Trigonometry:

In a right angled OAB, where BOA = ,

Perpendicular AB
i. sin = = ;
Hypotenuse OB
Base OA
ii. cos = = ;
Hypotenuse OB
Perpendicular AB
iii. tan = = ;
Base OA
1 OB
iv. cosec = = ;
sin AB
1 OB
v. sec = = ;
cos OA
1 OA
vi. cot = = ;
tan AB

 Trigonometrical Identities:

i. sin2 + cos2 = 1.
ii. 1 + tan2 = sec2 .
iii. 1 + cot2 = cosec2 .

 Values of T-ratios:

( /6) ( /4) ( /3) ( /2)

0
°
30° 45° 60° 90°

1 3
sin 0 1
2 2

3 1
cos 1 0
2 2
 1
tan 0 1 3 not defined
3

 Angle of Elevation:

Suppose a man from a point O looks up at an object P, placed above the level of his eye. Then,
the angle which the line of sight makes with the horizontal through O, is called the anlge of
elevation of P as seen from O.

Angle of elevation of P from O = AOP.

 Angle of Depression:

Suppose a man from a point O looks down at an object P, placed below the level of his eye, then
the angle which the line of sight makes with the horizontal through O, is called the angle of
depression of P as seen from

SPEED AND DISTANCE

1. km/hr to m/s conversion:

5
a
a km/hr = 1 m/s.
x
8
2. m/s to km/hr conversion:
a 1
a m/s = km/hr.
x 8
 5
3.  Speed, Time and Distance:
Distance Distance
Speed = ,Time = ,Distance = (Speed x Time).
Time Speed
4.  km/hr to m/sec conversion:
5
x
x km/hr = 1 m/sec.
x
8
5.  m/sec to km/hr conversion:
1
x m/sec x
8 km/hr.
= x
5
6.  If the ratio of the speeds of A and B is a : b, then the ratio of the
1 1 or b :
the times taken by then to cover the same distance is :
a b a.
7.  Suppose a man covers a certain distance at x km/hr and an equal distance at y km/hr.
Then,
2xy
the average speed during the whole journey is x + km/hr.
y
8. Time taken by a train of length l metres to pass a pole or standing man or a signal post is
equal to the time taken by the train to cover l metres.
9. Time taken by a train of length l metres to pass a stationery object of length b metres is
the time taken by the train to cover (l + b) metres.
10. Suppose two trains or two objects bodies are moving in the same direction at u m/s and v
m/s, where u > v, then their relative speed is = (u - v) m/s.
11. Suppose two trains or two objects bodies are moving in opposite directions at u m/s and v
m/s, then their relative speed is = (u + v) m/s.
12. If two trains of length a metres and b metres are moving in opposite directions at u m/s
and v m/s, then:
(a + b)
The time taken by the trains to cross each other = sec.
(u + v)
13. If two trains of length a metres and b metres are moving in the same direction at u m/s
and v m/s, then:
(a + b)
The time taken by the faster train to cross the slower train = sec.
(u - v)
14. If two trains (or bodies) start at the same time from points A and B towards each other
and after crossing they take a and b sec in reaching B and A respectively, then:

(A's speed) : (B's speed) = (b : a)

TIME AND WORK

1. Work from Days:

If A can do a piece of work in n days, then A's 1 day's work =1.
 n
2. Days from Work:
1
If A's 1 day's work = ,then A can finish the work in n days.
n
3. Ratio:

If A is thrice as good a workman as B, then:

Ratio of work done by A and B = 3 : 1.

Ratio of times taken by A and B to finish a work = 1 : 3.

SIMPLE INTEREST

 Principal:

The money borrowed or lent out for a certain period is called the principal or the sum.

 Interest:

Extra money paid for using other's money is called interest.

 Simple Interest (S.I.):

If the interest on a sum borrowed for certain period is reckoned uniformly, then it is called
simple interest.

Let Principal = P, Rate = R% per annum (p.a.) and Time = T years. Then

PxRxT
(i). Simple Intereest =
100
100 x S.I. 100 x S.I. 100 x S.I.
(ii). P = ;R= and T = .
RxT PxT PxR

COMPOUND INTEREST

 Let Principal = P, Rate = R% per annum, Time = n years.

