Quadratic Equations

A quadratic equation is an equation where the highest power of x is x2., so it is an equation of the
form ax2 + bx + c = 0. There are various methods of solving quadratic equations, as shown
below.

NOTE: If x2 = 36, then x = +6 or -6 (since squaring either of these numbers will give 36).
However, if we write √36, we usually mean +6 .
Completing the Square
9 and 25 can be written as 32 and 52 whereas 7 and 11 cannot be written as the square of another
exact number. 9 and 25 are called perfect squares. Another example is (9/4) = (3/2)2. In a similar
way, x2 + 2x + 1 = (x + 1)2.
To make x2 + 6x into a perfect square, we add (62/4) = 9. The resulting expression, x2 + 6x + 9 =
(x + 3)2 and so is a perfect square. The process of making something into a perfect square is
known as completing the square. To complete the square in this way, we take the number
before the x, square it, and divide it by 4. This technique can be used to solve quadratic
equations, as demonstrated in the following example.
Example
Solve x2 - 6x + 2 = 0 by completing the square
x2 - 6x = -2
[To complete the square on the LHS (left hand side), we must add 62/4 = 9. We must, of course,
do this to the RHS also].
x2 - 6x + 9 = 7
(x - 3)2 = 7
[Now take the square root of each side]
x - 3 = ±2.646     (the square root of 7 is +2.646 or -2.646)
x = 5.646 or 0.354

Completing the square can also be used to find the maximum or minimum point on a graph.
Example
Find the minimum of the graph y = 3x2 - 6x - 3 .

In this case, the x2 has a "3" in front of it, so we start by taking the three out: y = 3(x2 - 2x -1) .
[This is the same, since multiplying it out gives 3x2 - 6x - 3]
Now complete the square for the bit in the bracket:
y = 3[(x - 1)2 - 2]
Multiply out the big bracket:
y = 3(x - 1)2 - 6

We are trying to find the minimum value that this graph can be. (x - 1)2 must be zero or positive,
since squaring a number always gives a positive answer. So the minimum value will occur when
(x - 1)2 = 0, which is when x = 1. When x = 1, y = -6 . So the minimum point is at (1, -6).
The minimum could also have been found by differentiation.

Some people don't like the method of completing the square to solve equations and an alternative
is to use the quadratic formula. This is actually derived by completing the square.
The Quadratic Formula
Let's complete the square in the general case: ax2 + bx + c
Take out a factor of a:
a [ x2 + (b/a)x + (c/a) ]
a [ [x + (b/2a)]2 + (c/a) - (b2/4a2) ]
Hence if ax2 + bx + c = 0,
[x + (b/2a) ]2 = (b2/4a2) - (c/a)
       =b2 - 4ac
        4a2
Now if we take the square root of both sides and simplify, we get the quadratic formula:

Example
Solve 3x2 + 5x - 8 = 0

x = -5 ± √( 52 - 4×3×(-8))
                   6
  = -5 ± √(25 + 96)
               6
  = -5 ± √ (121)
             6
  = -5 + 11       or        -5 - 11
     6            6

x = 1 or -2.67
Quadratic Functions
Since you only know how to take square roots of positive numbers, the quadratic formula only
gives real solutions if b2 - 4ac is greater or equal to 0. The expression b2 - 4ac is therefore
important, and is known as the discriminant. 
If b2 - 4ac is less than zero, then there are no solutions. This means that there are no values of x
giving a value of y of zero, hence the graph of the curve will not cross the x-axis.
If b2 - 4ac = 0 then the quadratic formula says that x = - b/2a, so there is only one solution. The
graph will only touch the x-axis at one point, therefore.
However, if b2 - 4ac > 0, there will be 2 solutions to the equation and so the curve will cross the
x-axis at 2 points.
Factorising
Sometimes, quadratic equations can be solved by factorising. In this case, factorising is probably
the easiest way to solve the equation.
Example
Solve x2 + 2x - 8 = 0
(x - 2)(x + 4) = 0
either x - 2 = 0 or x + 4 = 0
x = 2 or x = - 4

If you do not understand the third line, remember that for (x - 2)(x + 4) to equal zero, then one of
the two brackets must be zero.

Indices
An index number is a number which is raised to a power. The power, also known as the index,
tells you how many times you have to multiply the number by itself. For example, 25 means that
you have to multiply 2 by itself five times = 2×2×2×2×2 = 32.
There are a number of important rules of index numbers:
 ya × yb = ya+b
Examples
24 × 28 = 212
54 × 5-2 = 52
 ya ÷ yb= ya-b
Examples
39 ÷ 34 = 35
72 ÷ 75 = 7-3
 y -b = 1/yb
Examples
2-3 = 1/23 = 1/8
3-1 = 1/3
 ym/n = (n√y)m
Examples
161/2 = √16 = 4
82/3 = (3√8)2 = 4
 (yn)m = ynm
Example
25 + 84
= 25 + (23)4
= 25 + 212
 y0 = 1
Example
50 = 1

Surds
Surds are numbers left in "square root form" (or "cube root form" etc).
Addition and subtraction of surds
a√b + c√b = (a + c)√b
a√b - c√b = (a - c)√b
Examples
4√7 - 2√7 = 2√7.
5√2 + 8√2 = 13√2

NB1: 5√2 + 3√3 cannot be manipulated because the surds are different (one is √2 and one is √3).
NB2: √a + √b is not the same as √(a + b) .
 
