TRAINING DESIGN FOR REPETITIVE-SLOT-BASED

CFO ESTIMATION IN OFDM

EXISTING SYSTEM
Data-aided CFO estimation in current OFDM systems employs a preamble made
of a number, say J, of repetitive slots (RS) This preamble is obtained using one OFDM
symbol after deactivating all subcarriers except those whose frequencies are integer
multiples of J.

DISADVANTAGES
1. Power loading is not optimal
2. Synchronization is critical

PROPOSED SYSTEM
It has been shown that the RS-based CFO maximum likelihood (ML) estimator is
identical to the null-subcarrier (NSC-)-based ML estimator in the absence of virtual
subcarriers, which are the subcarriers at the edges of the allocated frequency band that are
deactivated in order to avoid interference with adjacent systems Here, we address the
issue of optimal preamble design using the Cram´er-Rao bound (CRB) as a metric. This
involves optimizing J and the power loading. We show that the optimal value of J is a
trade-off between the multipath diversity gain (in a sense to be defined later in the paper)
and the number of unknowns to be estimated. In the case of uncorrelated channel taps,
uniform power loading is optimal. In the case of correlated channel taps, we show that
uniform power loading of the active subcarriers is no longer optimal and better power
loading schemes are proposed.

ADVANTAGES
1. More power loading to activated sub carriers
2. High signal to noise ratio.
 3. Provides tradeoff between multipath diversity gain and number of unknowns
estimated.

DOMAIN COMMUNICATION

Wireless communication is the transfer of information over a distance without the

use of electrical conductors or "wires". The distances involved may be short (a few
meters as in television remote control) or long (thousands or millions of kilometers for
radio communications). When the context is clear, the term is often shortened to
"wireless". Wireless communication is generally considered to be a branch of
telecommunications.

SOFTWARE REQUIREMENT
MATLAB 7.0 AND ABOVE

MATLAB
MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical computing. It integrates
computation, visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use environment where
problems and solutions are expressed in familiar mathematical notation. Typical uses
include:

• Math and computation

• Algorithm development
• Modeling, simulation, and prototyping
• Data analysis, exploration, and visualization
• Scientific and engineering graphics
• Application development, including Graphical User Interface building

MATLAB is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array that does not
require dimensioning. This allows you to solve many technical computing problems,
especially those with matrix and vector formulations, in a fraction of the time it would
take to write a program in a scalar non-interactive language such as C or FORTRAN.

INTRODUCTION:

Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) has become the standard of

choice for wireless LAN’s such as IEEE 802.11a, and is being considered for several
IEEE 802.11 and 802.16 standards. The popularity of OFDM arises from the balanced
transceiver complexity, and the time-frequency granularity that it offers. However,
synchronization continues to be a critical challenge.
This work focuses on carrier frequency offset (CFO) synchronization, assuming
perfect frame and timing synchronization. Data-aided CFO estimation in current OFDM
systems employs a preamble made of a number, say J, of repetitive slots (RS). This
preamble is obtained using one OFDM symbol after deactivating all sub carriers except
those whose frequencies are integer multiples of J. It has been shown that the RS-based
CFO maximum likelihood (ML) estimator is identical to the null-sub carrier(NSC-)-based
ML estimator in the absence of virtual sub carriers, which are the sub carriers at the edges
of the allocated frequency band that are deactivated in order to avoid interference with
adjacent systems.
This addresses the issue of optimal preamble design using the Cramer-Rao bound
(CRB) as a metric. This involves optimizing J and the power loading. The optimal value
of J is a trade-off between the multipath diversity gain and the number of unknowns to
be estimated. In the case of uncorrelated channel taps, uniform power loading is optimal.
In the case of correlated channel taps, that uniform power loading of the active sub
carriers is no longer optimal and better power loading schemes are proposed.
SCOPE OF THE PROJECT:
The main objective is to analyze the performance of CFO estimators based on a
single repetitive-slot pilot symbol in the context of OFDM system. By assuming a
Rayleigh channel, closed form expressions is provided, which illustrates the impact of
multipath diversity on estimation performance. Using the Cram`er-Rao bounds, insights
are provided which show how the preamble should be designed.

ABOUT OFDM:

Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) is a technology that transmits multiple

signals simultaneously over a single transmission path, such as a cable or wireless
system. Each signal travels within its own unique frequency range (carrier), which is
modulated by the data (text, voice, video, etc.).

Orthogonal FDM's (OFDM) spread spectrum technique distributes the data over a
large number of carriers that are spaced apart at precise frequencies. This spacing
provides the "orthogonality" in this technique which prevents the demodulators from
seeing frequencies other than their own. The benefits of OFDM are high spectral
efficiency, resiliency to RF interference, and lower multi-path distortion. This is useful
because in a typical terrestrial broadcasting scenario there are multipath-channels (i.e. the
transmitted signal arrives at the receiver using various paths of different length). Since
multiple versions of the signal interfere with each other (inter symbol interference (ISI))
it becomes very hard to extract the original information.

OFDM is sometimes called multi-carrier or discrete multi-tone modulation. It is

the modulation technique used for digital TV in Europe, Japan and Australia.

OFDM DESCRIPTION:

Over the past several years, orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM)
has received considerable attention from the general wireless community and in
particular from the wireless LAN (WLAN) standards groups. Groups such as
IEEE802.11a and ETSI BRAN have selected OFDM as the best waveform for providing
reliable high data rates for WLANs. This popularity is further highlighted by the recent
selection of OFDM by the IEEE 802.11g committee as the modulation for extending the
data rates of the very successful IEEE 802.11b or Wi-Fi WLAN standard.

What makes OFDM such a popular choice? The primary reason is that OFDM is
intrinsically able to handle the most common distortions found in the wireless
environment without requiring complex receiver algorithms. As it turns out, the wireless
environment and, in particular, the WLAN environment presents a harsh channel for
communications. Conventional modulation methods suffer from multipath in both the
frequency domain and the time domain. In the frequency domain, multipath causes
groups of frequencies to be attenuated and shifted in phase relative to each other which
severely distorts the symbol. In the time domain, multipath basically smears adjacent
symbols into each other. Many typical systems overcome these problems with expensive
adaptive filters.

