero and stay
there? g1 t ()
Solutions 2-36

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

(c) Which of these transformed functions has a maximum value that is greater
than all the other maximum values of all the other transformed functions?
()
g2 t

(d) Which of these transformed functions has a minimum value that is less than
all the other minimum values of all the other transformed functions? g1 t ()
48. Name a function of continuous time t for which the two successive transformations
( ) ()
t 
t and t  t
1 leave the function unchanged. cos 2
t ,
1 t , etc...
(Any even periodic function with a period of one.)

49. Graph the magnitude and phase of each function versus f.

(a) ( ) ( )
G f = sinc f e
j f /8

This function is a ratio of two functions, jf and 1 + jf/10. The magnitude of the ratio
is the ratio of the magnitudes. At very low values of f , the ratio approaches 0
because the numerator approaches 0 and the denominator approaches 1. At very
high values of f the denominator is approximately jf/10 and the magnitude of the ratio
approaches 10. All these statements are equally true for positive and negative f.
Therefore the magnitude is an even function of f.

The phase of the ratio is the phase of the numerator minus the phase of the
denominator. For any positive f , the phase of the numerator is the phase of j times a
positive constant. That is some number on the positive imaginary axis in the
complex plane. So the phase is
/ 2 radians or 90°. For very small positive f, the
denominator is approximately just the real number, 1, whose phase is 0. Therefore
for very small positive f approaching 0 the phase approaches
/ 2 . For very large
positive f , the phase of the denominator approaches
/ 2 also and the difference
between the numerator and denominator phases approaches 0. The behavior for
negative f is similar except that the phase of the numerator is now
 / 2 . So the
phase for negative f is exactly the negative of the phase for the corresponding positive
f. That is, the phase is an odd function of f.

(b) ( )
G f =
jf
1 + jf / 10

Solutions 2-37

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

(a) (b)
|G( f )| |G( f )|
1 10

f f
-16 16 -100 100

Phase of G( f ) Phase of G( f )
π π

f f
-16 16 -100 100

-π -π

  f
1000  f + 1000 
j f /500

(c) ( )
G f =  rect 
 100

+ rect  100
 e
 

(d) ( )
G f =
1
250
f 2 + j3 f

(c) (d)
|G( f )| |G( f )|
1 0.02

f f
-1100 1100 -50 50

Phase of G( f ) Phase of G( f )
π π

f f
-1100 1100 -50 50

-π -π

( ) (

0.01 f sinc 25 f e j f /50 )
(e) ( )
G f =
100

Solutions 2-38

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

(e)
|G( f )|
0.01

f
-0.2 0.2

Phase of G( f )
π

f
-0.2 0.2

-π
50. Graph versus f , in the range,
4 < f < 4 , the magnitude and phase of

(a) ( )
X f = sinc f ( )
The phase in this plot is the phase of a purely real function. If we only plotted purely
real functions we would not need to graph magnitude and phase separately. A simple
real plot of the function would be sufficient and clearer. But most transforms that we
will later graph are complex functions and magnitude and phase plots are good ways
of representing them. Since this function is purely real its value always lies on the
real axis of the complex plane. When it is positive the simplest phase answer is 0.
When it is negative the simplest phase answer is either positive or negative
radians.
Later, in the study of transform methods applied to systems, we will find that we
always have an even magnitude and an odd phase. For that reason, it is consistent
and logical to choose phase values so as to make the plot an odd function. Here that
( )
is done by making the phase for negative values of sinc f be
for positive f and

 for negative f.

|X( f )|
1

-4 -3 -2-1 1234
f
X( f )
π
-4 -3 -2-1
1234
f
-π

Solutions 2-39

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

|X( f )|
2

-4 -3 -2-1 1234
f

(b) ( ) ( )
X f = 2sinc f e
j 4 f
X( f )

-4 -3 -2-1 4π
-4π 1 2 3 4
f
π

|X( f )|
5

1 1 f
( ) ( )
4 4

(c) X f = 5rect 2 f e+ j 2
f X( f )
π
2
f
π
2

|X( f )|
10

(d) () (
X f = 10sinc 2 f / 4 ) -4 -3 -2-1 1234
f
X( f )