Multiplication and Division
√ab = √a × √b
√(a/b) = √a/√b
Examples
√5 × √15 = √75
= √25 × √3
= 5√3.

(1 + √3) × (2 - √8)            [The brackets are expanded as usual]

= 2 - √8 + 2√3 - √24
= 2 - 2√2 + 2√3 - 2√6
Rationalising the denominator
It is untidy to have a fraction which has a surd denominator. This can be "tidied up" by
multiplying the top and bottom of the fraction by a surd. This is known as rationalising the
denominator, since surds are irrational numbers and so you are changing the denominator from
an irrational to a rational number.
Example
Rationalise the denominator of:
a) 1
  √2 .
b) 1 + 2
 1 - √2

a) Multiply the top and bottom of the fraction by √2. The top will become √2 and the bottom will
become 2 (√2 times √2 = 2).

b) In situations like this, look at the bottom of the fraction (the denominator) and change the sign
(in this case change the minus into plus). Doing this forms the conjugate of the denominator.
Now multiply the top and bottom of the fraction by this.

Therefore:
1 + 2  =   (1 + 2)(1 + √2)  =  1 + √2 + 2 + 2√2  =  3 + 3√2
1 - √2       (1 - √2)(1 + √2)      1 + √2 - √2 - 2         - 1

= -3(1 + √2)

Inequalities
When dealing with inequalities, it is important to remember that if you divide or multiply by a
negative number, the direction of the inequality is changed.
When solving quadratic inequalities (inequalities with x2 in them), it is necessary to analyse the
various cases to solve the inequality.
Example
Solve x2 + 3x + 2 > 0
Now, we can factorise the left hand side to get:
(x + 2)(x + 1) > 0
To solve this, we need to divide it up into a number of cases, based upon when the sign of one of
the factors changes:
x < -2  -2 < x < -1   x > -1
(x + 2) negative  positive positive
(x + 1) negative negative positive
(x + 2)(x + 1) positive negative positive 
So when x < -2, for example, we know that (x + 2) is less than 0 and (x + 1) is less than zero.
Therefore (x + 2)(x + 1) > 0 (since negative times negative = positive).
From the table, therefore, (x + 2)(x + 1) > 0 when x < -2 or x > -1 .
Drawing a table like this makes things easier.
Alternatively, you can draw the graph of x2 + 3x + 2 > 0 and look at where the graph lies above
the x-axis. You should get the same answer.

Sequences
nth Term
In the sequence 2, 4, 6, 8, 10... there is an obvious pattern. Such sequences can be expressed in
terms of the nth term of the sequence. In this case, the nth term = 2n. To find the 1st term, put n
= 1 into the formula, to find the 4th term, replace the n"s by 4"s: 4th term = 2 × 4
= 8.
Trial and Error
Example
What is the nth term of the sequence 2, 5, 10, 17, 26... ?
Let"s use trial and error (essentially guessing what we think will work):
n  = 1 2 3 4 5
n²  = 1 4 9 16 25
n² + 1  = 2 5 10 17 26

This is the required sequence, so the nth term is n² + 1. For some sequences, there is no easy way
of working out the nth term of a sequence, other than to try different possibilities.
Tips: if the sequence is going up in threes (e.g. 3, 6, 9, 12...), there will probably be a three in the
formula, etc.
In many cases, square numbers will come up, so try squaring n, as above. Also, the triangular
numbers formula often comes up. This is ½n(n + 1).
Notation
The nth term of a sequence is sometimes written as Un . So in the last example, Un = n² + 1 . The
5th term is therefore U5 = 25 + 1 = 26.
Convergent Sequences
Sequences whose nth term approaches a finite number as n becomes larger are known as
convergent sequences and the number to which the sequence converges is known as the limit of
the sequence. For example: 10, 5, 2.5, 1.25, 0.625, ... converges (gets closer and closer) towards
the limit zero.
Recurrence Relations
This is where the next term of a sequence is defined using the previous term(s). To define a
recurrence relation, you have to give the first term. Then you give a formula to tell you how to
work out the next term from the previous ones.
For example, consider the sequence: 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, ... . Each term in the sequence is got by
doubling the previous term. So to define the recurrence relation, we give the first term, written
U1 = 2. Then we write: Un = 2(Un-1). This just means that the nth term, Un is equal to 2 × the (n-
1)th term, Un-1.

Series
The series of a sequence is the sum of the sequence to a certain number of terms. It is often
written as Sn. So if the sequence is 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, ... , the sum to 3 terms = S3 = 2 + 4 + 6 = 12.
The Sigma Notation
The Greek capital sigma, written S, is usually used to represent the sum of a sequence. This is
best explained using an example:

 
This means replace the r in the expression by 1 and write down what you get. Then replace r by 2
and write down what you get. Keep doing this until you get to 4, since this is the number above
the S. Now add up all of the term that you have written down.
This sum is therefore equal to  3×1 + 3×2 + 3×3 + 3×4 = 3 + 6 + 9 + 12 = 30.