 When interest is compound Annually:

R
Amount = P 1 + 10 n
0

 When interest is compounded Half-yearly:

 (R/2) 2
Amount = P 1 +
100 n

 When interest is compounded Quarterly:

(R/4) 4
Amount = P 1 +
100 n

 When interest is compounded Annually but time is in fraction, say 3 years.

R R
Amount = P 1 + 10 3x 1 + 10
0 0

 When Rates are different for different years, say R1%, R2%, R3% for 1st, 2nd and 3rd year
respectively.

R1 R2 R3
Then, Amount = P 1 + 10 1 + 10 1 + 10 .
0 0 0

 Present worth of Rs. x due n years hence is given by:

x
Present Worth R
1+ .
=

PROFIT AND LOSS

Cost Price:

The price, at which an article is purchased, is called its cost price, abbreviated as C.P.

Selling Price:

The price, at which an article is sold, is called its selling prices, abbreviated as S.P.

Profit or Gain:

If S.P. is greater than C.P., the seller is said to have a profit or gain.

Loss:
If S.P. is less than C.P., the seller is said to have incurred a loss.

IMPORTANT FORMULAE

1. Gain = (S.P.) - (C.P.)

2. Loss = (C.P.) - (S.P.)
3. Loss or gain is always reckoned on C.P.
4. Gain Percentage: (Gain %)
Gain x 100
Gain % =
C.P.
5. Loss Percentage: (Loss %)
Loss x 100
Loss % =
C.P.
6. Selling Price: (S.P.)
(100 + Gain %)
SP = x C.P
100
7. Selling Price: (S.P.)
(100 - Loss %)
SP = x C.P.
100
8. Cost Price: (C.P.)
100 x
C.P. =
(100 + Gain %) S.P.
9. Cost Price: (C.P.)
100 x
C.P. =
(100 - Loss %) S.P.
10. If an article is sold at a gain of say 35%, then S.P. = 135% of C.P.
11. If an article is sold at a loss of say, 35% then S.P. = 65% of C.P.
12. When a person sells two similar items, one at a gain of say x%, and the other at a loss of
x%, then the seller always incurs a loss given by:
Common Loss and Gain % x
Loss % = 2= 1 2.
10
0
13. If a trader professes to sell his goods at cost price, but uses false weights, then

Error x
Gain % =
(True Value) - (Error) 100 %.

PARTNERSHIP

1. Partnership:

When two or more than two persons run a business jointly, they are called partners and
the deal is known as partnership.

2. Ratio of Divisions of Gains:

 I. When investments of all the partners are for the same time, the gain or loss is
distributed among the partners in the ratio of their investments.

Suppose A and B invest Rs. x and Rs. y respectively for a year in a business, then
at the end of the year:

(A's share of profit) : (B's share of profit) = x : y.

II. When investments are for different time periods, then equivalent capitals are
calculated for a unit of time by taking (capital x number of units of time). Now
gain or loss is divided in the ratio of these capitals.

Suppose A invests Rs. x for p months and B invests Rs. y for q months then,

(A's share of profit) : (B's share of profit)= xp : yq.

3. Working and Sleeping Partners:

A partner who manages the the business is known as a working partner and the one who
simply invests the money is a sleeping partner.

PERCENTAGE

 Concept of Percentage:

By a certain percent, we mean that many hundredths.

Thus, x percent means x hundredths, written as x%.

x
To express x% as a fraction: We have, x% = 10 .
0
20 1
Thus, 20% = 10 = .
5
0
a a a x
To express as a percent: We have, =
b b b 100 %.
1 1 x
= = 25%.
Thus, 4 4 100 %

 Percentage Increase/Decrease:

If the price of a commodity increases by R%, then the reduction in consumption so as not to
increase the expenditure is:
 R x
(100 + R) 100 %

If the price of a commodity decreases by R%, then the increase in consumption so as not to
decrease the expenditure is:

R
x
(100 -
100 %
R)

 Results on Population:

Let the population of a town be P now and suppose it increases at the rate of R% per annum,
then:

R
1. Population after n years =
1 + 10 n
P
0
P
R
2. Population n years ago =
1 + 10 n
0

 Results on Depreciation:

Let the present value of a machine be P. Suppose it depreciates at the rate of R% per annum.
Then:

R
1. Value of the machine after n years = 1
10 n
P -
0
P
R
2. Value of the machine n years ago = 1
10 n
-
0
R x
3. If A is R% more than B, then B is less than A by
(100 + R) 100 %.
R
x
4. If A is R% less than B, then B is more than A by (100 -
100 %.
R)
AGE

 Odd Days:

We are supposed to find the day of the week on a given date.

For this, we use the concept of 'odd days'.

In a given period, the number of days more than the complete weeks are called odd days.

 Leap Year:

(i). Every year divisible by 4 is a leap year, if it is not a century.

(ii). Every 4th century is a leap year and no other century is a leap year.

Note: A leap year has 366 days.

Examples:

i. Each of the years 1948, 2004, 1676 etc. is a leap year.

ii. Each of the years 400, 800, 1200, 1600, 2000 etc. is a leap year.
iii. None of the years 2001, 2002, 2003, 2005, 1800, 2100 is a leap year.

 Ordinary Year:

The year which is not a leap year is called an ordinary years. An ordinary year has 365 days.

 Counting of Odd Days:

1. 1 ordinary year = 365 days = (52 weeks + 1 day.)

1 ordinary year has 1 odd day.

2. 1 leap year = 366 days = (52 weeks + 2 days)

1 leap year has 2 odd days.

3. 100 years = 76 ordinary years + 24 leap years

= (76 x 1 + 24 x 2) odd days = 124 odd days.

= (17 weeks + days) 5 odd days.

Number of odd days in 100 years = 5.

Number of odd days in 200 years = (5 x 2) 3 odd days.

Number of odd days in 300 years = (5 x 3) 1 odd day.

Number of odd days in 400 years = (5 x 4 + 1) 0 odd day.

 Similarly, each one of 800 years, 1200 years, 1600 years, 2000 years etc. has 0 odd days.

 Day of the Week Related to Odd Days:

No. of
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
days:
Su Mon Tue We Thur Fri Sat
Day:
n. . s. d. s. . .

SQUARE ROOT

 Square Root:

If x2 = y, we say that the square root of y is x and we write y = x.

Thus, 4 = 2, 9 = 3, 196 = 14.

 Cube Root:

The cube root of a given number x is the number whose cube is x.

We, denote the cube root of x by x.

Thus, 8 = 2 x 2 x 2 = 2, 343 = 7 x 7 x 7 = 7 etc.

Note:

1. xy = x x y

x x
2 x x y
y= = x = y .
.
y y y y

VOLUME AND SURFACE AREA

1. CUBOID

Let length = l, breadth = b and height = h units. Then

i. Volume = (l x b x h) cubic units.

ii. Surface area = 2(lb + bh + lh) sq. units.
iii. Diagonal = l2 + b2 + h2 units.
2. CUBE
 Let each edge of a cube be of length a. Then,

Volume = a3 cubic units.

i.
Surface area = 6a2 sq. units.
ii.
Diagonal = 3a units.
iii.
3. CYLINDER

Let radius of base = r and Height (or length) = h. Then,

i. Volume = ( r2h) cubic units.

ii. Curved surface area = (2 rh) sq. units.
iii. Total surface area = 2 r(h + r) sq. units.
4. CONE

Let radius of base = r and Height = h. Then,

i. Slant height, l = h2 + r2 units.

Volume =
ii. r2h cubic units.
Curved surface area = ( rl) sq. units.
iii.
Total surface area = ( rl + r2) sq. units.
iv.
5. SPHERE

Let the radius of the sphere be r. Then,

Volume =
i. r3 cubic units.
Surface area = (4 r2) sq. units.
ii.
6. HEMISPHERE

Let the radius of a hemisphere be r. Then,

i. Volume = r3 cubic units.

ii. Curved surface area = (2 r2) sq. units.
iii. Total surface area = (3 r2) sq. units.

