Anatomy and Physiology

Endocrine Sytsem

The ANATOMY of the Endocrine System

Hypothalamus Pituitary Gland Endocrine gland Increased Hormones

ENDOCRINE GLANDS
      

PITUITARY ADRENALS THYROID PARATHYROID PANCREAS OVARIES TESTES

Location of Major Endrocrine Organs

Figure 9.3
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Slide 9.14

The ANATOMY of the Endocrine System

The Hypothalamus  This part of the DIENCEPHALON is located below the thalamus and is connected to the pituitary gland by a stalk

The PHYSIOLOGY of the Endocrine System: Hypothalamus

Secretes

RELEASING HORMONES for the pituitary gland

Releasing hormones= hypothalamus

The PHYSIOLOGY of the Endocrine System: Hypothalamus

 Secretes

OXYTOCIN &

AntiAnti-Diuretic Hormone or VASOPRESSIN that is

stored in the Posterior pituitary gland

Pituitary gland
   

Master gland Located at the base of the brain Influenced by the hypothalamus Directly affects the function of other endocrine glands

The ANATOMY of the Endocrine System

The Pituitary Gland The optic chiasm passes over this structure

The ANATOMY of the Endocrine System

The Pituitary Gland

 Is

divided into two partsparts- the anterior or adenohypophysis and the posterior or the neurohypophysis

Secretes the following:  1. Growth hormone  2. Prolactin  3. Gonadotrophins- LH and FSH Gonadotrophins 4. Stimulating hormones and trophic hormones ACTH TSH MSH

The PHYSIOLOGY of the Endocrine System: Anterior Pituitary

Stores and releases  1. OXYTOCIN  2. ADH/Vasopressin

The PHYSIOLOGY of the Endocrine System: Posterior Pituitary

The PHYSIOLOGY of the Endocrine System: Thyroid

 Produces

the thyroid hormones by the thyroid follicles: 1. Tri-iodothyronine or T3 Tri2. Tetra-iodothyronine or Tetrathyroxine or T4

The PHYSIOLOGY of the Endocrine System: Thyroid

 The

Parafollicular cells secrete CALCITONIN

The ANATOMY of the Endocrine System

The PARAthyroid glands  Located at the back of the thyroid glands  Four in number

The PHYSIOLOGY of the Endocrine System: Parathyroid gland  Secretes PARATHYROID hormone (PTH) that controls calcium and phosphorus levels  PTH is stimulated by a DECREASED Calcium level

The PHYSIOLOGY of the Endocrine System: Parathyroids

Parathyroid Hormone is released in HYPOCALCEMIA Parathyroid hormone is NOT secreted in HYPERCALCEMIA Calcitonin is stimulated by HYPERCALCEMIA Calcitonin is inhibited by HYPOCALCEMIA

The ANATOMY of the Endocrine System

The Adrenal Glands  Located above the kidneys  Composed of two parts- the partsouter Adrenal Cortex and the inner Adrenal medulla

ADRENAL CORTEX

Secretes three types of STEROID hormones:  1. Glucocorticoids- like GlucocorticoidsCortisol, cortisone and corticosterone

The PHYSIOLOGY of the Endocrine System: Adrenal Cortex  2. Mineralocorticoids- like MineralocorticoidsAldosterone  3. Sex hormones- like hormonesestrogen and testosterone

The PHYSIOLOGY of the Endocrine System: Adrenal Medulla  Essentially a part of the SYMPATHETIC autonomic system  Secretes Adrenergic Hormones:  1. Epinephrine  2. Nor-epinephrine Nor-

PANCREAS Insulin Glucagon TESTES AND OVARIES Testosterone Progesterone Estrogen THYMUS Thymosin PINEAL GLAND Melatonin

Respiratory System

Respiratory Anatomy & Physiology



The respiratory system consists of two main parts- the upper and the lower partstracts

The Respiratory Process



 

Respiration is the process by which oxygen enters the body and is utilized by the cells for their metabolic processes. It essentially involves five interdependent steps. Ventilation refers to the entry of air containing oxygen and other gases into the lungs. Ventilation is followed by the diffusion of gases from and into the alveoli and alveolar sacs. Oxygen from the alveoli passes through the respiratory membrane and enter the perialveolar capillaries, while carbon dioxide from the capillaries diffuses through the respiratory membrane to leave the lungs by means of exhalation.

