The Importance of Engineering to Society

By Leah Siczkar
1A Environmental

The way I see it, engineers and their practices have been encouraged for one paramount reason:
benefiting humankind. In modern society, we are constantly interacting with our environment.
We harvest and extract all the resources that we need to sustain human life and culture human
empires. It is the role of the engineer, however, to minimize the effects of damage on the
surrounding ecosystems, and design necessary infrastructures that are both efficient and safe.

In the media today, people are lured into believing that trinkets and stuff that sits on a shelf and
collects dust will solve their woes. In reality, these things are not necessary and only serve to
satisfy the selfish and competitive nature of humankind. Engineering focuses on the development
of infrastructure that serves a meaningful purpose for humankind.

My observations suggest that the structures and processes engineers implement fall into four
main categories: sustainability, safety, cleanliness, and connection.

It is the role of the engineer to protect the environment and the people within it. Engineers aim to
benefit the people of the present by employing effective structures that are intended to improve
transportation and living habits of earth’s inhabitants. By extension, engineering is planning for
the continual growth of the human population and ensuring there are sufficient resources for the
people of the future.

Engineers must be efficient, taking into consideration construction costs, time, and the wellness
of people. In this respect, they are the role-model for multi-taskers everywhere! When designing
a skyscraper or bridge, the team of engineers must ensure the safety of its users. Collapses cause
panic and excessive stress. In a sense, adequate engineering ensures support and comfort, not
only for the structures, but in the mind of the population.

Engineering manages sewage, wastes, and purification. These points do affect sustainability, but
they are also crucial in defining another aspect of engineering’s importance. Cleanliness and
public health are largely defined by engineering. Without proper engineering and sewage
systems, we would no doubt run out of fresh water (much sooner than we are scheduled to), and
we could quite literally be living in our own fecal matter.

Finally, a significant focus of engineering is that of connection and globalization. As technology

and design progresses, it is important that we keep in contact with the rest of the world. The
saying “no man is an island” quite literally comes into effect here. Every disaster, natural or not,
that occurs in the world today effects everyone. Tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, terrorist attacks;
the world is informed of such happenings. Without roads to get from point A to point B, or
helicopters, or jets, the world would seem a very distant place. Essentially, engineering
encourages a sense of awareness and togetherness.

1
Engineering serves as the calcium of society today. It continuously strengthens our pre-existing
knowledge of design and, as calcium ensures healthy bones and teeth, engineering ensures a
healthy and sustainable environment for humankind.

The Importance of Engineering

By Guest Blogger | Published: 29/03/2010

Adam Symons is the Liberal Democrat PPC for Torridge and West Devon

The question on many commentators’ lips is how the UK can invest in much needed
infrastructure for transport and energy, while at the same time deal with the debt fall-out from
the credit crunch.

The basic truth is that we cannot stand still. The challenges of climate change, greater demand on
services due to demographic changes, and scarcity of funds must not allow the UK to stagnate.
Already, many parts of Europe are far ahead of us in terms of infrastructure.

My belief is that by investing in this infrastructure, we will provide long-term stimulation to the
economy, and actually provide a solid basis for future sustainable growth – which should be seen
as a shift away from consumerism and pollution.

However, there are many barriers in our way currently. One of these is the lack of engineering
skills in the UK economy. It is not to say that they are not there. However, with the scale of
investment that is required, I fear that we may be short.  Bodies such as the CBI have said that
the lack of engineers graduating today threaten our future.

Much as in teaching, engineers suffer from a lack of ‘kudos’ or ‘sex-appeal’. International

research shows that the quality of education that children get is closely linked to how well
regarded the teaching profession is. I think the same could be said about the quality of
engineering in this country. It is not valued.

My cousin is a tunnel engineer in Europe, and it is seen as a prestigious job. However, here,
perhaps because of the overuse of the term ‘engineer’, engineers do not have the same
professional status as other highly trained professionals such as Doctors and Lawyers. Perhaps
we need to tighten up the trade description legislation to prevent the bogus use of the term
engineer?

The challenges I mentioned above, specifically relating to funding can also be tackled through
greater use of production engineering. This being the natural home for lean systems thinking and
value management, it is time we took a microscope to what we are spending where, and identify
better ways of delivering public services. Engineering is not just about building!

Engineering can provide many solutions, not just to the infrastructure issues we have, but also to
the remodelling of public services. We need to embrace the need for science and engineering

2
within the political field, and recognise it as essential to the long-term well being of any
economy.

Top Ten (10) Most Important Engineering

Achievements of All Time
By: admin Posted: August 17, 2007

Innovation and technology in engineering has made our lives more efficient and enjoyable.
From electricity to the internet, some of these engineering achievements have taken
countless hours to perfect and many years to implement. It is hard to imagine life without
these Top Ten Engineering Achievements listed below:

1. Electricity

Scores of times each day, with the merest flick of a finger, each one of us taps into vast sources
of energy—deep veins of coal and great reservoirs of oil, sweeping winds and rushing waters,
the hidden power of the atom and the radiance of the Sun itself—all transformed into electricity,
the workhorse of the modern world.

2. Automobile

When Thomas Edison did some future gazing about transportation during a newspaper interview
in 1895, he didn't hedge his bets. "The horseless carriage is the coming wonder," said American's
reigning inventor. "It is only a question of a short time when the carriages and trucks in every
large city will be run with motors." Just what kind of motors would remain unclear for a few
more years.

3. Airplane

Not a single human being had ever flown a powered aircraft when the 20th century began. By
century's end, flying had become relatively common for millions of people, and some were even
flying through space. The first piloted, powered, controlled flight lasted 12 seconds and carried
one man 120 feet. Today, nonstop commercial flights lasting as long as 15 hours carry hundreds
of passengers halfway around the world.

3
4. Water Supply and Distribution

At the beginning of the 20th century, in the United States and in many other countries, water was
both greatly in demand and greatly feared. Cities across the nation were clamoring for more of it
as their populations grew, and much of the West saw it as the crucial missing ingredient for
development. At the same time, the condition of existing water supply systems was abysmal—
and a direct threat to public health.

5. Electronics

Barely stifled yawns greeted the electronics novelty that was introduced to the public in mid-
1948. "A device called a transistor, which has several applications in radio where a vacuum tube
ordinarily is employed, was demonstrated for the first time yesterday at Bell Telephone
Laboratories," noted an obviously unimpressed New York Times reporter on page 46 of the day's
issue.