Note: 1 litre = 1000 cm3

AREA

FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

1. Results on Triangles:
i. Sum of the angles of a triangle is 180°.
ii. The sum of any two sides of a triangle is greater than the third side.
 iii. Pythagoras Theorem:

In a right-angled triangle, (Hypotenuse)2 = (Base)2 + (Height)2.

iv. The line joining the mid-point of a side of a triangle to the positive vertex is called
the median.
v. The point where the three medians of a triangle meet, is called centroid. The
centroid divided each of the medians in the ratio 2 : 1.
vi. In an isosceles triangle, the altitude from the vertex bisects the base.
vii. The median of a triangle divides it into two triangles of the same area.
viii. The area of the triangle formed by joining the mid-points of the sides of a given
triangle is one-fourth of the area of the given triangle.
2. Results on Quadrilaterals:
i. The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
ii. Each diagonal of a parallelogram divides it into triangles of the same area.
iii. The diagonals of a rectangle are equal and bisect each other.
iv. The diagonals of a square are equal and bisect each other at right angles.
v. The diagonals of a rhombus are unequal and bisect each other at right angles.
vi. A parallelogram and a rectangle on the same base and between the same parallels
are equal in area.
vii. Of all the parallelogram of given sides, the parallelogram which is a rectangle has
the greatest area.

IMPORTANT FORMULAE

I. 1. Area of a rectangle = (Length x Breadth).

Area Area
Length = and Breadth = .
Breadth Length
II. 2. Perimeter of a rectangle = 2(Length + Breadth).
III. Area of a square = (side)2 = (diagonal)2.
IV. Area of 4 walls of a room = 2 (Length + Breadth) x Height.
V. 1. Area of a triangle = x Base x Height.

2. Area of a triangle = s(s-a)(s-b)(s-c)

where a, b, c are the sides of the triangle and s = (a + b + c).

3
3. Area of an equilateral triangle = x (side)2.
4
a
4. Radius of incircle of an equilateral triangle of side a = 2 .
3
a
5. Radius of circumcircle of an equilateral triangle of side a = .
3
6. Radius of incircle of a triangle of area and semi-perimeter s = s
 VI. 1. Area of parallelogram = (Base x Height).

2. Area of a rhombus = x (Product of diagonals).

3. Area of a trapezium = x (sum of parallel sides) x distance between them.

VII. 1. Area of a circle = R2, where R is the radius.

2. Circumference of a circle = 2 R.

2 R
3. Length of an arc = , where is the central angle.
360
1 (arc x R2
4. Area of a sector = = .
2 R) 360

VIII. 1. Circumference of a semi-circle = R.

R2
2. Area of semi-circle = .
2

BOAT AND STREAM

 Downstream/Upstream:

In water, the direction along the stream is called downstream. And, the direction against the
stream is called upstream.

 If the speed of a boat in still water is u km/hr and the speed of the stream is v km/hr, then:

Speed downstream = (u + v) km/hr.

Speed upstream = (u - v) km/hr.

 If the speed downstream is a km/hr and the speed upstream is b km/hr, then:

1
Speed in still water = (a + b) km/hr.
2
1
Rate of stream = (a - b) km/hr.
2
PROBABILITY

1. Experiment:

An operation which can produce some well-defined outcomes is called an experiment.

2. Random Experiment:

An experiment in which all possible outcomes are know and the exact output cannot be
predicted in advance, is called a random experiment.

Examples:

i. Rolling an unbiased dice.

ii. Tossing a fair coin.
iii. Drawing a card from a pack of well-shuffled cards.
iv. Picking up a ball of certain colour from a bag containing balls of different
colours.

Details:

v. When we throw a coin, then either a Head (H) or a Tail (T) appears.
vi. A dice is a solid cube, having 6 faces, marked 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 respectively. When
we throw a die, the outcome is the number that appears on its upper face.
vii. A pack of cards has 52 cards.

It has 13 cards of each suit, name Spades, Clubs, Hearts and Diamonds.

Cards of spades and clubs are black cards.

Cards of hearts and diamonds are red cards.

There are 4 honours of each unit.