 3
  S  3r + 2
r=1

This is equal to:

(3×1 + 2) + (3×2 + 2) + (3×3 + 2) = 24 .
The General Case
 n
  S  Ur
r=1

This is the general case. For the sequence Ur, this means the sum of the terms obtained by
substituting in 1, 2, 3,... up to and including n in turn for r in Ur. In the above example, Ur = 3r +
2 and n = 3.
Arithmetic Progressions
An arithmetic progression is a sequence where each term is a certain number larger than the
previous term. The terms in the sequence are said to increase by a common difference, d. For
example: 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, is an arithmetic progression where d = 2. The nth term of this sequence is
2n + 1 .
In general, the nth term of an arithmetic progression, with first term a and common difference d,
is: a + (n - 1)d . So for the sequence 3, 5, 7, 9, ... Un = 3 + 2(n - 1) = 2n + 1, which we already
knew.
The sum to n terms of an arithmetic progression
This is given by:
 Sn = ½ n [ 2a + (n - 1)d ]
You may need to be able to prove this formula. It is derived as follows:
The sum to n terms is given by:
Sn = a + (a + d) + (a + 2d) + … + (a + (n – 1)d)     (1)
If we write this out backwards, we get:
Sn = (a + (n – 1)d) + (a + (n – 2)d) + … + a            (2)
Now let’s add (1) and (2):
2Sn = [2a + (n – 1)d] + [2a + (n – 1)d] + … + [2a + (n – 1)d]
So Sn = ½ n [2a + (n – 1)d]
Example
Sum the first 20 terms of the sequence: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, ... (i.e. the first 20 odd numbers).

S20 = ½ (20) [ 2 × 1 + (20 - 1)×2 ]

= 10[ 2 + 19 × 2]
= 10[ 40 ]
= 400
Geometric Progressions
A geometric progression is a sequence where each term is r times larger than the previous term. r
is known as the common ratio of the sequence. The nth term of a geometric progression, where a
is the first term and r is the common ratio, is:
 arn-1
For example, in the following geometric progression, the first term is 1, and the common ratio is
2:
1, 2, 4, 8, 16, ...
The nth term is therefore 2n-1
 
The sum of a geometric progression
The sum of the first n terms of a geometric progression is:
 a(1 - rn )
  1–r
We can prove this as follows:
Sn = a + ar + ar2 + … + arn-1             (1)
Multiplying by r:
rSn = ar + ar2 + … + arn                           (2)
(1) – (2) gives us:
Sn(1 – r) = a – arn (since all the other terms cancel)
And so we get the formula above if we divide through by 1 – r .
Example
What is the sum of the first 5 terms of the following geometric progression: 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 ?
S5 = 2( 1 - 25)
           1 - 2
= 2( 1 - 32)
       -1
= 62
The sum to infinity of a geometric progression
In geometric progressions where |r| < 1 (in other words where r is less than 1 and greater than –
1), the sum of the sequence as n tends to infinity approaches a value. In other words, if you keep
adding together the terms of the sequence forever, you will get a finite value. This value is equal
to:
  a 
1–r
Example
Find the sum to infinity of the following sequence:
1 , 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 , ...
2 4 8 16 32 64

Here, a = 1/2 and r = 1/2

Therefore, the sum to infinity is 0.5/0.5  = 1 .
So every time you add another term to the above sequence, the result gets closer and closer to 1.
Harder Example
The first, second and fifth terms of an arithmetic progression are the first three terms of a
geometric progression. The third term of the arithmetic progression is 5. Find the 2 possible
values for the fourth term of the geometric progression.

The first term of the arithmetic progression is: a

The second term is: a + d
The fifth term is: a + 4d
So the first three terms of the geometric progression are a, a + d and a + 4d .

In a geometric progression, there is a common ratio. So the ratio of the second term to the first
term is equal to the ratio of the third term to the second term. So:
a + d   =   a + 4d
  a          a + d
(a + d)(a + d) = a(a + 4d)
a² + 2ad + d² = a² + 4ad
d² - 2ad = 0
d(d - 2a) = 0
therefore d = 0 or d = 2a

The common ratio of the geometric progression, r, is equal to (a + d)/a

Therefore, if d = 0, r = 1
If d = 2a, r = 3a/a = 3
So the common ratio of the geometric progression is either 1 or 3 .

We are told that the third term of the arithmetic progression is 5. So a + 2d = 5 . Therefore, when
d = 0, a = 5 and when d = 2a, a = 1 .
So the first term of the arithmetic progression (which is equal to the first term of the geometric
progression) is either 5 or 1.

Therefore, when d = 0, a = 5 and r = 1. In this case, the geometric progression is 5, 5, 5, 5, ....

and so the fourth term is 5.When d = 2a, r = 3 and a = 1, so the geometric progression is 1, 3, 9,
27, ... and so the fourth term is 27.