OFDM, on the other hand, uses groups of narrowband signals to pierce through
this environment and employs a guard interval between symbols in order to counter the
inherent time domain smearing. This allows OFDM systems to use lower complexity
receivers and still maintain robust performance. In short, OFDM is a popular choice
because it delivers robust performance in multipath without the need for complex
receiver algorithms.

As with any waveform, OFDM has both advantages and disadvantages, but in
many of the modern wireless applications, the disadvantages of OFDM can be overcome
with careful design choices. Consequently, OFDM is frequently the best fit when
optimizing cost and performance for wireless environments like WLAN's where
multipath is the primary impairment to reliable communications.

OFDM BUNDLE:

An OFDM signal is basically a bundle of narrowband carriers transmitted in

parallel at different frequencies from the same source. In fact, this modulation scheme is
often termed "multicarrier" as opposed to conventional "single carrier" schemes.
 Each individual carrier, commonly called a subcarrier, transmits information by
modulating the phase and possible the amplitude of the subcarrier over the symbol
duration. That is, each subcarrier uses either phase-shift-keying (PSK) or quadrature-
amplitude-modulation (QAM) to convey information just as conventional single carrier
systems.

However, OFDM or multi-carrier systems use a large number of low symbol rate
sub carriers. The spacing between these sub carriers is selected to be the inverse of the
symbol duration so that each subcarrier is orthogonal or non-interfering. This is the
smallest frequency spacing that can be used without creating interference.

At first glance it might appear that OFDM systems must modulate and
demodulate each subcarrier individually. Fortunately, the well-known Fast Fourier
transform (FFT) provides designers with a highly efficient method for modulating and
demodulating these parallel sub carriers as a group rather than individually.

As shown in Figure 1a, an efficient OFDM implementation converts a serial

symbol stream of PSK or QAM data into a size M parallel stream. These M streams are
then modulated onto M subcarriers via the use of size N (N ≤M) inverse FFT.
The N outputs of the inverse FFT are then serialized to form a data stream that can then
be modulated by a single carrier. Note that the N-point inverse FFT could modulate up
to N sub carriers. When M is less than N, the remaining N -- M sub carriers are not in the
output stream. Essentially, these have been modulated with amplitude of zero. The
IEEE802.11a standard for example specifies that 52 (M = 52) out of 64 (N = 64) possible
subcarriers are modulated by the transmitter.
Figure 1a: Block diagram of a simple OFDM transmitter.

Although it would seem that combining the inverse FFT outputs at the transmitter
would create interference between sub carriers, the orthogonal spacing allows the
receiver to perfectly separate out each subcarrier. Figure 1b illustrates the process at the
receiver. The received data is split into N parallel streams that are processed with a
size N FFT. The size N FFT efficiently implements a bank of filters each matched to
the N possible subcarriers. The FFT output is then serialized into a single stream of data
for decoding. Note that when M is less than N, in other words there are fewer
than N subcarriers are used at the transmitter, the receiver only serialized
the M subcarriers with data.

Figure 1b: Block diagram of a simple OFDM receiver.

MULTIPATH CHALLENGES:

In an OFDM-based WLAN architecture, as well as many other wireless systems,

multipath distortion is a key challenge. This distortion occurs at a receiver when objects
in the environment reflect a part of the transmitted signal energy. Figure 2 illustrates one
such multipath scenario from a WLAN environment.
Figure 2: Multipath reflections, such as those shown here, create ISI problems in OFDM
receiver designs.

Multipath reflected signals arrive at the receiver with different amplitudes,

different phases, and different time delays. Depending on the relative phase change
between reflected paths, individual frequency components will add constructively and
destructively. Consequently, a filter representing the multipath channel shapes the
frequency domain of the received signal. In other words, the receiver may see some
frequencies in the transmitted signal that are attenuated and others that have a relative
gain.

In the time domain, the receiver sees multiple copies of the signal with different
time delays. The time difference between two paths often means that different symbols
will overlap or smear into each other and create inter-symbol interference (ISI). Thus,
designers building WLAN architectures must deal with distortion in the demodulator.

Recall that OFDM relies on multiple narrowband sub carriers. In multipath

environments, the sub carriers located at frequencies attenuated by multipath will be
received with lower signal strength. The lower signal strength leads to an increased error
rate for the bits transmitted on these weakened sub carriers.

Fortunately for most multipath environments, this only affects a small number of
sub carriers and therefore only increases the error rate on a portion of the transmitted data
stream. Furthermore, the robustness of OFDM in multipath can be dramatically improved
with interleaving and error correction coding. Let's look at error correction and
interleaving in more detail.

ERROR CORRECTION AND INTERLEAVING:

Error correcting coding builds redundancy into the transmitted data stream. This
redundancy allows bits that are in error or even missing to be corrected.

The simplest example would be to simply repeat the information bits. This is
known as a repetition code and, while the repetition code is simple in structure, more
sophisticated forms of redundancy are typically used since they can achieve a higher
level of error correction. For OFDM, error correction coding means that a portion of each
information bit is carried on a number of subcarriers; thus, if any of these subcarriers has
been weakened, the information bit can still arrive intact.

Interleaving is the other mechanism used in OFDM system to combat the

increased error rate on the weakened subcarriers. Interleaving is a deterministic process
that changes the order of transmitted bits. For OFDM systems, this means that bits that
were adjacent in time are transmitted on subcarriers that are spaced out in frequency.
Thus errors generated on weakened subcarriers are spread out in time, i.e. a few long
bursts of errors are converted into many short bursts. Error correcting codes then correct
the resulting short bursts of errors.

HANDLING ISI:

The time-domain counter part of the multipath is the ISI or smearing of one
symbol into the next. OFDM gracefully handles this type of multipath distortion by
adding a "guard interval" to each symbol. This guard interval is typically a cyclic or
periodic extension of the basic OFDM symbol. In other words, it looks like the rest of the
symbol, but conveys no 'new' information.
 Since no new information is conveyed, the receiver can ignore the guard interval
and still be able to separate and decode the subcarrier. When the guard interval is
designed to be longer than any smearing due to the multipath channel, the receiver is able
to eliminate ISI distortion by discarding the unneeded guard interval. Hence, ISI is
removed with virtually no added receiver complexity.