There are Kings, Queens and Jacks. These are all called face cards.

3. Sample Space:

When we perform an experiment, then the set S of all possible outcomes is called the
sample space.

Examples:

1. In tossing a coin, S = {H, T}

2. If two coins are tossed, the S = {HH, HT, TH, TT}.
3. In rolling a dice, we have, S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
 2. Event:

Any subset of a sample space is called an event.

3. Probability of Occurrence of an Event:

Let S be the sample and let E be an event.

Then, E S.

n(E)
P(E) = .
n(S)

4. Results on Probability:

i. P(S) = 1
ii. 0 P (E) 1
iii. P( ) = 0
iv. For any events A and B we have : P(A B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A B)
v. If A denotes (not-A), then P(A) = 1 - P(A).

RATIO

The ratio of two quantities a and b in the same units, is the fraction and we write it as a : b.

In the ratio a : b, we call a as the first term or antecedent and b, the second term or consequent.

5
Eg. The ratio 5 : 9 represents with antecedent = 5, consequent = 9.
9

Rule: The multiplication or division of each term of a ratio by the same non-zero number does
not affect the ratio.

Eg. 4 : 5 = 8 : 10 = 12 : 15. Also, 4 : 6 = 2 : 3.

 Proportion:

The equality of two ratios is called proportion.

If a : b = c : d, we write a : b :: c : d and we say that a, b, c, d are in proportion.

Here a and d are called extremes, while b and c are called mean terms.

Product of means = Product of extremes.

Thus, a : b :: c : d (b x c) = (a x d).

 Fourth Proportional:

If a : b = c : d, then d is called the fourth proportional to a, b, c.

Third Proportional:

a : b = c : d, then c is called the third proportion to a and b.

Mean Proportional:

Mean proportional between a and b is ab.

 Comparison of Ratios:

a c
We say that (a : b) > (c : d) > .
b d

Compounded Ratio:

The compounded ratio of the ratios: (a : b), (c : d), (e : f) is (ace : bdf).

 Duplicate Ratios:

Duplicate ratio of (a : b) is (a2 : b2).

Sub-duplicate ratio of (a : b) is (a : b).

Triplicate ratio of (a : b) is (a3 : b3).

Sub-triplicate ratio of (a : b) is (a1/3 : b1/3).

a+ c+
Ia c . [componendo and
= , then b = d
f dividendo]
b d a-b c-d

 Variations:

We say that x is directly proportional to y, if x = ky for some constant k and we write, x y.

We say that x is inversely proportional to y, if xy = k for some constant k and

 1
we write, x .
y

LOG

1. Logarithm:

If a is a positive real number, other than 1 and am = x, then we write:

m = logax and we say that the value of log x to the base a is m.

Examples:

(i). 103 1000 log10 1000 = 3.

(ii). 34 = 81 log3 81 = 4.

1 1
(iii). 2-3 = log2 = -3.
8 8

(iv). (.1)2 = .01 log(.1) .01 = 2.

2. Properties of Logarithms:

1. loga (xy) = loga x + loga y

x = loga x - loga
2. loga
y y

3. logx x = 1

4. loga 1 = 0

5. loga (xn) = n(loga x)

1
6. loga x = logx
a
log
logb x
x
7. loga x = = .
logb log
a a

3. Common Logarithms:

Logarithms to the base 10 are known as common logarithms.

4. The logarithm of a number contains two parts, namely 'characteristic' and 'mantissa'.

Characteristic: The internal part of the logarithm of a number is called its characteristic.

Case I: When the number is greater than 1.

In this case, the characteristic is one less than the number of digits in the left of the
decimal point in the given number.

Case II: When the number is less than 1.

In this case, the characteristic is one more than the number of zeros between the decimal
point and the first significant digit of the number and it is negative.

Instead of -1, -2 etc. we write 1 (one bar), 2 (two bar), etc.

Examples:-

Numb Characteri Numb Characteris

er stic er tic
654.2 0.645
2 1
4 3
26.64 0.061
1 2
9 34
8.354 0.001
0 3
7 23

The decimal part of the logarithm of a number is known is its mantissa. For mantissa, we
look through log table.