The Respiratory Process



Circulation makes it possible for oxygen to reach the distant tissues, and for carbon dioxide to travel from the tissues back into the lungs. The fourth component of the respiratory process involves another diffusion of gases, this time gases, involving the entry of oxygen into target tissues, and the entry of carbon dioxide into the blood stream for delivery back into the lungs. Cell metabolism and respiration are the final steps of the respiratory process wherein oxygen is utilized by the cells, and carbon dioxide, along with other waste products, is produced.

Respiratory Anatomy & Physiology



   

The UPPER respiratory system consists of: 1. nose 2. mouth 3. pharynx 4. larynx

Respiratory Anatomy & Physiology



   

The LOWER respiratory system consists of: 1. Trachea 2. Bronchus 3. Bronchioles 4. Respiratory unit

Upper respiratory tract

The Nose


contains nasal bones and cartilages and numerous hairs called vibrissae There are numerous superficial blood vessels in the nasal mucosa

The Nose
    

The functions of the nose are: 1. To filter the air 2. To humidify the air 3. To aid in phonation 4. Olfaction

The pharynx


  

The pharynx is a musculomusculomembranous tube that is composed of three parts 1. Nasopharynx 2. Oropharynx 3. Laryngopharynx

The pharynx
 

The pharynx functions : 1. As passageway for both air and foods (in the oropharynx) 2. To protect the lower airway

Tonsils


pair of prominent masses of lymphoid tissue that are located opposite each other in the throat

The larynx
 

Also called the voice box Made of cartilage and membranes and connects the pharynx to the trachea

The larynx
  

Functions of the larynx: 1. Vocalization 2. Keeps the patency of the upper airway 3. Protects the lower airway

The paranasal sinuses



These are four paired bony cavities that are lined with nasal mucosa and ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium Named after their location- frontal, locationethmoidal, sphenoidal and maxillary

The paranasal sinuses



The function of the sinuses: Resonating chambers in speech

The lower respiratory system

    

1. Trachea 2. Main bronchus 3. Bronchial tree 4. Lungs- 3R/ 2L LungsThe trachea to the terminal bronchioles is called the conducting airway The respiratory bronchioles to the alveoli is called the respiratory acinus

The trachea


A cartilaginous tube measures 10-12 10centimeters Composed of about 20 C-shaped Ccartilages, incomplete posteriorly

The trachea


The function of the trachea is to conduct air towards the lungs The mucosa is lined up with mucus and cilia to trap particles and carry them towards the upper airway

Lobes of the Lungs

(R) lung = 3 lobes - upper, middle, lower fissures: horizontal, oblique  (L) lung = 2 lobes - upper with lingula, lower fissure: oblique


The Bronchus


The right and left primary bronchi begin at the carina The function is for air passage

The primary bronchus



RIGHT BRONCHUS Wider Shorter More Vertical

LEFT BRONCHUS Narrower Longer More horizontal

  

  

The bronchioles


The primary bronchus further divides into secondary, then tertiary then into bronchioles The terminal bronchiole is the last part of the conducting airway

The respiratory Acinus



   

The respiratory acinus is the chief respiratory unit It consists of 1. Respiratory bronchiole 2. Alveolar duct 3. alveolar sac

The respiratory Acinus



The function of the respiratory acinus is gas exchange through the respiratory membrane

The respiratory Acinus



The respiratory membrane is composed of two epithelial cells 1.The type 1 pneumocyte- most pneumocyteabundantabundant- where gas exchange occurs 2. The type 2 pneumocyte- secretes pneumocytelung surfactant

The respiratory Acinus



A type III pneumocyte is just the macrophage that ingests foreign material and acts as an important defense mechanism

Accessory Structures
The PLEURA  Epithelial serous membrane lining the lung parenchyma  Composed of two parts- the visceral and partsparietal pleurae  Pleural space

Accessory Structures
The Thoracic cavity  The chest wall composed of the sternum and the rib cage  The cavity is separated by the diaphragm, the most important respiratory muscle

Pleural Cavities
Costodiaphragmatic recesses : Spaces in the pleural cavities below each lung, superior to the diaphragm.

GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF THE Respiratory System



Gas exchange through ventilation, external respiration and cellular respiration Oxygen and carbon dioxide transport

Accessory Structures
The Mediastinum  The space between the lungs, which includes the heart and pericardium, the aorta and the vena cavae.

Mechanics of Ventilation
INSPIRATION EXPIRATION
respiratory muscles contract Respiratory muscles relax (diaphragm,intercostal m.) Decreased thoracic diameter increased thoracic diameter Decreased pressure Air goes out Air goes in

Increased pressure

Mechanics of Breathing

Respiratory Rate (RR)



InspirationInspirationexpiration cycle is measured in cpm (cycles per minute) Normal adult RR: 1414-20cpm Children 20-30 20cpm Infants 40-60 40cpm

Pulmonary Volumes and Capacities

 

There are four pulmonary volumes: tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve volume, volume, and residual volume. volume. The tidal volume refers to the volume of air that goes into and out of the lungs during normal respiration (about 500 cc). The inspiratory reserve volume is the amount of air that can be inspired forcefully after inspiration of the normal tidal volume (about 3000 cc). The expiratory reserve volume is the additional amount of air that can be expired forcefully (about 1100 cc).

Pulmonary Volumes and Capacities



The residual volume is the volume of air left in the lungs after maximum expiration. This is also known as dead space (about 1200 cc). The pulmonary capacities refer to the sum of two or more pulmonary volumes. The vital capacity is the sum of the IRV, the TV and the ERV. It is the maximum volume of air that a person can expel from his respiratory tract after a maximum inspiration (about 4600 cc). VC = IRV + TV + ERV

Pulmonary Volumes and Capacities



The inspiratory capacity is the amount of air that a person can inspire maximally after a normal expiration (about 3500 cc). IC = TV + IRV The functional residual capacity is the amount of air remaining in the lungs at the end of a normal expiration (about 2300 cc). FRC = ERV + RV The total lung capacity is the sum of all the lung volumes (about 5800 cc).

Pulmonary Volumes and Capacities

MAXIMUM INSPIRATION

IRV IC VC TV ERV
MAXIMUM EXPIRATION

TOTAL LUNG CAPACITY

FRC RV RV

Regulation of Respiration
RESPIRATORY CENTER in the BRAINSTEM. - activated by dec ph  CO2 + H20 H2CO3



CAROTID AND AORTIC CHEMORECEPTORS - help regulate breathing - High [pCO2] or low [pO2] ---chemoreceptors ---chemoreceptors ---medulla ---medulla and pons to inform the phrenic nerve Phrenic nerve stimulates the diaphragm to contract

Breathing Patterns


BIOTS:  breathing with irregularly alternating periods of apnea and hyperpnea e.g.meningitis and brain disorders that  cause ICP

CHEYNE-STOKES: CHEYNE-STOKES: common but usually abnormal periods of apnea lasting 10-60 10seconds followed by gradual increase then decrease e.g. frontal lobe and diencephalic dysfunction

Breathing Patterns


COGWHEEL respiratory murmur, not continuous but broken into waves e.g. bronchitis and possible TB

KUSSMAUL deep, gasping breathing e.g. diabetic ketoacidosis and coma

Circulatory System

Heart
   

complex muscular pump Size of a clenched fist Beats 60-100 per minute 60The heart pumps about 7200 liters/day.

Layers of the wall



Endocardium innermost layer Myocardium middle, thickest; contracting layer Epicardium outer layer

1. 2. 

Pericardium encloses epicardium Visceral Parietal Pericardial sac

Anatomy of the heart

 

4 chambers 2 atria act as collecting reservoirs. 2 ventricles act as pumps. 4 valves for:  Pumping action of the heart.  Maintaining unidirectional blood flow.