-4 -3 -2-1 1234
f
|X( f )|
5

f
( ) ( ) ( )
-4 -3 -2-1 1234
(e) X f = j5 f + 2
j5 f
2 X( f )
π
2

-4 -3 -2-1 1234
f
π
2

(f) ( ) ( ) ( )
X f = 1 / 2 1/ 4 f e
j f

Solutions 2-40

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

|X( f )|
1
2

... ...
-1 43 21 41 1 1 3 1
f
4 2 4

e
j f 
 n
( )
X f =
2
   f
4
 X( f )
n=
 4π
3π
2π
π
-4 -3 -2 -1-π 1 2 3 4 f
-2π
-3π
-4π

Generalized Derivative

51. ()
Graph the generalized derivative of g t = 3sin
t / 2 rect t . ( ) ()
Except at the discontinuities at t = ±1 / 2 , the derivative is either zero, for t > 1 / 2 , or
( ) ( ) (
it is the derivative of 3sin
t / 2 , 3
/ 2 cos
t / 2 , for t < 1 / 2 . At the )
discontinuities the generalized derivative is an impulse whose strength is the
difference between the limit approached from above and the limit approached from
below. In both cases that strength is
3 / 2 .

d (g(t))
dt
3π
2

t
3
2

Alternate solution:
() ( ) (
g t = 3sin  t / 2  u t + 1 / 2
u t
1 / 2  ) ( )
d
dt
( ( )) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
g t = 3sin  t / 2  t + 1 / 2
 t
1 / 2  + 3 / 2 cos  t / 2  u t + 1 / 2
u t
1 / 2  ) ( ) ( )

d
dt
( ( )) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
g t = 3sin
 / 4  t + 1 / 2
3sin  / 4  t
1 / 2  + 3 / 2 cos  t / 2 rect t ) ( ) ( ) ()
d
dt
( ( )) ( ) ( ) (
g t =
3 2 / 2  t + 1 / 2 +  t
1 / 2  + 3 / 2 cos  t / 2 rect t ) ( ) ()
Solutions 2-41

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

Derivatives and Integrals of CT Functions

52. What is the numerical value of each of the following integrals?

 

(a) () ( )
  t cos 48 t dt = cos 0 = 1 , (b) ()   (t
5) cos ( t ) dt = cos (5 ) =
1




20

  (t
8) tri (t / 32) dt = tri (8 / 32) = 4

3
(c)
0

20

(d)   (t
8) rect (t / 16) dt = rect (8 / 16) = 1 / 2

0

2
(
sin 3 / 2 )=

(e) ( ) ()
  t
1.5 sinc t dt = sinc 1.5 = ( ) 3 / 2
2
3

2

sin 6
2

(f)   (t
1.5) sinc ( 4t ) dt = sinc ( 4  1.5) = 6

=0

2

53. What is the numerical value of each of the following integrals?

    

(a) () (
 1 t cos 48 t dt = )  (
  t
n cos 48 t dt = ) ( )    (t
n) cos ( 48 t ) dt


 n=
 n=


  

() (
 1 t cos 48 t dt = )  (
cos 48n = )  1 

 n=
 n=


x(t)
1

t
-0.1 0.1

-1

(b)   (t ) sin ( 2 t ) dt
1


   

() ( )
 1 t sin 2 t dt =  ( ) ( )
  t
n sin 2 t dt =  sin ( 2n ) = 0

 n=

 n=


Solutions 2-42

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

x(t)
1

t
-2 2

-1

20

(c) ( )
4   4 t
2 rect t dt ()
0
20  20 

( ) () (
4   4 t
2 rect t dt = 4    t
2
4n rect t dt = 4  rect 2 + 4n = 0 ) () ( )
0 n=
 0 n=

x(t)
4

t
-8 8

2  2 
(d)   (t ) sinc (t ) dt =    (t
n) sinc (t ) dt =  sinc ( n) = 1
1
n=

2 n=


2

x(t)
4

t
-8 8

54. Graph the derivatives of these functions.

( )

cos 2 t , t < 0
(a) ()
g t = sin 2
t s gn t( ) () ()
g t = 2 
cos 2 t ( )
, t0
(b) ()
g t = 2 tri t / 2
1( )
1 + t ,
2 < t < 0 1 ,
2 < t < 0
 