6. Radio and Television

In the autumn of 1899 a new mode of communication wedged its way into the coverage of a
hallowed sports event. Outside New York's harbor, two sleek sailboats—Columbia of the New
York Yacht Club and Shamrock of the Ulster Yacht Club in Ireland—were about to compete for
the America's Cup, a coveted international trophy. In previous contests the public had no way of
knowing what happened on the water until spectators reached shore after the races. This time,
however, reports would "come rushing through the air with the simplicity of light," as one
newspaper reporter breathlessly put it.

7. Agricultural Mechanization

You often see them from the window of a cross-country jet: huge, perfect circles in varying
shades of green, gold, or brown laid out in a vast checkerboard stretching to the horizon. Across
much of the American Midwest and on farmland throughout the world, these genuine crop
circles are the sure sign of an automated irrigation system—and an emblem of a revolution in
agriculture, the most ancient of human occupations. At the heart of this transformation is a single
concept: mechanization.

8. Computers

4
You often see them from the window of a cross-country jet: huge, perfect circles in varying
shades of green, gold, or brown laid out in a vast checkerboard stretching to the horizon. Across
much of the American Midwest and on farmland throughout the world, these genuine crop
circles are the sure sign of an automated irrigation system—and an emblem of a revolution in
agriculture, the most ancient of human occupations. At the heart of this transformation is a single
concept: mechanization.

9. Telephone

"The telephone," wrote Alexander Graham Bell in an 1877 prospectus drumming up support for
his new invention, "may be briefly described as an electrical contrivance for reproducing in
distant places the tones and articulations of a speaker's voice." As for connecting one such
contrivance to another, he suggested possibilities that admittedly sounded utopian: "It is
conceivable that cables of telephone wires could be laid underground, or suspended overhead,
communicating by branch wires with private dwellings, country houses, shops, manufactories,
etc."

10. Air Conditioning and Refrigeration

Which of the appliances in your home would be the hardest to live without? The most frequent
answer to that question in a recent survey was the refrigerator. Over the course of the 20th
century, this onetime luxury became an indispensable feature of the American home, a mainstay
in more than 99.5 percent of the nation's family kitchens by century's end.

Bonus Engineering Achievements

- Highways

Sweeping visions were something of a specialty for William Durant, founder of General Motors,
and he ran true to form in a 1922 interview. "Most of us," he said, "will live to see this whole
country covered with a network of motor highways built from point to point as the bird flies, the
hills cut down, the dales bridged over, the obstacles removed." Given the intensity of America's
love affair with the automobile, his prediction wasn't so far-fetched.

- Spacecraft

The event was so draped in secrecy that, despite its historic nature, no pictures were taken. But
no one who was there—nor, for that matter, anyone else who heard of it—would ever forget the

5
moment. With a blinding glare and a shuddering roar, the rocket lifted from its concrete pad and
thundered into the early evening sky, soaring up and up and up until it was nothing more than a
tiny glowing speck. On the plains of Kazakhstan, on October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union had just
launched the first-ever spacecraft, its payload a 184-pound satellite called Sputnik.

- Internet

The conference held at the Washington Hilton in October 1972 wasn't meant to jump-start a
revolution. Staged for a technological elite, its purpose was to showcase a computer-linking
scheme called ARPANET, a new kind of network that had been developed under military
auspices to help computer scientists share information and enable them to harness the processing
power of distant machines. Traffic on the system was still very light, though, and many potential
users thought it was too complex to have much of a future.

Why Study Engineering?

Engineers belong to the greatest profession in the world, responsible for almost everything
that makes life worth living - from leisure activities to medical treatment, mobile
communications to modern transport systems.

Within the wide boundaries of the engineering profession, there are

thousands of challenging activities, in areas such as research,
development, design, manufacture and operation of products and
services. Activities which provide stimulating intellectual challenges with
diverse and varied tasks, inevitably involving deadlines, and all added to
the satisfaction of real output or delivery.

Demand for good engineers is high, in practically every country in the

world. In the IT and electronics sectors in particular, there are world
shortages of Chartered and Incorporated Engineers, and unemployment amongst professional
engineers is lower than for almost any other profession.

Engineering degrees can lead to a vast number of career opportunities, with graduates in demand
in almost every sector of the economy. The word used most often when referring to a career in
engineering is variety; and electrical, civil, marine, chemical, software, systems, information and
manufacturing engineering offer a host of alternative job opportunities for new graduates.
Specialisations range from Automation to Power Generation and from
Communications to Manufacturing. Within each of these fields, there are
opportunities in research, design, development and tests, as well as
management, production, marketing and sales. A degree can also provide
a passport into the world of education.

6
Professional engineers also stand a better chance of becoming a chief executive than any other
professional, outnumbering accountants by three to one!

The environment in which engineering professionals work has never been more dynamic. New
materials, technologies and processes are being developed all the time. Increasing globalisation,
new markets, and changing employment patterns also mean that an engineering career is now a
truly international one.

How to Qualify

At school, students should take a board range of subjects covering both

art and sciences. Mathematics and Physics are usually essential, but
English is also important, and a foreign language desirable. Minimum
qualifications for entry to an Engineering degree course are normally 'A'
levels or equivalent in Mathematics and Physics, but a third subject in
either the Arts or Sciences ensures a wider choice of degree options.
Students without the relevant 'A' levels have the opportunity to 'convert'
on one-year pre-entry courses at selected universities.

With the exception of a few specialist courses, it is common for all students to take the same
subjects in the first year(s) of a degree, before going on to specialise in the final year(s), when
they can choose from a number of options. For this reason, when selecting a course it is
important to check what options are available, especially if undergraduates already have a
specific career in mind. However, specialising in one area whilst at University does not preclude
working in another field of the profession at a later date.

What type of degree?

There is a wide variety of undergraduate and postgraduate courses

available worldwide, many of which are discussed in the articles listed on
the left. However, in the end, the choice of which course to take must be
a personal one, dependent on the aims, circumstances and preferences of
the individual student.

After Graduation

A degree is only the beginning of the formation of a professional

engineer. In order to qualify for membership of a professional engineering institution, or to
qualify for Chartered Engineering status, graduates will often have a minimum of two years
industrial training, and two years career development in a responsible position.

Embarking on a training programme in a major industry enables new graduates to develop

experience of a wide range of jobs, and acquire a broad understanding of engineering activity
outside their own branch. Students who were sponsored during their degree courses may already
have spent time in industry, and will have started to give their academic studies an industrial
perspective. Postgraduate training also offers graduates the chance to keep their career options

7
open, as the opportunity to experience the work of different sectors of an industry can open up
new areas of interest not previously appreciated.

