Today, throughout most of the world,
doloma based refractories are the preferred
Optimizing AOD Refractory
Performance Through Lining Design
and Process Control
Donald J. Griffin and Lowell D. Johnson
Baker Refractories
232 East Market Street
P.O. Box 1189
York, Pennsylvania 17405
(717) 848-1501
ABSTRACT
The Argon-Oxygen Decarburization
process (AOD) is the dominant process
worldwide for the production of stainless
steels. Throughout most of the world, doloma
based brick has become the standard
refractory lining for the AOD vessel. Doloma
refractories offer lower cost, longer life and
metallurgical benefits to the steel producer. In
order to optimize the performance of doloma
refractories in the AOD, it is necessary to
properly control such variables as slag
chemistry, process temperatures and gas blow
rates. Brick composition, lining thickness and
vessel design can also be adjusted to optimize
vessel wear. Operational parameters and
refractory lining design for maximizing
refractory performance will be the subject of
this paper.
1. INTRODUCTION
The AOD and similar type processes
(CLU, ASM, K-OBM-S, etc.) have become
the standard methods for the production of
stainless steels throughout the world. In 1995,
the total worldwide production of stainless
steels was reported to be 16.4 million tons
(14.9 million metric tons)1. Over 85% of the
stainless steel produced is through the AOD or
similar process.
refractory lining for these vessels. Doloma
refractories are being successfully used in
AOD applications for three main reasons:
(1) Lower refractory cost per ton:
Doloma and magnesia doloma brick linings
show significant cost savings over other basic
refractories (i.e., magnesia-chrome). Lower
installed costs together with equivalent or
better performance result in a lower cost per
ton.
(2) Longer lining life: Experience with
doloma based linings has shown that most
vessels achieve or exceed lining life obtained
with other basic refractories.
(3) Metallurgical benefits: Since
doloma bricks do not contain chrome it
enables the steel producers to make low alloy
and chrome-free steel in the AOD. The high
basicity of doloma refractories also allows the
steelmaker to operate with high V ratio slags
[(CaO+MgO)/(SiO2+Al2O3)> 1.5)]. These
slags have been shown to improve chrome
recovery and desulfurization.
A variety of doloma based refractories
have been developed which, when used in
combination with varying lining thickness, can
optimize lining performance. New lining and
vessel designs are also being utilized to
improve refractory performance.
It is necessary to optimize certain
process variables in order to maximize the
performance of doloma refractories. Slag
chemistry and fluidity control in the AOD
during all refining steps is important to
maintain good refractory life. This requires
that sufficient levels of lime and magnesia are
present in the slag. Slags with V ratios > 1.5
are compatible with doloma and can be
important with regards to metallurgical
considerations. Other operational parameters
that need to be controlled in order to improve
refractory life include process temperatures,
knurdle control and average heat times.
 2. AOD LINING DESIGN (3) Thermal shock due to temperature
variations during and between
Various aspects of refractory selection as
heats.
well as vessel design and construction
(4) Metal attack resulting from
technique can be used to help optimize AOD
chemical reactions with strong
lining performance.
reductants and fuels (Si, Al).
2.1. Refractory Selection and Zoning
For instance, the tuyere brick and pad
The types of refractories used in the experience thermal shock from gas cooling,
AOD have evolved since the first AOD was erosion from turbulence, and extremes in
put into commercial operation at Joslyn temperature from oxidation reactions.
Stainless Steel, Ft. Wayne, Indiana in 1968. A Corrosion from the reaction products may also
variety of magnesia-chrome refractories were contribute to wear. Bricks made from
initially used in the AOD. These products magnesia and high purity doloma have proven
ranged from 60% MgO direct-bonded to match or exceed the performance of other
magnesia-chrome for use in the barrel to refractories in the critical tuyere area.
rebonded fused grain 60% MgO tuyere pads. Zirconia additions are also made to tuyere
In the early 1970’s, the first doloma based zone bricks to improve thermal shock
bricks were trialed in Europe2. The first resistance. Recently, additional improvements
doloma lining trialed in the United States was in magnesia-doloma tuyere brick have been
in 1976. Since those initial trials, significant made by a further reduction in porosity and an
development in the area of doloma refractories increase in brick hot strength.
for the AOD has been made.