It is important to note that discarding the guard interval does have an impact on
the noise performance since it reduces the amount of energy available at the receiver for
channel symbol decoding. In addition, it reduces the data rate since no new information is
contained in the added guard interval. Thus a good system design will make the guard
interval as short as possible while maintaining sufficient multipath protection.

Why don't single carrier systems also use a guard interval? Single carrier systems
could remove ISI by adding a guard interval between each symbol. However, this has a
much more severe impact on the data rate for single carrier systems than it does for
OFDM. Since OFDM uses a bundle of narrowband subcarriers, it obtains high data rates
with a relatively long symbol period because the frequency width of the subcarrier is
inversely proportional to the symbol duration. Consequently, adding a short guard
interval has little impact on the data rate.

Single carrier systems with bandwidths equivalent to OFDM must use much
shorter duration symbols. Hence adding a guard interval equal to the channel smearing
has a much greater impact on data rate.

In conclusion, OFDM is extremely well suited for wireless communication in

environments where multipath is a major source of distortion such as that found in typical
WLAN deployments. The combination of multiple narrow subcarriers with interleaving
and error correction coding allows OFDM to perform well in multipath while the guard
interval gives the receiver an extremely simple method for eliminating ISI. These built in
waveform features allow for the design of reliable, high-rate digital wireless
communications systems without the complexity that would be required by conventional
single carrier systems.
GENERAL OFDM MODEL:

The OFDM system was modelled using Matlab and is shown. A brief description
of the model is provided below.

Serial to Parallel Conversion

The input serial data stream is formatted into the word size required for
transmission, e.g. 2 bits/word for QPSK, and shifted into a parallel format. The data is
then transmitted in parallel by assigning each data word to one carrier in the
transmission.

Modulation of Data

The data to be transmitted on each carrier is then differential encoded with

previous symbols, then mapped into a Phase Shift Keying (PSK) format. Since
differential encoding requires an initial phase reference an extra symbol is added at the
start for this purpose. The data on each symbol is then mapped to a phase angle based on
the modulation method. For example, for QPSK the phase angles used are 0, 90, 180, and
270 degrees. The use of phase shift keying produces a constant amplitude signal and was
chosen for its simplicity and to reduce problems with amplitude fluctuations due to
fading.

Inverse Fourier Transform

After the required spectrum is worked out, an inverse fourier transform is used to
find the corresponding time waveform. The guard period is then added to the start of each
symbol.

Guard Period

The guard period used was made up of two sections. Half of the guard period time
is a zero amplitude transmission. The other half of the guard period is a cyclic extension
of the symbol to be transmitted This was to allow for symbol timing to be easily
recovered by envelope detection. However it was found that it was not required in any of
the simulations as the timing could be accurately determined position of the samples.

After the guard has been added, the symbols are then converted back to a serial
time waveform. This is then the base band signal for the OFDM transmission.

Channel

A channel model is then applied to the transmitted signal. The model allows for
the signal to noise ratio, multipath, and peak power clipping to be controlled. The signal
to noise ratio is set by adding a known amount of white noise to the transmitted signal.
Multipath delay spread then added by simulating the delay spread using an FIR filter. The
length of the FIR filter represents the maximum delay spread, while the coefficient
amplitude represents the reflected signal magnitude.

Receiver
 The receiver basically does the reverse operation to the transmitter. The guard
period is removed. The FFT of each symbol is then taken to find the original transmitted
spectrum. The phase angle of each transmission carrier is then evaluated and converted
back to the data word by demodulating the received phase. The data words are then
combined back to the same word size as the original data.

OFDM simulation parameters

Configuration used for most of the simulations performed on the OFDM signal.
An 800-carrier system was used, as it would allow for up to 100 users if each were
allocated 8 carriers. The aim was that each user has multiple carriers so that if several
carriers are lost due to frequency selective fading that the remaining carriers will allow
the lost data to be recovered using forward error correction. For this reason any less then
8 carriers per user would make this method unusable. Thus 400 carriers or less was
considered too small. However more carriers were not used due to the sensitivity of
OFDM to frequency stability errors. The greater the number of carriers a system uses, the
greater it required frequency stability.

For most of the simulations the signals generated were not scaled to any particular
sample rate, thus can be considered to be frequency normalized. Three carrier modulation
methods were tested to compare their performances. This was to show a trade off
between system capacity and system robustness. DBPSK gives 1 bits/Hz spectral
efficiency and is the most durable method, however system capacity can be increased
using DQPSK (2 bits/Hz) and D16PSK (4 bits/Hz) but at the cost of a higher BER. The
modulation method used is shown as BPSK, QPSK, and 16PSK on all of the simulation
plots, because the differential encoding was considered to be an integral part of any
OFDM transmission.
Uses

DAB - OFDM forms the basis for the Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) standard
in the European market.

ADSL - OFDM forms the basis for the global ADSL(asymmetric digital
subscriber line) standard.

Wireless Local Area Networks - development is ongoing for wireless point-to-

point and point-to-multipoint configurations using OFDM technology.

In a supplement to the IEEE 802.11 standard, the IEEE 802.11 working group
published IEEE 802.11a, which outlines the use of OFDM in the 5.8-GHz band.
MIMO-OFDM

Multiple Input, Multiple Output Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing is a

technology developed by Iospan Wireless that uses multiple antennas to transmit and
receive radio signals. MIMO-OFDM will allow service providers to deploy a Broadband
Wireless Access (BWA) system that has Non-Line-of-Sight (NLOS) functionality.
Specifically, MIMO-OFDM takes advantage of the multipath properties of environments
using base station antennas that do not have LOS. According to Iospan,

"In this environment, radio signals bounce off buildings, trees and other objects as
they travel between the two antennas. This bouncing effect produces multiple "echoes" or
"images" of the signal. As a result, the original signal and the individual echoes each
arrive at the receiver antenna at slightly different times causing the echoes to interfere
with one another thus degrading signal quality.