MUSCLES WITHIN THE CHAMBERS



PAPILLARY MUSCLES - found within the chamber walls Extend into CHORDAE TENDINAE attached to valves

Blood Vessels
1. Right coronary artery a. posterior interventricular b. marginal artery - RA, RV, inferior portion of the LV, the posterior septal wall and AV (90%) and SA node (55%)

2. Left coronary artery

a. b.

anterior interventricular circumflex arteries LA and the post. LV Left ant. descending artery ant. wall of the LV, the anterior septum and the Apex of the left ventricle

3. cardiac veins -drain into the coronary sinus w/c in turn drain into right atrium

Peripheral vascular system

2 TYPES OF CONTROL SYSTEMS OF THE HEART:

1.

Neural regulation autonomic nervous system SympatheticSympathetic- accelerates & strengthen heartbeat\ heartbeat\ ParasympatheticParasympathetic- slows down

Conduction system
Electrical Conduction System/Nodal System - network of nerve fibers coordinate the contraction and relaxation of the cardiac muscle tissue to obtain an efficient, wave-like wavepumping action of the heart.

CARDIAC CYCLE


sequence of events that occur when the heart beats SystoleSystole- diastole cycle

BLOOD FLOW THROUGH THE HEART



Left LUNGS LA mitral valve opens LV mitral valve closes LV muscles contract AV opens aorta distribution Right BODY RA tricuspid valve opens RV tricuspid valve closes RV muscles contract pulmonary valves open lungs

HEART SOUNDS


Aortic valve: second ICS(intercostal space) R PSL(parasternal line) Pulmonic valve: second ICS L PSL Tricuspid valve: fourth ICS L PSL Mitral valve: fifth ICS L MCL(midclavicular line)

The Cardiovascular System

The Heart sounds  1. S1- due to closure of the AV valves S1 2. S2- due to the closure of the semiS2semilunar valves  3. S3- due to increased ventricular S3filling  4. S4- due to forceful atrial contraction S4-

Cardiac Output, Sroke Volume and Heat Rate

 

STROKE VOLUME amount of blood ejected per heartbeat HEART RATE affected by ANS, baroreceptor activity, cathecolamines, thyroid hormone CARDIAC OUTPUT - amount of blood pumped out by each ventricle in 1 minute - product of heart rate and stroke volume

STROKE VOLUME
1. 

Preload degree of stretch at the end of diastole Inc volume inc stretch inc preload greater contraction and inc stroke volume

2. Afterload amount of resistance to ejection of blood from ventricle  Also called systemic vascular resistance  Inverse relationship with stroke volume 3. Contraction- force generated by contracting Contractionmyocardium

ECG INTERPRETATION


P wave- arterial depolarization wave- indicate SA node function - normal: 0.04-0.11 0.04PR wave interval- indicate AV node intervalconduction - normal: 0.12-0.20 0.12QRS complex- ventricular complexdepolarization - normal: 0.06-0.10 0.06-

ECG INTERPRETATION


ST segment- indicates time between segmentcomplete depolarization and repolarization of ventricle T waves- venticular repolarization waves-

The vascular System

arteries - vessels that carry blood away from the heart to the periphery  veins -vessels that carry blood to the heart  capillaries are lined with squamos cells, they connect the veins and arteries


The vascular System



The lymphatic system collects the extravasated fluid from the tissues and returns it to the blood

Blood Vessels: The Vascular System

y Taking blood to the tissues and back
y Arteries y Arterioles y Capillaries y Venules y Veins
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Slide 11.23

yBLOOD VESSEL: ANATOMY yThree layers (tunics)

yTunic intima yEndothelium yTunic media ySmooth muscle yControlled by sympathetic nervous system yTunic externa yMostly fibrous connective tissue

Pulse
y Pulse pressure wave of blood y Monitored at pressure points where pulse is easily palpated
Figure 11.16
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Slide 11.35

Blood components
Formed elements:  RBC  WBC  Platelets Unformed  plasma

Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells)

y The main function is to carry oxygen y Anatomy of circulating erythrocytes
y Biconcave disks y Essentially bags of hemoglobin y Anucleate (no nucleus) y Contain very few organelles

y Outnumber white blood cells 1000:1

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Slide 10.6

NV: RBC:4.0RBC:4.0-5.5 (F) 4.54.5-6.2 (M) hgb:12hgb:12-14 (F) 1414-16 (M) Hct- 35Hct- 35-45 (F) 42-52 42(M)