The IEE accredits industrial training programmes, each year producing a list of companies that
undertake to provide accredited training.

A Rewarding Future

There is little doubt that the world of engineering - and all that it
encompasses -offers exciting opportunities for both men and women. The
industrial and economic success of every nation is rooted firmly in its
manufacturing and engineering base, and the skills and ingenuity of its
professional engineers. The ability to research, develop and apply new
technologies is essential, particularly in today's global markets.

In the UK alone, engineering-led industry contributes about 40% of its gross domestic product,
and is the 'goose that lays the golden eggs' for its national economy. From space travel to
household electrician, the role of the engineer is crucial. For anyone looking for a rewarding
future with a wide variety of employment prospects, there has never been a more exciting time to
embark on a career in engineering.

ngineering is the discipline, art, and profession of acquiring and applying scientific,
mathematical, economic, social, and practical knowledge to design and build structures,
machines, devices, systems, materials and processes that safely realize improvements to the lives
of people.

The American Engineers' Council for Professional Development (ECPD, the predecessor of
ABET)[1] has defined "engineering" as:

[T]he creative application of scientific principles to design or develop structures, machines,

apparatus, or manufacturing processes, or works utilizing them singly or in combination; or to
construct or operate the same with full cognizance of their design; or to forecast their behavior
under specific operating conditions; all as respects an intended function, economics of operation
and safety to life and property.[2][3][4]

One who practices engineering is called an engineer, and those licensed to do so may have more
formal designations such as Professional Engineer, Chartered Engineer, Incorporated Engineer,
Ingenieur or European Engineer. The broad discipline of engineering encompasses a range of
more specialized subdisciplines, each with a more specific emphasis on certain fields of
application and particular areas of technology.

8
Contents
[hide]

 1 History
o 1.1 Ancient era
o 1.2 Renaissance era
o 1.3 Modern era
 2 Main branches of engineering
 3 Methodology
o 3.1 Problem solving
o 3.2 Computer use
 4 Social context
 5 Relationships with other disciplines
o 5.1 Science
o 5.2 Medicine and biology
o 5.3 Art
o 5.4 Other fields
 6 See also
 7 References
 8 Further reading
 9 External links

History
Look up engineering in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

The concept of engineering has existed since ancient times as humans devised fundamental
inventions such as the pulley, lever, and wheel. Each of these inventions is consistent with the
modern definition of engineering, exploiting basic mechanical principles to develop useful tools
and objects.

The term engineering itself has a much more recent etymology, deriving from the word engineer,
which itself dates back to 1325, when an engine’er (literally, one who operates an engine)
originally referred to “a constructor of military engines.”[5] In this context, now obsolete, an
“engine” referred to a military machine, i.e., a mechanical contraption used in war (for example,
a catapult). Notable exceptions of the obsolete usage which have survived to the present day are
military engineering corps, e.g., the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

The word “engine” itself is of even older origin, ultimately deriving from the Latin ingenium (c.
1250), meaning “innate quality, especially mental power, hence a clever invention.”[6]

9
Later, as the design of civilian structures such as bridges and buildings matured as a technical
discipline, the term civil engineering[4] entered the lexicon as a way to distinguish between those
specializing in the construction of such non-military projects and those involved in the older
discipline of military engineering.

Ancient era

The Pharos of Alexandria, the pyramids in Egypt, the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, the
Acropolis and the Parthenon in Greece, the Roman aqueducts, Via Appia and the Colosseum,
Teotihuacán and the cities and pyramids of the Mayan, Inca and Aztec Empires, the Great Wall
of China, among many others, stand as a testament to the ingenuity and skill of the ancient civil
and military engineers.

The earliest civil engineer known by name is Imhotep.[4] As one of the officials of the Pharaoh,
Djosèr, he probably designed and supervised the construction of the Pyramid of Djoser (the Step
Pyramid) at Saqqara in Egypt around 2630-2611 BC.[7] He may also have been responsible for
the first known use of columns in architecture[citation needed].

Ancient Greece developed machines in both the civilian and military domains. The Antikythera
mechanism, the first known mechanical computer,[8][9] and the mechanical inventions of
Archimedes are examples of early mechanical engineering. Some of Archimedes' inventions as
well as the Antikythera mechanism required sophisticated knowledge of differential gearing or
epicyclic gearing, two key principles in machine theory that helped design the gear trains of the
Industrial revolution, and are still widely used today in diverse fields such as robotics and
automotive engineering.[10]

Chinese, Greek and Roman armies employed complex military machines and inventions such as
artillery which was developed by the Greeks around the 4th century B.C.,[11] the trireme, the
ballista and the catapult. In the Middle Ages, the Trebuchet was developed.

Renaissance era

The first electrical engineer is considered to be William Gilbert, with his 1600 publication of De
Magnete, who was the originator of the term "electricity".[12]

The first steam engine was built in 1698 by mechanical engineer Thomas Savery.[13] The
development of this device gave rise to the industrial revolution in the coming decades, allowing
for the beginnings of mass production.

With the rise of engineering as a profession in the eighteenth century, the term became more
narrowly applied to fields in which mathematics and science were applied to these ends.
Similarly, in addition to military and civil engineering the fields then known as the mechanic arts
became incorporated into engineering.

10
Modern era

The International Space Station represents a modern engineering challenge from many disciplines.

Electrical engineering can trace its origins in the experiments of Alessandro Volta in the 1800s,
the experiments of Michael Faraday, Georg Ohm and others and the invention of the electric
motor in 1872. The work of James Maxwell and Heinrich Hertz in the late 19th century gave rise
to the field of Electronics. The later inventions of the vacuum tube and the transistor further
accelerated the development of electronics to such an extent that electrical and electronics
engineers currently outnumber their colleagues of any other Engineering specialty.[4]

The inventions of Thomas Savery and the Scottish engineer James Watt gave rise to modern
Mechanical Engineering. The development of specialized machines and their maintenance tools
during the industrial revolution led to the rapid growth of Mechanical Engineering both in its
birthplace Britain and abroad.[4]

Chemical Engineering, like its counterpart Mechanical Engineering, developed in the nineteenth
century during the Industrial Revolution.[4] Industrial scale manufacturing demanded new
materials and new processes and by 1880 the need for large scale production of chemicals was
such that a new industry was created, dedicated to the development and large scale
manufacturing of chemicals in new industrial plants.[4] The role of the chemical engineer was the
design of these chemical plants and processes.[4]

Aeronautical Engineering deals with aircraft design while Aerospace Engineering is a more
modern term that expands the reach envelope of the discipline by including spacecraft design.[14]
Its origins can be traced back to the aviation pioneers around the turn of the century from the
19th century to the 20th although the work of Sir George Cayley has recently been dated as
being from the last decade of the 18th century. Early knowledge of aeronautical engineering was
largely empirical with some concepts and skills imported from other branches of engineering.[15]

The first PhD in engineering (technically, applied science and engineering) awarded in the
United States went to Willard Gibbs at Yale University in 1863; it was also the second PhD
awarded in science in the U.S.[16]

Only a decade after the successful flights by the Wright brothers, the 1920s saw extensive
development of aeronautical engineering through development of World War I military aircraft.