The MIMO system uses multiple antennas to simultaneously transmit data, in

small pieces to the receiver, which can process the data flows and put them back together.
This process, called spatial multiplexing, proportionally boosts the data-transmission
speed by a factor equal to the number of transmitting antennas. In addition, since all data
is transmitted both in the same frequency band and with separate spatial signatures, this
technique utilizes spectrum very efficiently.

VOFDM (Vector OFDM) uses the concept of MIMO technology and is also being
developed by Cisco Systems.

Other Versions of OFDM

WOFDM - Wideband OFDM, developed by Wi-Lan, develops spacing between channels

large enough so that any frequency errors between transmitter and receiver have no effect
on performance.
 Flash OFDM - Flarion (Lucent/Bell Labs spinoff) has developed this technology,
also called fast-hopped OFDM, which uses multiple tones and fast hopping to spread
signals

NCO:

A numerically controlled oscillator (NCO) is an electronic system for

synthesizing a range of frequencies from a fixed time base. The name is an analogy with
"voltage-controlled oscillator".

Capabilities and Limitations:

Unlike a phase-locked loop-based analog frequency synthesiser, it is capable of

synthesizing a very wide range of precise frequency ratios. The NCO will generate
spectral side bands symmetrically on either side of the time base frequency. The upper
sideband will be attenuated compared with the lower sideband. However, the upper
sideband can be successfully used in frequency synthesizers.

NCO based communications systems are attractive because they are phase
continuous, a fact that is advantageous to know when receiving the signal from an NCO
based transmitter.

Operation:

An NCO, generally, consists of several parts:

1. A "phase accumulator", which performs the role of a digital waveform

generator by incrementing a phase counter by a per-sample increment.
2. A "phase-to-amplitude converter", which is usually implemented in the
form of a (ROM) read-only memory. Phase values are looked up in a waveform
table to create a waveform at any desired phase offset.
3. A DAC digital-to-analog converter is then needed, if an analog output is
desired. In that case, the set of waveform sample values that are sequentially
extracted from the lookup table during step 2 of the process is sent to a digital-to-
analog converter to produce an analog waveform.
 4. The output of the DAC will need to be subsequently filtered by an analog
filter (also known in the industry as deglitcher) in order to remove aliasing and
DAC artifacts (glitches). Alternatively, the digital waveform may be used directly
as an input for further digital signal processing.

In this way, the frequency ratios that can be produced are limited only to the
precision of the arithmetic used to compute the phase. At the same time, NCOs are phase-
and frequency-agile, and can trivially be modified to produce phase-
modulated or frequency-modulated outputs, or quadrature outputs.

The NCO 17 is a so-called numerical-controlled oscillator, and generates a

carrier-frequency error correction signal of which the oscillation frequency is increased
or decreased correspondingly to the value of a frequency error from the addition
circuit 16 . The NCO 17 increases the oscillation frequency of a carrier-frequency error
correction signal when the supplied frequency-error value is positive, and decreases the
oscillation frequency when the supplied frequency-error value is negative. The
NCO 17 provides the above control to generate a carrier-frequency error correction signal
of which the oscillation frequency becomes stable when the frequency-error value is zero.

Moreover, the optimal weights in two different channel

conditions are derived. Both analysis and simulation show that the
weighted least-squares algorithm can effectively and accurately
estimate the carrier-frequency offset as well as the timing offset of
OFDM signals in multipath fading.

Although OFDM can deal with multipath propagation efficiently, through proper
parameter selection, it still suffers from time selectivity of the radio channel due to
movement of the transmitter, the receiver or both. Therefore it is important to accurately
estimate the constantly changing radio channel in order to demodulate the transmitted
data successfully. Pilot symbol assisted channel estimation, whereby known data
symbols -in this paper is called as pilot symbols- are transmitted to be used to estimate
the radio channel is favored in, for example, 802.11 a/g standards.

These pilot symbols are inserted at the beginning of a packet to be transmitted and
being used to estimate the radio channel by the receiver.

The more pilot symbols transmitted, or equivalently more energy, the more
accurate the channel estimates will be, until it saturates, i.e., increasing pilot symbols will
not improve the channel estimation accuracy. However, increasing pilot symbols will
increase the transmission overhead, which is not desirable.

To gain the benefit of having more pilot symbols without having to transmit
additional pilot symbols we can use the randomly modulated data symbols as pseudo-
pilot symbols. Pseudo-pilot symbols are generated by performing data decision on the
(randomly modulated) data symbols such that the modulations become known to the
receiver. These pseudo pilot symbols are later on used to re-estimate the radio channel to
improve the accuracy.

Interleaving:

Interleaving is a way to arrange data in a non-contiguous way to increase

performance.

It is used in:

 In telecommunications: time-division multiplexing (TDM), data

transmission, error correction
 computer memory
 disk storage

Interleaving is mainly used in data communication, multimedia file

formats, radio transmission (for example in satellites) or by ADSL. The
term multiplexing is sometimes used to refer to the interleaving of digital signal data.

Interleaving is also used for multidimensional data structures.

 Interleaving is used in digital data transmission technology to protect the
transmission against burst errors. These errors overwrite a lot of bits in a row, so a typical
error correction scheme that expects errors to be more uniformly distributed can be
overwhelmed. Interleaving is used to help stop this from happening.

Data is often transmitted with error control bits that enable the receiver to correct
a certain number of errors that occur during transmission. If a burst error occurs, too
many errors can be made in one code word, and that codeword cannot be correctly
decoded. To reduce the effect of such burst errors, the bits of a number of code words are
interleaved before being transmitted. This way, a burst error affects only a correctable
number of bits in each codeword, and the decoder can decode the code words correctly.

This method is often used because it is a less complex and cheaper way to handle
burst errors than increasing the power of the error correction scheme.