Another common high wear area of the
One key to balancing AOD refractory AOD vessel is the slagline, especially in the
wear patterns and reducing refractory cost per trunnion area. This area is under constant
ton is careful attention to zoning of the lining.
The aim of vessel zoning is uniform wear of
the lining so that when the normal mode of
failure occurs in the tuyere pad area, the rest
of the lining is spent. Zoning options include
zoning the refractory lining by brick thickness,
composition, or a combination of both
thickness and composition. The method
chosen usually depends on considerations of
cost, volume and wear mechanism. Figure 1
illustrates the typical zoning of an AOD
vessel.
Each area of the vessel is subjected to
different types of wear mechanisms. The
primary wear mechanisms for AOD
refractories can be classified as follows:
(1) Corrosion by decarburization and
reduction slags that can vary widely
in basicity.
(2) Erosion from bath turbulence
created in the tuyere region.
Figure 1 Typical AOD refractory zoning showing
pour spout installation.
Table I Chemical and physical properties of doloma AOD bricks.

Fired Fired MgO Fired MgO Fired MgO Fired MgO Resin-
BRICK TYPE Doloma Enriched Enriched Enriched Enriched Bonded
Doloma Doloma Doloma Doloma Doloma
CHEMICAL
ANALYSIS (%)
MgO 40.0 50.7 58.8 58.3 67.5 40.0
CaO 57.5 47.0 39.0 38.8 29.5 57.6
SiO2 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.8
Al2O3 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.6
Fe2O3 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.3 0.9
ZrO2 --- --- --- 0.9 0.9 ---
Carbon --- --- --- --- --- 2.3
PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES
Bulk Density
lb./ft.3 186.0 186.0 187.0 186.0 193.0 184.0
g/cc 2.98 2.98 2.99 2.98 3.09 2.95
Porosity (%) 11.2 11.5 12.2 12.7 10.5 12.5*
MOR - As Received
lb./in.2 2000 2000 2000 1400 1800 2000
MPa 13.8 13.8 13.8 9.7 12.4 13.8
MOR - Coked
lb./in.2 --- --- --- --- --- 400
MPa --- --- --- --- --- 2.8
Hot MOR
@ 2500oF lb./in.2 600 600 600 500 800 500
1371oC MPa 4.1 4.1 4.1 3.4 5.5 3.4
APPLICATION Barrel + Intermediate Slagline Tuyere + Tuyere + Cone +
Bottom Wear Areas Tuyere Pad Tuyere Pad Barrel
* Coked Porosity

contact with slag. If the slag chemistry is less
than optimum, wear will occur from chemical
corrosion combined with turbulence erosion.
High density magnesia enriched doloma
bricks have been designed to withstand these
conditions. The chemical and physical
properties of various doloma based AOD
bricks are listed in Table I.
2.2. Pour Spout
Figure 1 shows an example of a one
piece pour spout that attaches to the tap side of
the AOD cone. Custom-designed basic pour
spouts, when used as an alternative to bricked
spouts, can offer several advantages to the
steelmaker. Pour spouts help to concentrate
the metal stream and this has reportedly
helped to reduce the nitrogen pickup in the
steel during tapping. Other benefits of pour
spouts include increased metal yield,
optimized slag-off, easy slag deskulling and
reduced cone steelwork maintenance. Table II
lists the properties of basic pour spout
refractories.
 pads in standard AOD shell designs can result
in unexpected side effects such as: reduction
of vessel volume, increased slag and metal
splashing from the cone mouth and changes in
lining wear patterns. One method to increase
the tuyere length without sacrificing vessel
volume is the use of the knapsack. Also
referred to as a doghouse or pod, an example
is shown in Figure 2. In the stadium section,
notice the use of two bricks, one in front of the
other. Using this construction technique
allows a greater total tuyere pad length.
Many shops have modified their existing
shells by cutting away the stadium in the
tuyere zone and fabricating a new steel box.
New AOD shells have also been designed
with knapsacks already incorporated.