11
Meanwhile, research to provide fundamental background science continued by combining
theoretical physics with experiments.

In 1990, with the rise of computer technology, the first search engine was built by computer
engineer Alan Emtage.

Main branches of engineering

Main article: List of engineering branches

Engineering, much like other science, is a broad discipline which is often broken down into
several sub-disciplines. These disciplines concern themselves with differing areas of engineering
work. Although initially an engineer will usually be trained in a specific discipline, throughout
an engineer's career the engineer may become multi-disciplined, having worked in several of the
outlined areas. Engineering is often characterized as having four main branches:[17][18]

 Chemical engineering – The exploitation of chemical principles in order to carry out large scale
chemical process, as well as designing new specialty materials and fuels.
 Civil engineering – The design and construction of public and private works, such as
infrastructure (roads, railways, water supply and treatment etc.), bridges and buildings.
 Electrical engineering – a very broad area that may encompass the design and study of various
electrical & electronic systems, such as electrical circuits, generators, motors,
electromagnetic/electromechanical devices, electronic devices, electronic circuits, optical fibers,
optoelectronic devices, computer systems, telecommunications and electronics.
 Mechanical engineering – The design of physical or mechanical systems, such as power and
energy systems, aerospace/aircraft products, weapon systems, transportation products engines,
compressors, powertrains, kinematic chains, vacuum technology, and vibration isolation
equipment.

Beyond these four, sources vary on other main branches. Historically, naval engineering and
mining engineering were major branches. Modern fields sometimes included as major branches
include aerospace, architectural, biomedical,[19] industrial and nuclear engineering.[citation needed]

New specialties sometimes combine with the traditional fields and form new branches. A new or
emerging area of application will commonly be defined temporarily as a permutation or subset of
existing disciplines; there is often gray area as to when a given sub-field becomes large and/or
prominent enough to warrant classification as a new "branch." One key indicator of such
emergence is when major universities start establishing departments and programs in the new
field.

For each of these fields there exists considerable overlap, especially in the areas of the
application of sciences to their disciplines such as physics, chemistry and mathematics.

12
Methodology

Design of a turbine requires collaboration of engineers from many fields, as the system is subject to
mechanical, electro-magnetic and chemical processes. The blades, rotor and stator as well as the steam
cycle all need to be carefully designed and optimised.

Engineers apply the sciences of physics and mathematics to find suitable solutions to problems
or to make improvements to the status quo. More than ever, engineers are now required to have
knowledge of relevant sciences for their design projects, as a result, they keep on learning new
material throughout their career.

If multiple options exist, engineers weigh different design choices on their merits and choose the
solution that best matches the requirements. The crucial and unique task of the engineer is to
identify, understand, and interpret the constraints on a design in order to produce a successful
result. It is usually not enough to build a technically successful product; it must also meet further
requirements.

Constraints may include available resources, physical, imaginative or technical limitations,

flexibility for future modifications and additions, and other factors, such as requirements for cost,
safety, marketability, productibility, and serviceability. By understanding the constraints,
engineers derive specifications for the limits within which a viable object or system may be
produced and operated.

Problem solving

Engineers use their knowledge of science, mathematics, logic, economics, and appropriate
experience or tacit knowledge to find suitable solutions to a problem. Creating an appropriate
mathematical model of a problem allows them to analyze it (sometimes definitively), and to test
potential solutions.

13
Usually multiple reasonable solutions exist, so engineers must evaluate the different design
choices on their merits and choose the solution that best meets their requirements. Genrich
Altshuller, after gathering statistics on a large number of patents, suggested that compromises are
at the heart of "low-level" engineering designs, while at a higher level the best design is one
which eliminates the core contradiction causing the problem.

Engineers typically attempt to predict how well their designs will perform to their specifications
prior to full-scale production. They use, among other things: prototypes, scale models,
simulations, destructive tests, nondestructive tests, and stress tests. Testing ensures that products
will perform as expected.

Engineers as professionals take seriously their responsibility to produce designs that will perform
as expected and will not cause unintended harm to the public at large. Engineers typically
include a factor of safety in their designs to reduce the risk of unexpected failure. However, the
greater the safety factor, the less efficient the design may be.

The study of failed products is known as forensic engineering, and can help the product designer
in evaluating his or her design in the light of real conditions. The discipline is of greatest value
after disasters, such as bridge collapses, when careful analysis is needed to establish the cause or
causes of the failure.

Computer use

A computer simulation of high velocity air flow around the Space Shuttle during re-entry. Solutions to
the flow require modelling of the combined effects of the fluid flow and heat equations.

As with all modern scientific and technological endeavors, computers and software play an
increasingly important role. As well as the typical business application software there are a
number of computer aided applications (Computer-aided technologies) specifically for
engineering. Computers can be used to generate models of fundamental physical processes,
which can be solved using numerical methods.

One of the most widely used tools in the profession is computer-aided design (CAD) software
which enables engineers to create 3D models, 2D drawings, and schematics of their designs.
CAD together with Digital mockup (DMU) and CAE software such as finite element method

14
analysis or analytic element method allows engineers to create models of designs that can be
analyzed without having to make expensive and time-consuming physical prototypes.

These allow products and components to be checked for flaws; assess fit and assembly; study
ergonomics; and to analyze static and dynamic characteristics of systems such as stresses,
temperatures, electromagnetic emissions, electrical currents and voltages, digital logic levels,
fluid flows, and kinematics. Access and distribution of all this information is generally organized
with the use of Product Data Management software.[20]

There are also many tools to support specific engineering tasks such as Computer-aided
manufacture (CAM) software to generate CNC machining instructions; Manufacturing Process
Management software for production engineering; EDA for printed circuit board (PCB) and
circuit schematics for electronic engineers; MRO applications for maintenance management; and
AEC software for civil engineering.