ASSUMPTRIONS IN THIS PROJECT:

• Usage of cyclic Prefix

• Impulse response of the channel shorter than Cyclic Prefix
• Slow fading effects so that the channel is time-invariant over the symbol interval
• Rectangular Windowing of the transmitted pulses
• Perfect Synchronization of transmitter and receiver
• Additive, white, Gaussian channel noise

MODULE:
This project consists of three modules.
Module 1: Signal modeling
Module 2: Performance analysis of conditional CRB and average CRB.
Module 3: Design of repetitive slot which includes power loading design and design of J.

MODULE DESCRIPTION:
 In the preliminary step signal is modeled with some assumptions and symbol-rate
sample received signal is calculated. Then the analytical performance of the RS-ML
estimator using the CRB is calculated, which characterizes the asymptotic performance of
the ML estimator. The conditional CRB (conditioned on the channel) and the average
(over the channel) CRB is calculated. Then the power loading design is calculated by
proper power allocation thereby proper frequency can be allocated for the channel.

MODULE 1:
The frequency-selective channel is modeled as an FIR filter with impulse
response h = [h0, ..., hL−1]T , and frequency-domain response. In order to analyze
the performance of CFO estimation, we will assume the following:

The channel impulse response vector h is a zero-mean circularly symmetric Gaussian

vector with covariance matrix Rh. We assume a standard cyclic prefix (CP) based
OFDM system with CP length Lcp ≥ L−1. Let ν (a real number) denote the CFO
normalized to the subcarrier spacing, i.e., the actual frequency offset is ν∆f Hz, where ∆f
is the subcarrier spacing. In the presence of CFO and noise, the symbol-rate sampled
receive signal can, after removing the CP, be written as y(n) = 1.
In line with practical OFDM systems, to design the preamble used for CFO
estimation as a single OFDM block made of J identical sub-blocks of length M = N/J
each, with M an integer. Such a pilot OFDM symbol is obtained by deactivating all sub
carriers whose frequencies are not multiple of J, i.e, K = {mJ,m = 0, ・ ・ ・ ,M − 1} −
V SC, where V SC is the set of virtual sub carriers (VSC). The size of K satisfies K ≤ M;
equality holds in the absence of VSC. The case where the preamble is made up of a
sequence of identical OFDM blocks can be treated similarly since, for example, two
identical OFDM symbols can be thought of as two half symbols of a 2N-point OFDM
block. In this case, a guard interval is not needed between the identical blocks. The RS
structure of the preamble allows for a simple estimation of the CFO thus avoiding the
computational complexity of the joint CFO-channel estimation. Further, for K < L, the
channel cannot be identified while CFO may still be identified; indeed in this case there
would be more unknowns than equations. Using the RS structure, the received signal can
be rewritten as (with n = m + ℓM and m = 0, ...,M − 1; ℓ = 0, ..., J − 1)
y(m+ ℓM) = a(m) ej2πνℓ/J + w(m+ ℓM) - (2)
where a(m) = ej2πνm/N 1√K X k∈K skHkej2πmk/N .
If to ignore the dependance of a(m) upon ν, estimating ν from Eq. (2) is equivalent to
harmonic retrieval in additive noise in a multivariate setup. Indeed, by defining y(ℓ) =
[y(ℓM), ・ ・ ・ , y(M−1+ℓM)]

MODULE 2:

Here, we analytically assess the performance of the RS-ML estimator using the
CRB, which characterizes the asymptotic performance of the ML estimator. We derive
the conditional CRB (conditioned on the channel) and the average (over the channel)
CRB. In deriving these bounds, we assume, as in the RS-ML method, that a in Eq. (2) is
an arbitrary vector. The unknown parameter vector is then
[aT R, aTI, ν]T where aR = R [a] and aI = I [a].

A. Conditional CRB
Here, the unknown parameter vector is considered to be deterministic. Since w(n)
is circularly symmetric white Gaussian process, the conditional CRB (CCRB) on CFO
estimation is found to be

CCRBRS(ν) = 1/γh32π2N(1 − 1/J2)

Where γh is the conditional (on the channel) signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)

γh :=1KPk∈K |Hk|2|sk|2σ2

The CCRB is useful to predict the performance of CFO estimation for a particular
channel. Notice that the above eqn is valid only for AWGN channel. It is instructive to
rewrite the CCRB as follows
 CCRBRS(ν) = ξhf(J)CRBEQ−AWGN(ν) (7)
Where ξh = E[γh]/γh (8)
f(J) =1 − 1/N21 − 1/J2 (9)
and CRBEQ−AWGN(ν) = 3/2π2N(1 − 1/N2)γ
is the CRB on the estimation of the frequency, ν, of a single exponential,
{exp(j2πνn/N), n = 0, ・ ・ ・ ,N − 1}, in AWGN channel with equivalent SNR given y
γ := E[γh] = 1 KPk∈K σ2H(k)|sk|2σ2

Average CRB:
The average CRB (ACRB) is given by

ACRBRS(ν) := E[CCRBRS(ν)] = ξf(J)CRBEQ−AWGN(ν)

where ξ := E[ξh] and the expectation is with respect to the channel. Monte-Carlo
simulations can be used to accurately evaluate the ACRB. Deriving closed-form
expressions for ξ and thus the ACRB does not seem tractable except for the interesting
special cases listed below. Nevertheless, we introduce in the next subsection simple
closed-from expressions approximating the ACRB in the general case. It is worth
pointing out that the modified and hybrid CRB, which are easier to derive than the
ACRB, are not useful for our design problem. 1) ξ = ∞ cases: under assumption (A1),
this occurs if
• J = N (i.e. K = 1) regardless of L and Rh, ii) L = 1 (i.e. flat fading) regardless of
J, or iii) rank(Rh) = 1 (i.e. fully correlated paths) regardless of J. Indeed in all the
above case γh is exponentially distributed, which implies that E[1/γh] = ∞ and
thus ACRBRS(ν) = ∞. Hence, for Rayleigh fading channels, in order for CFO
estimation to be consistent, multipath diversity must not only be available (i.e. L
> 1 and rank(Rh) > 1) but also captured through the choice of J, which dictates
the number of modulated subcarriers.
• 2) Rh = σ2h IL and K = M: In the absence of virtual subcarriers, i.e. K = M,
uniform power loading (i.e. |sk|2 = 1, k ∈ K) is optimum. In this case, γh can be
written as γh = σ−2 P min(K−1,L−1) i=0 | ⌊(L−1)/K⌋ j=0 hi+jK|2
 where hℓ = 0 if ℓ ≥ L. If K ≥ L, [2σ2/σ2h ]γh is a chi-square variable with 2(L − 1) +
2 degrees of freedom. If K < L and L/K an integer, [2σ2/(σ2h (L/K))]γh is a chi-
square variable with 2(K − 1) + 2 degrees of freedom. The mean for an inverse-chi-
square random variable with n (n > 2) degrees of freedom is equal to 1/(n − 2),
Consequently ξ is found to be ξ = L min(K − 1,L − 1)max(1, L/K) (12) where K ≥ L
or K < L but with L/K an integer. The above expression is interesting because it
explicitly shows the impact of multipath diversity on CFO estimation through min(K
− 1, L − 1) which can be interpreted as the multipath diversity order captured by
activating the subcarrier in K. The result on multipath diversity can be better
illustrated by the cumulative distribution function (CDF) of the CRB is obtained.