()
g t = 1
t , 0 < t < 2  ()
g t = 
1 , 0 < t < 2
0 , otherwise 0 , otherwise
 

sin 2 t ( )
, cos 2 t < 0 ( )
(c) ()
g t = cos 2
t ( ) ()
g t = 2 
( )

sin 2 t , cos 2 t > 0 ( )
Solutions 2-43

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

(a) (b) (c)

x(t) x(t) x(t)
1 1 1
t t t
-4 4 -4 4 -1 1
-1 -1 -1
dx/dt dx/dt dx/dt
6 1 6
t t t
-4 4 -4 4 -1 1
-6 -1 -6

Even and Odd CT Functions

55. Graph the even and odd parts of these CT signals.

(a) ()
x t = rect t
1 ( )
( )
rect t
1 + rect t + 1 ( ) ( )
rect t
1
rect t + 1( )
xe t =() 2
, ()
xo t =
2

(b) () (
x t = tri t
3 / 4 + tri t + 3 / 4 ) ( )
() ( )
x e t = tri t
3 / 4 + tri t + 3 / 4 ( ) , ()
x0 t = 0

(a) (b)
xe(t) xe(t)

1 1

t t
-3 3 -3 3

-1 -1

xo(t) xo(t)

1 1

t t
-3 3 -3 3

-1 -1

(c) ()
x t = 4sinc t
1 / 2 (( ) )

()
xe t =
(( ) )
4sinc t
1 / 2 + 4sinc
t
1 / 2 (( ) ) = 2  sin ((t
1) / 2) + sin ((
t
1) / 2) 
2  ( t
1)  / 2 (
t
1) / 2 


Solutions 2-44

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

  t   t     t   t  
 sin 

sin 


 sin 

sin 



 2 2  2 2  2 2  2 2
()
xe t = 2  + = 4

( )
 t
1  / 2


t
1  / 2

(
 t
1 

)
t +1 

( ) ( )
   
Using
( )
sin x + y = sin x cos y + cos x sin y () ( ) () ( )
 
 =0
 
 =
1
 
( ) (
 sin  t / 2 cos
 / 2 + cos  t / 2 sin
 / 2



) ( ) ( )
 t
1  (  )
()
xe t = 4 

 =0
 
 =
1




( ) (
 sin
 t / 2 cos
 / 2 + cos
 t / 2 sin
 / 2 


) ( ) ( )
 t +1   ( )
(
 cos  t / 2 cos  t / 2 ) ( )  = 4cos   t (t
1)
(t + 1)
()
xe t = 4 

(
 t + 1  t
1  ) ( )  ( ) ( )
 2
 t + 1  t
1 

  t 
2 cos  t / 2 ( )
()
x e t = 4cos   =
8
 2   t2
1  t2
1 ( ) ( )
cos  t / 2 ( ) Similarly, x cos  t / 2 ( )
()
x e t =
8 (t ) =
8t
 t2
1( ) o
 t2
1( )
(d) () (
x t = 2sin 4 t
 / 4 rect t ) ()
() (
x e t =
2sin  / 4 cos 4 t rect t ,) ( ) () () (
x o t = 2cos
/ 4 sin 4
t rect t ) ( ) ()

Solutions 2-45

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

(c) (d)
xe(t) xe(t)

4 2

t t
-10 10 -1 1

-4 -2

xo(t) xo(t)

4 2

t t
-10 10 -1 1

-4 -2

56. Find the even and odd parts of each of these CT functions.

(a) ()
g t = 10sin 20
t ( )
( )
10sin 20 t + 10sin
20 t ( )=0 ( )
10sin 20 t
10sin
20 t ( ) = 10sin 20 t
()
ge t =
2
()
, xo t =
2
( )
(b) ()
g t = 20t 3

( ) ( )
3 3
20t 3 + 20
t 20t 3
20
t
ge t =() 2
= 0 , go t = () 2
= 20t 3

(c) ()
x t = 8 + 7t 2

( ) ( )
2 2
8 + 7t 2 + 8 + 7
t 8 + 7t 2
8
7
t
()
xe t =
2
= 8 + 7t , x o t =
2
() 2
=0

(d) x (t ) = 1 + t
1 + t + 1 +
t ( ) =1 1 + t
1

t ( )=t
()
xe t =
2
, xo t = () 2
(e) ()
x t = 6t
6t + 6
t ( )=0 6t
6
t( ) = 6t
()ge t =
2
, go t = () 2
(f) g ( t ) = 4t cos (10
t )

( ) ( ) (
4t cos 10 t + 4
t cos
10 t ) = 4t cos (10 t ) + 4 (
t ) cos (10 t ) = 0
()
ge t =
2 2