2.5. Vessel/Cone Seal
Several techniques are used for sealing
Figure 2 Close-up view of knapsack tuyere pad the joint between the vessel and cone flange.
design and dished bottom Three commonly used sealing methods are
illustrated in Figure 3. The method used
2.3. Dished Bottom depends on flange design, the height of the
Two types of bottom refractory last barrel course and whether the cone is
construction are used in AOD vessels, flat and bricked separately. If a monolithic seal
dished. Flat bottoms are simple to install, material is used between bricks, as shown in
usually requiring only one size of straight Figure 3A and 3B, the seal thickness at the
sided brick. In the United States, the flat Table II Chemical and physical properties of basic
bottom is most commonly used. Dished AOD pour spout refractories.
bottoms require two to three key and/or PRODUCT TYPE Magnesia- MgO Enriched
straight shapes and are more time consuming Carbon Doloma-Carbon
to install. An example of a dished bottom CHEMICAL
vessel is shown in Figure 2. Several ANALYSIS (%)
MgO 88.0 55.0
advantages can be found by using the dished
CaO 2.1 43.2
bottom design. Depending on vessel size and SiO2 0.7 0.8
spherical radius of the bottom shell, several Al2O3 8.8 0.4
tons of increased volume can usually be Fe2O3 0.2 0.6
Carbon 7.8 3.0
gained by using a dished bottom. The keyed PHYSICAL
construction can also help to retain the bottom PROPERTIES
refractories in position even after most of the Bulk Density
brick has worn. lb./ft.3 171.7 174.8
g/cc 2.75 2.80
2.4. Knapsack Coked Porosity (%) 17.0 17.0
MOR - As Received
It is becoming a popular trend lb./in.2 2200 2500
worldwide to use increasingly longer MPa 15.2 17.2
refractories in the tuyere zone and thus extend MOR - Coked
lb./in.2 620 650
vessel campaign life. However, longer tuyere MPa 4.3 4.5
Figure 3 Examples of cone/vessel sealing methods.

Figure 4

brick hot face should be kept to a minimum. Refractory performance in the AOD
A thickness of 1” to 3” (25 to 75mm) is vessel is affected by many operational
usually best. A 2” (50mm) layer of seal variables. The following is a discussion of
should also be spread on the vessel flange; it some of these variables and how they can be
will compress down to 3/4” to 1” (19 to controlled to improve refractory life as well as
25mm) from the cone weight and provide steel quality.
expansion relief during preheating. Figure 3A
3.1. Slag Control
shows the use of a cut flange brick, but a
regular key brick may also be used. The control and predictability of the slag
When bolting the cone to the vessel, care
should be taken to prevent over-tightening.
Most shops find that tightening the bolts by
hand then giving them one additional full turn
with a wrench works well. This method
allows for the natural expansion of the lining
and tightening of the bolts during vessel
heating without stretching and possibly
breaking the bolts.
The condition of the vessel and cone
flanges can have a significant impact on the
quality of seal between the two vessel pieces.
Replacement of warped or damaged flanges
will reduce the risk of breakouts in this area.
Flanges in good condition also improve the
quality of cone brick construction by
providing a level base for the first course.

3. OPERATIONAL PARAMETERS Figure 4 Estimated equilibrium chromium content

in slag versus basicity3.
chemistry throughout the AOD process is
critical for optimizing refractory wear and
metallurgical control. The type of refractory
used in the AOD will influence the slag
practice. If a magnesia-chrome refractory is
used, good refractory life is generally obtained
if V ratios [(C+M)/(S+A)] are in the range of
1.2 to 1.5. Operating with higher slag
basicities will have a detrimental affect on
these refractories due to chemical corrosion of
the chrome component of the brick.
In comparison, a doloma lined AOD
vessel achieves good refractory performance
with slags having higher basicities (V ratios
1.5 to 2.0). Doloma refractories require slags
saturated with respect to both CaO and MgO.
There are several metallurgical benefits that
can result by operating with higher slag
basicities. These benefits include better
desulfurization potential and alloy recovery.
In Figure 4, the effect of higher reduction slag
basicities on chrome recovery is shown.