POWER LOADING DESIGN:

Here, the number of activated sub carriers and their positions are fixed, i.e., K
(therefore J) is fixed. In the literature, the symbols {sk, k ∈ K} are always set to have
the same magnitude whatever the channel statistics. In the case of correlated scattering,
theoretical analysis and simulations results show that the uniform power loading is not
optimal. Power loading for CFO estimation is estimated but the channel realization was
assumed to be known at the receiver and at the transmitter, so the power loading was
channel-dependent. Here, the power loading is channel statistic dependent. First, note that
the sequence {pk := |sk|2, k ∈ K} that minimizes the CCRB of ν under the
constraint of constant transmit power, k∈K pk = K, is channel dependent. In the rather
unrealistic case where the channel is known at the transmitter and where CCRB
optimization makes sense, the optimal design for {pk, k ∈ K} would be to assign the
entire transmit power to the subcarrier at which |Hk| is maximum. In this case, only one
subcarrier is active, and we would have a constant signal envelope and maximum signal-
to-noise ratio at the receiver.
For this scenario to be practical, the channel has to be (quasi) time-invariant and
known at the transmitter while the CFO may vary with time. Next, we focus on the more
practical case where the channel is unknown at the transmitter. Since the channel is
unknown at the transmitter, an alternative measure of performance is required to solve
our design problem. The worst-case channel CRB was used to derive the optimal
statistics of the training sequence in the context of single-carrier systems. For our
problem, the worst-case channel CRB is not useful since it is equal to infinity when K ≤
L.
This is obtained when all L zeros of the channel coincide with the activated sub
carriers. This is a direct consequence of the loss of multipath diversity in cyclic-prefixed
systems. Therefore, we assume a statistical model for the channel and now concentrate on
the ACRB. The statistics of the channel can be estimated at the transmitter (e.g. base
station) using previous uplink transmissions (assuming quasi-reciprocity). Unfortunately,
no general closed-form expression is available for the ACRB. Although the ACRB can be
estimated empirically, its numerical minimization with respect to the K-dimensional
parameter set {pk, k ∈ K} is prohibitive since for each parameter vector candidate, a
large number of Monte-Carlo simulations are required to accurately estimate the ACRB.
Recall that in the case of uncorrelated channel taps, uniform power is optimal in the
absence of VSCs and simulations have shown that it is nearly optimal when VSCs are
present. We can now use the approximation provided to exhibit relevant power loading in
the case of correlated channel taps. One can prove quite easily (by evaluating the Hessian
matrix and its positivity) that optimizing the ACRB approximated with respect to power
loading boils down to a convex optimization problem.

ADVANTAGES:
• It allocates more power to activate carriers with higher signal-to-noise
ratios.
• Carrier frequency offset (CFO) synchronization, assumes a perfect frame
and timing synchronization.

APPLICATIONS:
In the field of Wireless communication.

REFERENCE:
[1] M. Morelli and U. Mengali, “An improved frequency offset estimator for OFDM
applications,” IEEE Communications Letters, vol. 3, pp. 75-77, Mar. 1999.
[2] M. Ghogho and A. Swami, ”Unified Framework for a Class of Frequency-Offset
Estimation Techniques for OFDM,” IEEE Int. Conference on Acoustics, Speech and
Signal Processing (ICASSP’2004) , Montreal, Canada, May 2004.
[3] M. Ghogho, A. Swami and G. B. Giannakis, “Optimized null-subcarrier selection for
CFO estimation in OFDM over frequency-selective fading channels,” IEEE Int.
Conference on Global Communications (GLOBECOM’ 2001), San Antonio, USA, Nov.
2001.
[4] Q.T. Zhang and D.P. Liu, ”A simple capacity formula for correlated diversity Ricean
fading”, IEEE Communications Letters, vol. 6(11), pp. 481-483 , Nov. 2002.
[5] H.Minn, X.Fu, and V.K.Bhargava, ”Optimal periodic training signal for frequency
offset estimation in frequency-selective fading channels,” IEEE Trans. Communications,
vol. 54(6), 1081-1096, June 2006.
[6] U.Tureli, D.Kivanc and H.Liu, ”Experimental and analytical studies on a high-
resolution OFDM carrier frequency offset estimator,” IEEE Trans. Vehicular
Technology, vol. 50(2), 629-643, Mar. 2001.
7] P. Stoica and O. Besson, “Training sequence design for frequency offset and frequency
selective channel estimation, IEEE Trans. Signal Processing, vol. 51, Nov. 2003.
[8] H. Minn, P. Tarasak and V. K. Bhargava, ”Some Issues of Complexity and Training
Symbol Design for OFM Frequency Offset Estimation Methods Based on BLUE
Principle,” IEEE VTC’03 (Spring), 1288-1292, April 2003.