In recent years the use of computer software to aid the development of goods has collectively
come to be known as Product Lifecycle Management (PLM).[21]

Social context
This section may contain original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and
adding references. Statements consisting only of original research may be removed. More details
may be available on the talk page. (July 2010)

Engineering is a subject that ranges from large collaborations to small individual projects.
Almost all engineering projects are beholden to some sort of financing agency: a company, a set
of investors, or a government. The few types of engineering that are minimally constrained by
such issues are pro bono engineering and open design engineering.

By its very nature engineering is bound up with society and human behavior. Every product or
construction used by modern society will have been influenced by engineering design.
Engineering design is a very powerful tool to make changes to environment, society and
economies, and its application brings with it a great responsibility. Many engineering societies
have established codes of practice and codes of ethics to guide members and inform the public at
large.

Engineering projects can be subject to controversy. Examples from different engineering

disciplines include the development of nuclear weapons, the Three Gorges Dam, the design and
use of Sport utility vehicles and the extraction of oil. In response, some western engineering
companies have enacted serious corporate and social responsibility policies.

Engineering is a key driver of human development.[22] Sub-Saharan Africa in particular has a

very small engineering capacity which results in many African nations being unable to develop
crucial infrastructure without outside aid. The attainment of many of the Millennium
Development Goals requires the achievement of sufficient engineering capacity to develop
infrastructure and sustainable technological development.[23]

15
All overseas development and relief NGOs make considerable use of engineers to apply
solutions in disaster and development scenarios. A number of charitable organizations aim to use
engineering directly for the good of mankind:

 Engineers Without Borders

 Engineers Against Poverty
 Registered Engineers for Disaster Relief
 Engineers for a Sustainable World

Relationships with other disciplines

Science
Scientists study the world as it is; engineers create the world that has never been.

—Theodore von Kármán

Bioreactors for producing proteins, NRC Biotechnology Research Institute, Montréal, Canada

There exists an overlap between the sciences and engineering practice; in engineering, one
applies science. Both areas of endeavor rely on accurate observation of materials and
phenomena. Both use mathematics and classification criteria to analyze and communicate
observations.

Scientists are expected to interpret their observations and to make expert recommendations for
practical action based on those interpretations[citation needed]. Scientists may also have to complete
engineering tasks, such as designing experimental apparatus or building prototypes. Conversely,
in the process of developing technology engineers sometimes find themselves exploring new
phenomena, thus becoming, for the moment, scientists.

In the book What Engineers Know and How They Know It,[24] Walter Vincenti asserts that
engineering research has a character different from that of scientific research. First, it often deals
with areas in which the basic physics and/or chemistry are well understood, but the problems
themselves are too complex to solve in an exact manner.

16
Examples are the use of numerical approximations to the Navier-Stokes equations to describe
aerodynamic flow over an aircraft, or the use of Miner's rule to calculate fatigue damage.
Second, engineering research employs many semi-empirical methods that are foreign to pure
scientific research, one example being the method of parameter variation.

As stated by Fung et al. in the revision to the classic engineering text, Foundations of Solid
Mechanics:

"Engineering is quite different from science. Scientists try to understand nature. Engineers try to
make things that do not exist in nature. Engineers stress invention. To embody an invention the
engineer must put his idea in concrete terms, and design something that people can use. That
something can be a device, a gadget, a material, a method, a computing program, an innovative
experiment, a new solution to a problem, or an improvement on what is existing. Since a design
has to be concrete, it must have its geometry, dimensions, and characteristic numbers. Almost all
engineers working on new designs find that they do not have all the needed information. Most
often, they are limited by insufficient scientific knowledge. Thus they study mathematics,
physics, chemistry, biology and mechanics. Often they have to add to the sciences relevant to
their profession. Thus engineering sciences are born."[25]

Although engineering solutions make use of scientific principles, engineers must also take into
account safety, efficiency, economy, reliability and constructibility or ease of fabrication, as well
as legal considerations such as patent infringement or liability in the case of failure of the
solution.

Medicine and biology

17
Leonardo da Vinci, seen here in a self-portrait, has been described as the epitome of the artist/engineer.
[26]
He is also known for his studies on human anatomy and physiognomy

The study of the human body, albeit from different directions and for different purposes, is an
important common link between medicine and some engineering disciplines. Medicine aims to
sustain, enhance and even replace functions of the human body, if necessary, through the use of
technology.

Modern medicine can replace several of the body's functions through the use of artificial organs
and can significantly alter the function of the human body through artificial devices such as, for
example, brain implants and pacemakers.[27][28] The fields of Bionics and medical Bionics are
dedicated to the study of synthetic implants pertaining to natural systems.

Conversely, some engineering disciplines view the human body as a biological machine worth
studying, and are dedicated to emulating many of its functions by replacing biology with
technology. This has led to fields such as artificial intelligence, neural networks, fuzzy logic, and
robotics. There are also substantial interdisciplinary interactions between engineering and
medicine.[29][30]

Both fields provide solutions to real world problems. This often requires moving forward before
phenomena are completely understood in a more rigorous scientific sense and therefore
experimentation and empirical knowledge is an integral part of both.

Medicine, in part, studies the function of the human body. The human body, as a biological
machine, has many functions that can be modeled using Engineering methods.[31]

The heart for example functions much like a pump,[32] the skeleton is like a linked structure with
levers,[33] the brain produces electrical signals etc.[34] These similarities as well as the increasing
importance and application of Engineering principles in Medicine, led to the development of the
field of biomedical engineering that uses concepts developed in both disciplines.

Newly emerging branches of science, such as Systems biology, are adapting analytical tools
traditionally used for engineering, such as systems modeling and computational analysis, to the
description of biological systems.[31]

Art

A drawing for a booster engine for steam locomotives. Engineering is applied to design, with emphasis
on function and the utilization of mathematics and science.

18
There are connections between engineering and art;[35] they are direct in some fields, for
example, architecture, landscape architecture and industrial design (even to the extent that these
disciplines may sometimes be included in a University's Faculty of Engineering); and indirect in
others.[35][36][37][38]

The Art Institute of Chicago, for instance, held an exhibition about the art of NASA's aerospace
design.[39] Robert Maillart's bridge design is perceived by some to have been deliberately artistic.
[40]
At the University of South Florida, an engineering professor, through a grant with the
National Science Foundation, has developed a course that connects art and engineering.[36][41]

Among famous historical figures Leonardo Da Vinci is a well known Renaissance artist and
engineer, and a prime example of the nexus between art and engineering.[26][42]

Other fields

In Political science the term engineering has been borrowed for the study of the subjects of
Social engineering and Political engineering, which deal with forming political and social
structures using engineering methodology coupled with political science principles. Financial
engineering has similarly borrowed the term.