Slag practices can vary by shop and steel
grade. The following is a generalized
overview of stainless steelmaking slag
fundamentals with doloma linings.
Proper AOD slag control begins with
recognizing that different stages of the AOD
process have different slag requirements. Slag
control can be broken down into the following
areas:
(1) Transfer slag - slag transferred from
the melting furnace.
(2) Decarburization slag - generated
during oxygen blowing.
(3) Reduction slag - generated during
the reduction stage.
Control of transfer slag chemistry and
volume brought to the AOD is important if
proper slag control is to be maintained.
Highly variable transfer slags make it difficult
to calculate the proper amount of flux and
reduction additions necessary in the vessel. If
possible, the transfer slag should be CaO and
MgO saturated so that the initial slag in the
vessel is basic. If the transfer slag is acidic
and the amount of slag is variable, corrosion
of the doloma refractory lining will start at the
beginning of the process.
At the beginning of the decarburization
stage, corrosive slags with high levels of SiO2,
Fe2O3 and Cr2O3 are generated. In order to
neutralize these acidic oxides, CaO and MgO
should be added as a precharge or very early
in the blow. The role of MgO is to react with
the oxides of Cr, Mn, Fe and Al to form solid,
or near solid complex spinel/solid solution
phases during decarburization. The formation
of a solid slag during the very hot
decarburization stage limits chemical
corrosion of the lining. The role of lime is to
neutralize the silica and alumina from the
carryover slag as well as silica formed from
silicon in the hot metal and in any blow adds.
To determine the amount of lime needed
as a precharge, calculate the total silica and
alumina that will be present in the slag at the
end of decarb and multiply this by the desired
V ratio of 1.8. It is recommended that the
CaO source be in the form of dolomitic lime.
All or part of the MgO can come from
dolomitic lime however this can result in
additional slag volume. The minimum
amount of MgO needed as a precharge is
roughly 25% of the weight of metallics
oxidized during decarburization. The typical
MgO content of stainless decarburization slags
is in the 10 to 20% range. If the slags are fluid
at the end of decarb, insufficient MgO and/or
CaO has been added.
During the reduction stage, the AOD
slags change considerably. The solid complex
spinel/solid solution phases disappear as the
metallics oxidized during decarburization are
reduced by silicon or aluminum back into the
bath. The SiO2 and Al2O3 generated during
reduction must be balanced with CaO
additions. The lime also serves to tie up the
SiO2 and effectively minimize any reaction
with the transition metals.
Temperature during reduction can have a
significant impact on the amount of CaO and
MgO needed to saturate the slags. Higher
CaO and MgO levels are needed if processing
temperatures are higher. If adjustments are
not made, dissolution of the refractory lining
by the slag will occur. In Table III, the effect
of temperature on the requirements for both
lime and MgO saturation of several theoretical
compositions are shown.
Reduction slags for silicon killed
practices should target V ratios of 1.6 to 1.8
with an MgO content of 8 to 12%. The role of
MgO diminishes during reduction and no
further MgO additions should have to be made
if the precharge levels were correct
If aluminum is used during reduction or
as a fuel, CaO saturation is very critical. Slags
with high Al2O3 content can dissolve more
lime and will do so from the doloma lining
unless enough lime is added to satisfy
saturation requirements. Aluminum killed
reduction slags should have V ratios greater
than 1.8.
As a final comment about slag control,
when fluorspar is used as a fluidizer, the
solubility of lime and magnesia in the slag
increases. For this reason, the use of spar
should be carefully regulated.
A tool available to help the AOD
operator predict refractory/slag/metal
interaction is the use of mass balance
approaches in conjunction with computer slag
models. The programs can be used to evaluate
process variables and optimize slag
composition for improved steelmaking
practices and refractory performance4. These
slag modeling tools are being incorporated
directly into computerized AOD process
control systems.