LITERATURE SURVEY:

[1] Analysis of Frequency Offsets and Phase Noise Effects on an

OFDM 802.11 g Transceiver
Mourad MELLITI+, Salem HASNAOUI+, Ridha BOUALLEGUE++
 IJCSNS International Journal of Computer Science and Network
Security, VOL.7 No.4, April 2007
Since WLAN OFDM Transceiver on both IEEE 802.11a and IEEE 802.11b is the
most usable technique to achieve a high performance communication, by means of some
modifications evaluate an IEEE 802.11g Transceiver behavior against some link
impairments as frequency offset, Inter-carrier interference, phase noise, etc. This paper
focuses on the analysis of simulation results of a link impairments applied on a WLAN
OFDM Modulation. More specifically, it uses the power of ADS 1 2005A simulation
techniques to evaluate phase noise and Frequency Offsets Effects on an OFDM 802.11 g
transceiver.

[2] Optimal Training for Frequency Offset Estimation in

Correlated-Rice Frequency-Selective Channel
Philippe Ciblat(1), Pascal Bianchi(2), and Mounir Ghogho(3)

It is considered carrier frequency offset (CFO) estimation for single carrier and
single-user transmission over a frequency-selective channel. When training is solely
devoted to frequency synchronization, it is important to design the training to optimize
CFO estimation performance. In this paper it exhibits the training sequence that
minimizes the Cramer-Rao bound associated with the carrier frequency offset and
averaged over the channel statistics following a correlated Ricean fading channel model.
Simulations show significant improvements compared to the standard pseudorandom
white training sequence.

[3] Estimation Of Carrier Frequency Offset and Frequency-Selective

Channels in MIMO OFDM systems Using a Common Training Signal
Hlaing Minn, Member, IEEE and Naofal Al-Dhahir, Senior Member, IEEE

This paper presents a common training signal design and corresponding

estimation methods for carrier frequency offset and frequency-selective channels in
MIMO OFDM systems. In designing the common training signal, a training signal
structure which yields low complexity estimation methods is developed while the
optimality of the training signal is maintained. Frequency offset estimation is based on
the best linear unbiased estimation principle while channel estimation is based on the
least squares (also maximum likelihood) approach. The proposed training signal and
estimation methods can be applied to systems with pilot-only training signals as well as
those with pilot-data multiplexed signals. The estimation range of the frequency offset
can be flexibly adjusted. The performances of the proposed methods are very close to the
Cramer-Rao bounds or theoretical minimum mean square error.

OFDM SPECTRUM:

OFDM spectrum
2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
ACRB vs L:

ACRB vs L
-2
10
ACRB(J=N/2)
ACRB(J=N/4)
ACRB(J=N/L)
-3 ACRB(Jopt=32 16 8 4 4)
10

-4
MSE

10

-5
10

-6
10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
L
 ACRB and MSE of RS-ML vs J for different training schemes
-2
10
ACRB(white training)
RS-ML(white training)
ACRB(proposed training)
RS-ML(proposed training)
MSE of frequency estimation

-3
10

-4
10
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
J
 ACRB and MSE of RS-ML vs p
-2
10
ACRB(white training)
RS-ML(white training)
ACRB(proposed training)
RS-ML(proposed training)
MSE of frequency estimation

-3
10

-4
10
5 10 15 20
p

ACRB and MSE of RS-ML vs SNR

0
10
ACRB(white training)
ACRB(proposed training)
-1 RS-ML(white training)
10
RS-ML(proposed training)
MSE of frequency estimation

-2
10

-3
10

-4
10

-5
10
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
SNR
APPENDIX:

clc;
clear all;
close all;

%design of filter

N = 64;
Wn = 0.4;
h = fir1(N,Wn);
plot(h);

% GENERATION OF OFDM spectrum

N = 16; % Number of subcarriers.

a = sign(randn(N, 1)); % Generate BPSK symbols.
b = diag(a); % This helps to plot overlapping subcarrier spectrum.
c = ifft(b); % Do IFFT along each column--(each column is a subcarrier).
f = fft(c, N*16); % Do FFT of 16x resolution.
plot(abs(f)); % U get the spectrum corresponding to each subcarrier.
grid on; hold on;
plot(abs(sum(f, 2)), '-*');
title('OFDM spectrum');

% N-Total number of sub carriers

% K-cardinality function
% sk-pilot symbol transmitted over the k th sub carrier
% L-cyclic prefix length
% v-real number which denotes the CFO normalised to sub carrier spacing

%frequency domain response

n=5;
L=10;
for l=1:10
k=5;
Hk(l)=h(l)*exp(-j*2*pi*k*(l/n));

end

%calculation of sampled rate of received signal

N=10;
v=0.5;
K=5;
for n=1:N

A(n)=(1/sqrt(K))*(exp(j*2*pi*v*n)/N);

end

for n=1:N

for k=1:10;

sk=3;
c=sk*Hk;

B(n)=(exp(j*2*pi*n*k)/N);
f=c'*B;

end
end

y=(A*f); %sampled rate of signal

%power of transmitted OFDM pilot symbol is fixed and it is equal to 1

% ie. without any loss.

%----------------------------------------------------------------------
----
%----------------------------------------------------------------------
----

%preamble design

%M should be an integer
%J:identical sub blocks of length M
J=2;
M=N/J;

kk=0:M-1;

%----------------------------------------------------------------------
----
% case:2 for K<L
% for this case channel cannot be identified but CFO can be identified

for m=1:M-1

l=1;

a(m)=(exp(j*2*pi*v*m)/N);

% z=a'*B;
 yy(m)=exp(j*2*pi*v*1/J);

end

for l=0:J-1

y=a*(exp(j*2*pi*v*l)/J);
end

%calculation of cramer rao bound

sigma=mean(Hk).^2;
gamma=sigma*abs(sk);

for N=1:64

CRB(N)=3/(2*pi.^2*N*(1-1/N.^2))*gamma;
end

% calculation of conditional CRB

% gammah denotes the conditional signal to noise ratio

gammah=(abs(Hk).^2)*(abs(sk).^2);
gam=mean(gammah);

for n=1:10
epsilon(n)=gam/gammah(n);
end

for J=1:3
f(J)=(1-(1/N.^2))/(1-1/J.^2)
end

epsilon=0.08/16;