Engineer
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Engineer (disambiguation).

Engineer

Conference of Engineers at the Menai Straits Preparatory to

Floating one of the Tubes of the Britannia Bridge, by John
Seymour Lucas, 1868

Occupation

Names Engineer

Type Profession

Activity sectors Applied sciences

Description

Competencies Mathematics, scientific knowledge,

19
 management skills

Education required Engineering education

Research and development, industry,

Fields of employment
business

Related jobs Scientist, architect, project manager

An engineer is a professional practitioner of engineering, concerned with applying scientific

knowledge, mathematics and ingenuity to develop solutions for technical problems. Engineers
design materials, structures, machines and systems while considering the limitations imposed by
practicality, safety and cost.[1][2] The word engineer is derived from the Latin root ingenium,
meaning "cleverness".[3]

Engineers are grounded in applied sciences, and their work in research and development is
distinct from the basic research focus of scientists.[2] The work of engineers forms the link
between scientific discoveries and the applications that meet the needs of society.[1]

20
Contents
[hide]

 1 Roles and expertise

o 1.1 Design
o 1.2 Analysis
o 1.3 Specialization
 2 Ethics
 3 Education
 4 Regulation
 5 Controversy
o 5.1 Canada
o 5.2 United Kingdom
o 5.3 Europe and Latin America
o 5.4 United States
o 5.5 International professional bodies
 6 Perception
 7 References
 8 See also

Roles and expertise

Design

Engineers develop new technological solutions. During the engineering design process, the
responsibilities of the engineer may include defining problems, conducting and narrowing
research, analyzing criteria, finding and analyzing solutions, and making decisions. Much of an
engineer's time is spent on researching, locating, applying, and transferring information.[4]

Engineers must weigh different design choices on their merits and choose the solution that best
matches the requirements. Their crucial and unique task is to identify, understand, and interpret
the constraints on a design in order to produce a successful result.

Analysis

21
Engineers conferring on prototype design, 1954

Engineers apply techniques of engineering analysis in testing, production, or maintenance.

Analytical engineers may supervise production in factories and elsewhere, determine the causes
of a process failure, and test output to maintain quality. They also estimate the time and cost
required to complete projects. Supervisory engineers are responsible for major components or
entire projects. Engineering analysis involves the application of scientific analytic principles and
processes to reveal the properties and state of the system, device or mechanism under study.
Engineering analysis proceeds by separating the engineering design into the mechanisms of
operation or failure, analysing or estimating each component of the operation or failure
mechanism in isolation, and re-combining the components. They may analyse risk.[5][6][7][8]

Many engineers use computers to produce and analyze designs, to simulate and test how a
machine, structure, or system operates, to generate specifications for parts, to monitor the quality
of products, and to control the efficiency of processes.

Specialization

Most engineers specialize in one or more engineering disciplines.[1] Numerous specialties are
recognized by professional societies, and each of the major branches of engineering has
numerous subdivisions. Civil engineering, for example, includes structural and transportation
engineering, and materials engineering includes ceramic, metallurgical, and polymer
engineering. Engineers also may specialize in one industry, such as motor vehicles, or in one
type of technology, such as turbines or semiconductor materials.[1]

Ethics
Main article: Engineering ethics

The Challenger disaster is held as a case study of engineering ethics.

Engineers have obligations to the public, their clients, employers and the profession. Many
engineering societies have established codes of practice and codes of ethics to guide members

22
and inform the public at large. Each engineering discipline and professional society maintains a
code of ethics, which the members pledge to uphold. Depending on their specializations,
engineers may also be governed by specific statute, whistleblowing, product liability laws, and
often the principles of business ethics.[9][10][11]

Some graduates of engineering programs in North America may be recognized by the Iron Ring
or Engineer's Ring, a ring made of iron or stainless steel that is worn on the little finger of the
dominant hand. This tradition began in 1925 in Canada with The Ritual of the Calling of an
Engineer, where the ring serves as a symbol and reminder of the engineer's obligations for the
engineering profession. In 1972, the practice was adopted by several colleges in the United
States including members of the Order of the Engineer.

Education
Main article: Engineering education

École centrale Paris, one of the oldest and most prestigious engineering schools in France

Most engineering programs involve a concentration of study in an engineering specialty, along

with courses in both mathematics and the physical and life sciences. Many programs also include
courses in general engineering. A design course, sometimes accompanied by a computer or
laboratory class or both, is part of the curriculum of most programs. Often, general courses not
directly related to engineering, such as those in the social sciences or humanities, also are
required.

Graduate training is essential for engineering faculty positions and some research and
development programs, but is not required for the majority of entry-level engineering jobs. Many
experienced engineers obtain graduate degrees in engineering or business administration to learn
new technology and broaden their education. Numerous high-level executives in government and
industry began their careers as engineers.

Accreditation is the process by which engineering program are evaluated by an external body to
determine if applicable standards are met. The Washington Accord serves as an international
accreditation agreement for academic engineering degrees, recognizing the substantial
equivalency in the standards set by many major national engineering bodies. In the United States,

23
post-secondary degree programs in engineering are accredited by the Accreditation Board for
Engineering and Technology. In much of Europe and the Commonwealth professional
accreditation is provided by Engineering Institutions, such as the Institution of Civil Engineers or
the Institution of Mechanical Engineers from the United Kingdom.

Regulation
Main article: Professional Engineer

In many countries, engineering tasks such as the design of bridges, electric power plants, and
chemical plants, must be approved by a licensed engineer. Most commonly titled as Professional
Engineer or Chartered Engineer, the status of professional licensing is often indicated with the
use of post-nominal letters; PE or P.Eng is common in North America, Eur Ing in Europe, while
CEng and IEng is used in the United Kingdom and CEng in much of the Commonwealth.

In the United States, licensure is generally attainable through combination of education, pre-
examination (Fundamentals of Engineering exam), examination (Professional Engineering
Exam),[12] and engineering experience (typically in the area of 5+ years). Each state tests and
licenses Professional Engineers. Currently most states do not license by specific engineering
discipline, but rather provide generalized licensure, and trust engineers to use professional
judgement regarding their individual competencies; this is the favoured approach of the
professional societies. Despite this, however, at least one of the examinations required by most
states is actually focused on a particular discipline; candidates for licensure typically choose the
category of examination which comes closest to their respective expertise.