3.2. Knurdle Control
Knurdles form on the tuyere tip due to
cooling of metallics and products of oxidation
by the injected gas stream. Consistent control
of knurdle length and shape is essential for
preventing premature failure of the refractory
tuyere zone. Knurdle size can be controlled
by making adjustments to shroud gas pressure
and/or flow. A large knurdle, indicating
excessive shroud pressure, can become
plugged and misdirect the gas stream toward
the refractory lining. A small knurdle or no
knurdle at all, resulting from low shroud
pressure, will not protect the tuyere and can
result in tunneling of the tuyere brick.
Optimum knurdle size depends on the
individual shop conditions, but generally, a
knurdle 1” to 3” (25 to 75mm) in length and
1” to 2” (25 to 50mm) in diameter is best.
Process variables such as steel grade,
temperature, campaign stage and O2/cooling
gas ratio will also affect knurdle size. By
making careful observations of these variables
and the relationship to shroud pressure and
knurdle size, the operator can optimize
refractory performance. Computer controlled
systems capable of automated shroud pressure
adjustment are also available to assist the
operator in enhancing knurdle control.
Related to knurdle control is regular
maintenance of gas lines, hose connectors and
check valves (if used) to prevent air or oxygen
from contaminating the cooling gas supply. If
as little as 2% oxygen is present in the shroud
gas, the cooling effect can be reduced and
tuyere brick tunneling may begin to occur.
3.3. Temperature
The bath temperature becomes elevated
under normal conditions by metallic oxidation
in the bath as the carbon content decreases to
lower levels. In addition, when required, the
temperature of the bath can be increased by
Table III Effect of temperature on theoretical CaO and
MgO demand for slags that are both CaO
and MgO saturated at 2912oF (1600oC).
% CaO % MgO % SiO2 CaO/SiO2
o
2912 F 44.3 17.3 38.4 1.15
(1600oC)
3092oF 48.5 16.1 35.4 1.37
(1700oC)
3182oF 51.6 15.1 33.3 1.55
(1750oC)
3272oF 55.1 14 31 1.78
(1800oC)
oxidation of fuels (aluminum or silicon) as a
reblow. Reblows for temperature can have a
detrimental effect on refractory performance
and should be minimized if possible. The
oxidation of the fuel elements near the tuyere
tip causes extreme temperatures and can result
in accelerated tuyere pad wear. Couple this
with the possibility that insufficient basic
oxides (lime and MgO) were added to
neutralize the oxidation products and slagline
wear may also occur.
As a general rule, a reblow for
temperatures of 40oF (22oC) or higher is
equivalent in refractory wear to making
another heat on the lining. Temperature
control is best accomplished by keeping
transfer metal temperature and chemistry
levels consistent and controlling the peak
temperature at the end of the oxygen blow by
varying the O2/cooling gas ratios.
An excessive inert stir for temperature
reduction can also adversely affect refractory
performance. Extended stirs can form long,
pipe-like knurdles that will sag from their own
weight. When these long knurdles bend over,
the injected gasses are directed downward
during the early stage of the next heat and
tuyere pad or bottom erosion may occur.
3.4. Back Tilt
Gas injected through the tuyeres tend to
roll back and up along the sidewall carrying
the products of oxidation with it. The gas
stream creates localized high temperature and
turbulence resulting in a high wear area. Back
tilting the vessel during blowing keeps the gas
stream further away from the wall, helping to
reduce wear. Optimum back tilt is usually
between 5o to 7o. Some mills will vary their
back tilt angle depending on the stage of the
heat or lining age but a constant back tilt is
usually best.
A fan shaped wear pattern starting
around the tuyere and extending upward and
outward generally indicates an improper back
tilt practice. This type of wear can usually be
reduced by establishing the proper back tilt
angle for the vessel, and then maintaining this
as a constant, standard practice.
3.5. Preheating, Reheating and Maintenance
Experience has shown that the ultimate
life of a refractory lining consistently
improves with preheat discipline. Figure 5
shows the recommended preheat curve for a
doloma AOD lining. The preheat begins with
a temperature rise of 100oF (56oC)/hour up to
1200oF (649oC). At this point the lining can
be soaked for four hours, after which heating
should continue at 150oF (83oC)/hour up to
2000oF (1093oC). If time or heating expense
does not permit a soak period, the cycle can go
to the 150oF (83oC)/hour phase after 1200oF
(649oC) has been reached. Linings should be
held at 2000oF (1093oC) for several hours
prior to being placed in service. Reheating of
a used lining can be at a rate of 150o to 200oF
(83o to 111oC)/hour up to 2000oF (1093oC).