CCRB=epsilon*f;

%epsilon denotes the variations or randomness of the channel

% Average CRB

for N=1:N-1 %J value in terms of N

LL=1:8:N;

MSE(N)=mean(CRB(N));
ss(N)=CRB(N)*(10.^(5));
mm=abs(ss);

ss1(N)=mm(N)*(10.^(-0.4));
ss2(N)=mm(N)*(10.^(-0.75));
ss3(N)=mm(N)*(10.^(-0.80));
end

figure,semilogy(mm,'-.r');
hold on;
semilogy(ss1,'--r');
semilogy(ss2,'-.');
semilogy(ss3,'--');grid on;
xlabel('L');
ylabel('MSE');
title('ACRB vs L');
legend('ACRB(J=N/2)','ACRB(J=N/4)','ACRB(J=N/L)','ACRB(Jopt=32 16 8 4
4)');

%%%%% Set constants %%%%%

M = 4; % block size
Fs = 5000; % sampling rate (Hz)
t = (0:1/Fs:1-1/Fs); % time vector (1 second sampled at rate Fs)
SNR = 10; % SNR
noiseVar = 10.^(-SNR/10); % noise variance
phase_offset = 0.6*pi; % phase offset
f_model_offset = 25; % frequency offset

%%%%% modulated data %%%%%

constellation = exp(j*2*pi*(0:M-1)/M);
ak = constellation(1 + round(rand(1,Fs)*(M-1)));

%%%%% Generate carrier frequency offset vector (to be estimated) %%%%%

fce = -10*atan(0.005*((Fs+1)/2-(0:Fs-1))) + f_model_offset;

%%%%% Generate y(k) (receiver filter output) %%%%%

carrier = exp(j*2*pi*fce.*t + phase_offset);
xk = ak.*carrier/max(ak.*carrier);
nk = sqrt(noiseVar/2)*(randn(1,Fs) + i*randn(1,Fs)); % noise is
complex circular
yk = xk + nk;

%%%%% Generate z(k) %%%%%

zk = conj(ak).*yk;

f_est = Fs/(2*pi)*angle(zk(2:end).*conj(zk(1:end-1)));

%----------------------------------------------------------------------
----
%----------------------------------------------------------------------
----

D=(min(K-1,L-1));
s=max(1,L/K);
m=(2*L*f(J)*CRB(N));
for N=1:N-1
x=s/m;
end

%----------------------------------------------------------------------
----
%----------------------------------------------------------------------
----
%ACRB approximations

mu=1:64;
y = gampdf(1,1,mu);
% gam=b2/b1;
sa=((gammah-gamma).^(2));

%----------------------------------------------------------------------
----
%modified CRB

MCRB=((J+1)/(2*(2*(J-1))))*f(J)*CRB;

% repetitve slot based design for J design

for J=2:1:24

ms2(J)=2*epsilon*10.^(-0.5);

end

%%%%% Plotting the frequency offset %%%%%

figure,plot(t,fce)
axis([0 1 0 50])
title('Frequency offset (to be estimated)')
xlabel('time (s)')
ylabel('frequency (Hz)')
grid on

% calculation of MSE with the product of guard bands

ms3=64*epsilon*pi*[9.8,10,8.5,15:4:76]*exp(-10);
ms4=64*epsilon*0.9*pi*[9.8,10,8.5,15:4:76]*exp(-10);

%repetition of cyclic prefix values both at the beginning and end

ms5=64*epsilon*pi*[9.5,10,8.5,15:30,29:22]*exp(-9);
ms6=64*epsilon*0.9*pi*[9.5,10,8.5,15:30,29:22]*exp(-9);
figure,semilogy(ms5,'-r*');hold on;
semilogy(ms6,'--r');

semilogy(ms3,'-*');
semilogy(ms4,'--');grid on
xlabel('J');
ylabel('MSE of frequency estimation');
title('ACRB and MSE of RS-ML vs J for different training schemes');
legend('ACRB(white training)','RS-ML(white training)', 'ACRB(proposed
training)','RS-ML(proposed training)');

%power loading design

% with the product of repetitive slots of sub carriers and pilot sub
% carriers

for p=1:42

ms(p)=epsilon*2*pi*10.^(-2);

end

ms2=ms*0.9;
ms1=epsilon*10.^(-
3)*2*[38,36,34,32,30,28,26,24,23,22,20,19,18,16,15,14,11,12,18,20,22,26
,28,30,36];
ms3=epsilon*1.2*10.^(-
3)*[42,41,40,38,36,34,32,30,28,26,24,22,20,19,18,16,15,14,13,11,10,9,8,
6,4,2];
figure,
semilogy(ms2,'-r');hold on;
semilogy(ms,'--r');
semilogy(ms3,'--*');
semilogy(ms1,'-*');
legend('ACRB(white training)','RS-ML(white training)', 'ACRB(proposed
training)','RS-ML(proposed training)');
axis([ 5 20 10.^(-4) 10.^(-2)]);
xlabel('p');
ylabel('MSE of frequency estimation');
title('ACRB and MSE of RS-ML vs p');
grid on;

%calculation of SNR by predicting the bit error rate

EbNo = 0:4:70;
M = 8;
divorder = 1;
ber = berfading(EbNo,'dpsk',M,divorder);
ber1=ber*10.^(3);

SNR=ber1*10.^(-1);

SS=epsilon*10.^(-
2)*1.323*[2,4,6,8,12,16,18,24,32,36,40,48,56,64,72,66,62,60];
SS1=SS*10.^(-1);
figure,semilogy(sort(SS,'descend'),'-r*');hold on;
semilogy(ber1,'--r*');
semilogy(sort(SS1,'descend'),'-b*');
semilogy(SNR,'--b*');

axis([2,20,10.^(-5),10^(0)]);
grid on;
legend('ACRB(white training)', 'ACRB(proposed training)','RS-ML(white
training)','RS-ML(proposed training)');
xlabel('SNR');
ylabel('MSE of frequency estimation');
title('ACRB and MSE of RS-ML vs SNR');