In Canada, the profession in each province is governed by its own engineering association. For
instance, in the Province of British Columbia an engineering graduate with four or more years of
post graduate experience in an engineering-related field and passing exams in ethics and law will
need to be registered by the Association for Professional Engineers and Geoscientists (APEGBC)
[13]
in order to become a Professional Engineer and be granted the professional designation of
P.Eng allowing one to practice engineering.

In Continental Europe, Latin America, Turkey and elsewhere the title is limited by law to people
with an engineering degree and the use of the title by others is illegal. In Italy, the title is limited
to people who both hold an engineering degree and have passed a professional qualification
examination (Esame di Stato). In Portugal, professional engineer titles and accredited
engineering degrees are regulated and certified by the Ordem dos Engenheiros. In the Czech
Republic, the title "engineer" (Ing.) is given to people with a (masters) degree in chemistry,
technology or economics for historical and traditional reasons. In Greece, the academic title of
"Diploma Engineer" is awarded after completion of the five-year engineering study course and
the title of "Certified Engineer" is awarded after completion of the four-year course of
engineering studies at a Technological Educational Institute (TEI).

24
Controversy

Controversies over the term "engineer" stem from the traditional uses in design and analysis, as
compared to newer uses of the term. Several nations are currently dealing with the definition of
the term in both the legal arena and between professional bodies.

Canada

In Canada, it is considered illegal to practice engineering, or use the title "Engineer", without a
professional engineer's license P.Eng. The use of the term "engineer" was an issue between
professional bodies, the I.T. industry, and thesecurity industry, where companies or associations
may issue certifications or titles with the word "engineer" as part of that title (such as security
engineer or Microsoft Certified Systems Engineer). Microsoft have since changed the title to
"Microsoft Certified Professional". Several licensing bodies for professional engineering contend
that only licensed professional engineers are legally allowed to use the title "Engineer". The I.T.
industry, on the other hand, counters that:

1. These title holders never presented themselves as "Professional Engineers";

2. Provincial laws, other than in Quebec and Ontario, regulate only the use of term "Professional
Engineer", and not any title with the word "Engineer" in it; in Quebec and Ontario, the term
"Engineer" is protected by both the Engineers Act[14] and by section 32 of the Professional
Code[15]); and,
3. The I.T. industry has used the term "engineer" since the dawn of the computing industry in the
60s.[16]

Court rulings regarding the usage of the term "engineer" have been mixed. For example, after
complaints from the Canadian Council of Professional Engineers, a court in Quebec fined
Microsoft Canada $1,000 for misusing the "engineer" title by referring to MCSE graduates as
"engineers".[17] Conversely, an Albertacourt dismissed the lawsuit filed by The Association of
Professional Engineers, Geologists, and Geophysicists of Alberta (APEGGA) against Raymond
Merhej for using the title "System Engineer", claiming that "The Respondent's situation is such
that it cannot be contended that the public is likely to be deceived, confused or jeopardized by his
use of the term…"[18] APEGGA also lost the appeal to this decision.[19]

The Canadian Information Processing Society[20]and in particular CIPS Ontario[21] have attempted
to strike a balance between the professional engineering licensing bodies and the IT industry
over the use of the term "engineer" in the software industry, but so far no major agreements or
decisions have been announced.

Additional confusion has taken place over similarly named occupations. One such example
would be power engineers or stationary engineers. Graduates of a two-year (in Nova Scotia)
college level Power Engineering Technology program may use the title "Power Engineer" or
"Stationary Engineer". This is conflicting with the title often used in the electrical industry for
professional engineers designing related equipment. The incorporation of the word "engineer" in
"Power Engineer" or "Stationary Engineer" can itself cause confusion.

25
United Kingdom

In general, there is no restriction on the right to practice as an engineer in the UK or to call

oneself an engineer or professional engineer. There are a few fields of practice, generally safety
related, which are reserved by statute to licensed persons.[22] In the UK, the term "engineer" is
often applied to non-degreed vocations such as technologists, technicians, draftsmen, machinists,
mechanics, plumbers, electricians, repair people, and semi-skilled occupations. Many of these
occupations adopt the term "engineer", "professional engineer", "registered engineer", "gas
engineer", "heating engineer", "drainage engineer", "automobile engineer", "aircraft engineer"
and many hundreds of derivatives. British Gas describe their installation and maintenance
mechanics as registered professional engineers.

The U.K. has other "professional" engineering titles registered via the Engineering Council UK
(ECUK): Incorporated Engineer (IEng) and Chartered Engineer (CEng).[23]

Incorporated Engineer is a first-cycle qualification for Bachelor of Engineering or Bachelor of

Science degree holders(Sydney Accord, equivalent to Technologist). Chartered Engineer is a
second-cycle qualification usually reserved for holders of integrated Master of
Engineeringdegrees or Bachelor of Engineering/Bachelor of Science degrees. Both IEng and
CEng require substantial professional experience (4–8 years post graduate), a professional
review and interview.

It is illegal in the U.K. to hold that one is a Chartered or Incorporated Engineer unless so
registered with Engineering Council. The title of "Engineer" by itself is not regulated in the U.K.
[24]

While Engineering Council is the primary body registering Engineers in U.K., there are other
professional societies that register engineers as well. Under its Royal Charter, Engineering
Council grants licences to engineering institutions allowing them to assess candidates for
inclusion on its Register of Professional Engineers and Technicians, and to accredit academic
programmes and professional development schemes. There are over 30 institutions licensed to
register professional engineers with Engineering Council.

Europe and Latin America

 Engineers in Europe table showing all countries in which this profession is regulated, with the
name of the profession as used in the country.

 In Germany and some other European and Latin American countries, the term Diploma Engineer
implies that the person has completed typically one more year of academic work beyond the
basic engineering bachelor's degree. The Diploma Engineer is therefore a university degree, and
not a professional registration or license. However, in Germany and most other countries where
the Diploma Engineer degree exist, there is no professional registration or licence in engineering
(with a very limited number of exceptions, such as civil engineering in Germany). This is the
reason why graduates of these degrees are generally allowed to use the legally-protected title of
"Engineer" within these countries.