During idle periods between heats, the
vessel should be rotated to the upside-down
position to minimize heat loss. For out of
service periods of four days or less, doloma
lining temperature should be maintained with
a preheater between 1500oF (815oC) and
2000oF (1093oC). For down periods in excess
of four days, but less than ten days, the lining
should be cooled and the vessel mouth sealed.
If the vessel will be out of service for over ten
days, the lining should be cooled, a charge of
lime placed on the vessel bottom, then the
vessel mouth and tuyere pipes should be
sealed with plastic wrap. In all cooled vessels,
the tuyere air should be shut off to prevent
possible moisture in the system from entering
the vessel.
3.6. Top Lance
Many AOD shops have top lance
capability or are contemplating the addition of
a top lance. Top lances have the ability to
blow oxygen at subsonic or supersonic speeds
into the vessel. Top lances are used to get the
thermal benefit from post-combustion of CO
above the bath or to increase decarburization
speed by direct reaction of oxygen with the
bath. The effect of a top lance on refractory
performance is difficult to predict. Experience
with the top lance indicates that potential Figure 5 Recommended preheat curve for doloma
AOD linings.
increased wear at the slagline or in the cone is
more than offset by reduction in heat time.
4. SUMMARY
Since the first AOD was put into
operation in 1968, there have been numerous have a significant effect on refractory wear in
changes with regard to refractory practices and the tuyere area. Careful attention to slag
operating parameters. chemistry throughout the various stages of the
Today the majority of AODs throughout AOD process has also been shown to have a
the world are lined with doloma refractories. significant effect on refractory life. For
The use of doloma has proven to be cost doloma refractories, it is critical to have slags
effective and has provided some metallurgical saturated with respect to both CaO and MgO
benefits to the steelmaker. Numerous in order to minimize wear rates. Operating
developments with regards to doloma brick with slag chemistries compatible with doloma
have been made to improve performance. also offers several metallurgical benefits.
Direct-bonded magnesia enriched doloma These include better desulfurization and alloy
bricks with high density and low porosity have recovery. Control of contact times, reblows
been developed for improved resistance to and preheating practices will also contribute to
slag corrosion and erosion. Doloma based optimal refractory performance.
refractories containing zirconia for improved
thermal shock resistance have been developed ACKNOWLEDGMENT
for the tuyere area. Another refractory
innovation includes the manufacture of one The authors wish to express their thanks
piece AOD pour spouts composed of basic to Eugene Pretorius and Ronald Marr (Baker
refractories. These spouts are resistant to the Refractories), Victor Ardito (formerly of
basic slags generated in the AOD and offer Allegheny Ludlum Corp.) and Richard
other advantages to the steelmaker. Choulet (Praxair, Inc.) for their suggestions
and input.
New lining techniques are being applied
to the AOD vessel for longer campaign life REFERENCES
(knapsack design) and increased metal volume
(dished bottoms). 1. A. Jones, A. Hanson, and N. Kam,
“Stainless Steels Monthly”, Metal Bulletin
It has been shown that close control of Research, August 1996, pp.1-12.
various operating parameters will have the
biggest impact on refractory performance. 2. D.A. Brosnan and R.J. Marr, “The Use of
Proper control of knurdles through Direct Bonded Burned Dolomite Brick in the
adjustments to shroud gas pressure and flow
AOD Vessel”, Proceedings of Electric
Furnace Conference, Dec. 1977, pp. 179-183.
3. C.W. McCoy, A.F. Kolek, and
F.C.Langenberg, “Application of
Thermochemical Data During Stainless Steel
Melting”, Proceedings of the First Conference
on the Thermodynamic Properties of
Materials, 1967, pp. 262-270.
4. E.B. Pretorius and R.J. Marr, “The Effect
of Slag Modeling to Improve Steelmaking
Processes”, Electric Furnace Conference
Proceedings, Nov. 1995, pp. 407-415.