Solutions 2-46

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

( ) ( ) (
4t cos 10 t
4
t cos
10 t ) = 4t cos (10 t )
4 (
t ) cos (10 t ) = 4t cos 10 t
()
go t =
2 2
( )
( )
cos
t
(g) ()
g t =

t
( ) + cos (
 t )
cos  t ( ) + cos ( t )
cos  t

()
ge t = t
2

 t = t
2

 t =0

( )
cos (
 t )
cos  t ( ) + cos ( t )
cos  t
( )
cos  t
()
go t = t
2

 t = t
2
t =
t

( )
sin 4
t
(h) ()
g t = 12 +
4
t

( ) + 12 + sin (
4 t )
sin 4 t ( ) + 12 + sin ( 4 t )
sin 4 t
12 + 12 + ( )
sin 4 t
()
ge t = 4 t
2

4 t
2
= 4 t 4 t = 12 +
4 t

12 +
sin 4 t ( )

12

sin
4 t sin 4 t sin 4 t


( ) ( ) ( )
()
go t = 4 t
2

4 t = 4 t
2
4 t = 0

(i) () (
g t = 8 + 7t cos 32
t ) ( )
(8 + 7t ) cos (32 t ) + (8
7t ) cos (
32 t ) = 8cos 32 t
()
ge t =
2
( )
(8 + 7t ) cos (32 t )
(8
7t ) cos (
32 t ) = 7t cos 32 t
()
go t =
2
( )
(j) () (
g t = 8 + 7t 2 sin 32
t) ( )
(8 + 7t ) sin (32 t ) + (8 + 7 (
t ) ) sin (
32 t )
2 2

()
ge t =
2
=0

(8 + 7t ) sin (32 t )
(8 + 7 (
t ) ) sin (
32 t )

2 2

()
go t =
2
( ) (
= 8 + 7t 2 sin 32 t )
57. Is there a function that is both even and odd simultaneously? Discuss.
Solutions 2-47

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

The only function that can be both odd and even simultaneously is the trivial signal,
()
x t = 0 . Applying the definitions of even and odd functions,

0+0 0
0
()
xe t =
2
()
= 0 = x t and x o t =
2
()=0=x t ()
proving that the signal is equal to both its even and odd parts and is therefore both
even and odd.

58. ()
Find and graph the even and odd parts of the CT function x t in Figure E-58

x(t)
2
1 1 2 3 4 5
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1
t
-1

Figure E-58

xe(t) xo(t)

2 2
1 2 3 4 5
1 1 1 2 3 4 5
t -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
t
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -1

Periodic CT Functions

59. For each of the following signals decide whether it is periodic and, if it is, find the
period.

(a) () (
g t = 28sin 400
t ) Periodic. Fundamental frequency = 200 Hz, Period = 5 ms.
(b) g ( t ) = 14 + 40cos ( 60
t ) Periodic. Fundamental frequency = 30 Hz Period =
33.33...ms.
(c) () (
g t = 5t
2cos 5000 t ) Not periodic.
(d) g ( t ) = 28sin ( 400
t ) + 12cos (500
t ) Periodic. Two sinusoidal components with
periods of 5 ms and 4 ms. Least common multiple is 20 ms. Period of the overall
signal is 20 ms.

Solutions 2-48

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

(e) () ( )
g t = 10sin 5t
4cos 7t ( ) Periodic. The Periods of the two sinusoids are 2
/ 5 s
and 2
/ 7 s. Least common multiple is 2
. Period of the overall signal is 2
s.
(f) ()
g t = 4sin 3t + 3sin ( ) ( 3t ) Not periodic because least common multiple is infinite.

Signal Energy and Power of CT Signals

60. Find the signal energy of each of these signals.

 1/ 2

( )   2 rect (
t )
2
(a) 2 rect
t , E= dt = 4  dt = 4


1/ 2
 1/16

( ) ( ) 1
2
(b) rect 8t , E=   rect 8t  dt =
   dt =
8


1/16
2

t 
  t
2

(c) 3rect   , E = 3rect    dt = 9 dt = 36

 4
 
 4 
2

(d) ( )
tri 2t ,

Keep in mind that the square of a rectangle function is another rectangle function but the
square of a triangle function is not another triangle function. Use the definition of the
triangle function and the fact that a triangle function is even to reduce the work.