Hemoglobin
y Iron-containing protein y Binds strongly, but reversibly, to oxygen y Each hemoglobin molecule has four oxygen binding sites y Each erythrocyte has 250 million hemoglobin molecules
Slide 10.7

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Leukocytes (White Blood Cells)

y Crucial in the bodys defense against disease y These are complete cells, with a nucleus and organelles y Able to move into and out of blood vessels (diapedesis) y Can move by ameboid motion y Can respond to chemicals released by damaged tissues
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Slide 10.8

WBC  NV- 5,000-10,000 NV- 5,000-

1. granular leukocytes a. neutrophil 60-70% 60- primary line of cellular defense against bacterial invasion b. eosinophil 2-5 % - inc in allergic reaction c. basophil 0-1 % -supplement function of mast cells

2. agranular leukocytes a. lymphocytes: B and T lymphocytes 202030% - respond to invasion of the body by foreign substances and organism, newer phagocytes b. monocyte 3-8%

c. Platelets/Thrombocytes - 150,000 450,000 per cu mm blood - Thromboxane A2 plug formation - Prostacyclin platelet plug promotes platelet

limits formation of

Hematopoiesis
y Occurs in bone marrow y All blood cells are derived from a common stem cell (hemocytoblast) y Hemocytoblast differentiation
y Lymphoid stem cell produces lymphocytes y Myeloid stem cell produces other formed elements
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Slide 10.14

Fate of Erythrocytes
y Unable to divide, grow, or synthesize proteins y Wear out in 100 to 120 days y When worn out, are eliminated by phagocytes in the spleen or liver y Lost cells are replaced by division of hemocytoblasts
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Slide 10.15

Control of Erythrocyte Production

y Rate is controlled by a hormone (erythropoietin) y Kidneys produce most erythropoietin as a response to reduced oxygen levels in the blood y Homeostasis is maintained by negative feedback from blood oxygen levels
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Slide 10.16

Developmental Aspects of Blood

y Sites of blood cell formation
y The fetal liver and spleen are early sites of blood cell formation y Bone marrow takes over hematopoiesis by the seventh month

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Slide 10.31

RED CELL INDICES



Mean corpuscular volume: hematocrit/RBC

82 to 92 cubic microns; macrocytosis or microcytosis; pernicious anemia

Mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH): hemoglobin/RBC

27 to 31 picograms

Mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC): hemoglobin/hematocrit

32 to 36 g/dL; hyperchromia or hypochromia

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM AND IMMUNITY

The Lymphatic System



The lymphatic system consists of lymph, lymph vessels, lymphocytes, lymph nodes, tonsils, the spleen and the thymus gland. It maintains tissue fluid balance in tissues, absorbs fats from the small intestine, and defends against foreign substances.

The Lymph Vessels



Lymph vessels carry lymph away from tissues. Valves in the vessels ensure the oneoneway flow of lymph. Skeletal muscle contraction, contraction of lymph vessel smooth muscle, and thoracic pressure changes move the lymph through the vessels. The thoracic duct and the right lymphatic duct, duct, empty lymph into the blood.

The Lymph Organs

   

Lymphatic tissue produces lymphocytes when exposed to foreign substances, and it filters lymph and blood. The tonsils protect the openings between the nasal and oral cavities and the pharynx. Lymph nodes, located along lymph vessels, filter nodes, lymph. The white pulp of the spleen responds to foreign substances in the blood, whereas the red pulp phagocytizes foreign substances and worn out erythrocytes. The spleen also functions as reservoir for blood. The thymus processes lymphocytes that move to other lymphatic tissue to respond to foreign substances.

NonNon-Specific Immunity


MECHANICAL MECHANISMS Skin and mucous membranes Tears, saliva and urine CHEMICAL Lysozyme in tears Complement in plasma Interferon

NonNon-Specific Immunity


CELLULAR Chemotaxis Neutrophils Macrophages Basophils and mast cells Eosinophils INFLAMMATORY RESPONSES

Specific Immunity


ANTIGENS are molecules that stimulate specific immunity. B cells are responsible for humoral immunity. T cells are responsible for cell-mediated cellimmunity.