26
  In France, engineer title can be used pretty liberally, and is often attributed based on
professional position rather than initial qualification, however the title Ingénieur diplomé
(Diploma Engineer) is reserved to people having followed one of the trainings listed by
[[Commission des titres d'ingénieur] (Commission for Engineer Titles). It corresponds to a highly-
selective Master degree level, as three selections occurs: in high school, after two years of
classes preparatoires, and for the diploma delivering. This highly-selective process and the
French undervaluing of Ph.D.s (with exception to those in the industries of medicine and
veterinary science) makes the Ingénieur title very prestigious.

 In Chile, the Ingeniero (engineer) title is regulated by law, which distinguishes at least three
different kinds of professional engineering titles. First, the Ingeniería de Ejecución, which only
requires a degree in applied science and a technical degree, from a university or a technical
institute (usually four years of formation); Ingeniería, which requires a major degree in basic
sciences plus a technical degree, both from a university (usually five years of formation); and
Ingeniería Civil, which requires an academic major degree in basic sciences, a minor degree in
applied sciences and a technical degree, all from a university (usually six or six and a half years).
In all cases, the term refers to a professional degree conceded by an educational institution, yet
it can only be given by certain institutions when all legal requirements are met.

 In Brazil, the title of Engenheiro (engineer) and in Argentina[25] the title of Ingeniero can only be
legally used by someone with a five or six-year engineering degree. In Argentina most
universities have a five or six-year engineering degree (Around 3500–4000 hours of classes or
aprox 240-250 credits, one credit = 16 contact hours). Both countries conced the degree
through universities (most common) and certain institutions (most rarely).

 In Puerto Rico, use of the title Ingeniero (engineer) is restricted to those holding an engineer's
license registered by the College of Engineers and Land Surveyors of Puerto Rico. These people
have the right to add the letters "Ing." before their names on resumes, business cards, and other
communication.

United States

In the United States, use of the title Professional Engineer is restricted to those holding a
Professional Engineer's license. These people have the right to add the letters "P.E." after their
names on resumes, business cards, and other communication. However, each state has its own
licensing procedure, and the license is valid only in the state that granted it.

Other uses of the term "engineer" are legally controlled and protected to varying degrees,
dependent on the state and the enforcement of its engineering certification board. The term is
frequently applied to fields where practitioners may have no engineering background, or the
work has no basis in the physical engineering disciplines; for example sanitation engineer.
However, in many jurisdictions, the usage of this term is limited to internal use by a company,
rather than in a professional or marketing aspect, if said company is not licensed to perform
engineering work. This is because what is legally recognized as engineering work (and thus
requiring licensure to be practiced) is held to strict criminal liability.[26]

27
With regard to the term "software engineer", many states, such as Texas and Florida, have
license requirements for such a title that are in line with the requirements for more traditional
engineering fields. Jurisdictions such as these tend to refer to the position of network engineer as
a technician.[27]

See also: Debates within software engineering

International professional bodies

The AACE, a professional body for Cost Engineers, explains why a technical engineering
background is not required for their profession with the following statement:[28]

The skills and knowledge required to deal with costs (e.g., cost estimating, planning and
“ scheduling, etc.) are quite different from those required to deal with the physical design
dimension. From that difference, the field of cost engineering was born. Cost engineering
practitioners work alongside of and are peers with engineers, software analysts, play
producers, architects, and other creative career fields to handle the cost dimension, but
they do not necessarily have the same background. Whether they have technical,
operations, finance and accounting, or other backgrounds, cost engineering practitioners
need to share a common understanding, based on “scientific principles and techniques,”
with the engineering or other creative career functions. ”
Perception

Statue of engineer Robert Fulton at the United States Capitol

28
The perception of engineering varies across countries and continents. In continental western
Europe, eastern Europe, Asian, Middle East, Latin American and Canada engineering and
engineers are held in very high esteem. The perception and definition of engineering in some
English speaking countries is confused. The contemporary British public perceive engineers as
skilled or semi skilled maintenance workers but this is a recent development. British school
children in the 1950s were brought up with stirring tales of 'the Victorian Engineers', chief
amongst whom were the Brunels, the Stephensons, Telford and their contemporaries but now
British people often incorrectly use the term 'Engineer' to describe Plumbers and Mechanics.
British Gas refer to their gas repair mechanics as registered "professional engineers". In Canada,
a 2002 study by the Ontario Society of Professional Engineers revealed that engineers are the
third most respected professionals behind doctors and pharmacists.[29] In the Indian subcontinent,
Russia and China, engineering is one of the most sought after undergraduate courses, inviting
thousands of applicants to show their ability in highly competitive entrance examinations. In
Egypt, the educational system makes engineering the second-most-respected profession in the
country (after medicine); engineering colleges at Egyptian universities require extremely high
marks on the General Certificate of Secondary Education (Arabic: ‫ الثانوية العامة‬al-Thānawiyyah
al-`Āmmah)—on the order of 97 or 98%—and are thus considered (with colleges of medicine,
natural science, and pharmacy) to be among the "pinnacle colleges" (‫ كليات القمة‬kullīyāt al-
qimmah).

The definition of what engineering is varies across countries. In the UK "engineering" is defined
as an industry sector consisting of employers and employees loosely termed as "engineers" who
range from semi skilled trades to chartered engineers. In the US and Canada, engineering is
defined as a regulated profession whose practice and practitioners are licensed and governed by
law. In some English speaking countries engineering has been seen as a somewhat dry,
uninteresting field in popular culture and has also been thought to be the domain of nerds.[30] For
example, the cartoon character Dilbert is an engineer. In science fiction, engineers are often
portrayed as highly knowledgeable and respectable individuals who understand the
overwhelming future technologies often portrayed in the genre. Several Star Trek characters are
engineers. One difficulty in increasing public awareness of the profession is that average people,
in the typical run of ordinary life, do not ever have any personal dealings with engineers, even
though they benefit from their work every day. By contrast, it is common to visit a doctor at least
once a year, the chartered accountant at tax time, and, occasionally, even a lawyer.

In companies and other organizations in some English-speaking countries (UK) there is a

tendency to undervalue people with advanced technological and scientific skills compared to
celebrities, fashion practitioners, entertainers and managers. In his book The Mythical Man-
Month,[31] Fred Brooks Jr says that managers think of senior people as "too valuable" for
technical tasks, and that management jobs carry higher prestige. He tells how some laboratories,
such as Bell Labs, abolish all job titles to overcome this problem: a professional employee is a
"member of the technical staff." IBM maintain a dual ladder of advancement; the corresponding
managerial and technical rungs are equivalent. Brooks recommends that structures need to be
changed; the boss must give a great deal of attention to keeping his managers and his technical
people as interchangeable as their talents allow.

29