(1
2 2t + 2t ) dt


 (1
2t )
1/ 2 1/ 2

( )
2 2
  tri 2t  dt = 
2
E=   dt =


1/ 2
1/ 2
0 1/ 2
 t3   t3 
 (1 + 4t + 4t ) dt +  ( )
0 1/ 2
1
E= 2
1
4t + 4t dt = t + 2t 2 + 4  + t
2t 2 + 4  =
2

1/ 2 0  3 
1/ 2  3 0 3

4 
t

2 2
  t
 t

 2

t 4
t
(e) 3tri   , E =
 4 3tri  4   dt = 9  1
4  dt = 9  1
2 4 + 4  dt

 
4
4  
0 t t2
4
 t t2   t 2 t 3 0  t 2 t 3 4 
E = 9    1 + +
dt +   1
+
dt = 9  t + +
+  t
+
= 24

4  2 16  0
2 16    4 48 
4  4 48  0
 

(f) (
2sin 200
t )
  
1 1
  2sin ( 200 t )
( ) ( ) dt
2
E= dt = 4  sin 200 t dt = 4  
sin 400 t
2

 



2 2

( ) 

 cos 400 t
E = 2 t + 
 400



Solutions 2-49

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

(g) ()

t (Hint: First find the signal energy of a signal which approaches an
impulse some limit, then take the limit.)

() (

t = lim 1 / a rect t / a
a0
) ( )
2

 1  t  1
a/2
t a
E =
 lim rect    dt = lim 2
rect   dt = lim 2  


a0 a  a  a0 a
a/2  a a0 a

(h) ()
x t =
d
dt
rect t( ( ))
d
dt
( ( )) (
rect t =  t + 1 / 2
 t
1 / 2 ) ( )


  (t + 1 / 2)
 (t
1 / 2)
2
Ex = dt  



(i) ( )  rect (  ) d  = ramp (t + 1 / 2)
ramp (t
1 / 2)

x t =



1/ 2 

(
Ex =  t + 1 / 2 dt +  dt   )
2

 1/

1/ 2 2
finite infinite

(j) ()
x t = e(

1
j8 t )
()
u t

  

 x (t ) ()
(
1
j8 )t
dt =  e( ) (
1+ j8 )t
2 2



1
j8 t
Ex = dt = e u t e dt


 0



 e
2t  1
Ex =  e dt = 
2t
 =
0 
2 0 2

61. Find the average signal power of each of these signals:

(a) ()
x t = 2sin 200
t ( ) This is a periodic function. Therefore
1 1
) dt
T /2 T /2
1 4
( ) (
2

T
T/ 2  T
T/ 2  2 2
Px =  2sin 200 t  dt = 
cos 400 t

Solutions 2-50

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

( )  ( ) ( )  = 2
T /2
2  sin 400 t 2  T sin 200 T T sin
200 T
Px = t
= 
+ +
T  400 
T / 2 T  2 400 2 400 

For any sinusoid, the average signal power is half the square of the amplitude.

(b) ()
x t =
1 t () This is a periodic signal whose period, T, is 1. Between
T / 2
and +T / 2 , there is one impulse whose energy is infinite. Therefore the average
power is the energy in one period, divided by the period, or infinite.

(c) ()
x t = e j100
t This is a periodic function. Therefore

T /2 1/100

 x (t )
1 2 1 0 2
Px =
T0 T0
dt = 
T0
T / 2
e j100 t dt = 50  e j100 t e
j100 t dt
0
1/100
1/100

Px = 50  dt = 1

1/100

62. A CT signal, x, is periodic with fundamental period, T0 = 6 . This signal is described

over the time period, 0 < t < 6 , by

(( ) ) ((
rect t
2 / 3
4 rect t
4 / 2 . ) )
What is the signal power of this signal?
The signal, x, can be described in the time period, 0 < t < 6 , by

0 , 0 < t <1/ 2

1 , 1/ 2 < t < 3
()
x t = 
3 , 3< t < 7 / 2

4 , 7/2<t <5

0 , 5<t <6

The signal power is the signal energy in one fundamental period divided by the
fundamental period.

1  2.5 + 4.5 + 24
1 5 1 3
( ) ( )
2 2
P =  02  + 12  +
3  +
4  + 02  1 = = 5.167
6 2 2 2 2  6

Solutions 2-51