AntibodyAntibody-Mediated Immunity
 

ANTIBODIES are proteins. It has a variable region and a constant region. The variable region combines with antigens and is responsible for antibody specificity. The constant region activates complement or attaches the antibody to cells. The five classes of antibodies are IgG, IgM, IgA, IgE, and IgD. IgE, IgD.

AntibodyAntibody-Mediated Immunity


Antibodies directly inactivate antigens or cause them to clump together. They indirectly destroy antigen by promoting phagocytosis and inflammation. The primary response results from the first exposure to an antigen. B cells form plasma cells, cells, which produce antibodies, and memory cells. The secondary (memory) response results from exposure to an antigen after a primary response. Memory cells quickly form plasma cells and memory cells.

CellCell-Mediated Immunity


Exposure to an antigen activates cytotoxic T cells and produces memory cells. Cytotoxic T cells lyse virus-infected cells, virustumor cells, and tissue transplants. Cytotoxic T cells produce lymphokines which promote inflammation and phagocytosis.

Acquired Immunity


ACTIVE NATURAL IMMUNITY Exposure to an infectious agent ACTIVE ARTIFICIAL IMMUNITY Vaccination PASSIVE NATURAL IMMUNITY Transplacental transfer of antibodies PASSIVE ARTIFICIAL IMMUNITY Immunization

Nervous system and special senses

PRINCIPAL DIVISIONS:
1. Central Nervous System (CNS)
a. 

brain & the spinal cord control mechanism for the entire organism

2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

a. b. c.

12 cranial nerves (CN) 31 spinal nerves autonomic nerves

a. sympathetic b. parasympathetic

The Neuron
 

functional unit dendrites receive neural msgs & transmit towards cell body axon transmits neural msgs away from cell body cell body contains nucleus, mitochondria, & other organelles myelin & cellular sheath produced by Schwann cells nodes of Ranvier

TYPES OF NEURONS


Sensory neurons typically have a long dendrite and short axon, carry messages from sensory receptors central nervous system. system. Motor neurons have a long axon and short dendrites, transmit messages from central nervous system muscles (or to glands). Interneurons are found only in the central nervous system where they connect neuron to neuron.

Nerves & Ganglia



nerve a large bundle of axons wrapped in CT tracts or pathways bundle of axons within the CNS ganglia aggregation of nerve cell bodies w/in the PNS nuclei collection of cell bodies w/in the CNS

Reflex Action
simplest example of a neural response predictable, automatic response to stimuli  4 processes: -reception of the stimuli, - transmission of information, -integration (interpretation & determination of appropriate response), & - actual response


BRAINbrain  average human



weighs about 3 pounds (1300-1400 (1300g). At birth, the human brain weighs less than a pound (0.78-0.88 (0.78pounds or 350-400 350g). The human brain reaches its full size at about 6 years of age.

BRAIN


 

2% of the body's weight, it uses 20% of the oxygen supply gets 20% of the blood flow. If brain cells do not get oxygen for 3 to 5 minutes, they begin to die. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) surrounds the brain.

Anatomy and Physiology

I. THE CEREBRAL CORTEX  a) concept of the dominant and non dominant hemisphere.  Left Right  Dominant Non-dominant Non Language Spatial concepts Calculation Recognition of faces

Anatomy and Physiology

Frontal Learning Intellect Judgment Values Behavior & Emotion Parietal Language communication Speech Calculation Construction Recognition Occipital Visual Imaging & processing Temporal Audition & Memory

Anatomy and Physiology

II. Basal Ganglia  Cell bodies in white matter  Smooth voluntary movement III. Thalamus  Relays sensory impulses to the cortex  Provides a pain gate

Anatomy and Physiology

IV. Hypothalamus  Regulates autonomic responses (stress, sleep, appetite, body temp, emotions)  Responsible for production of hormones secreted by the pituitary V. Brainstem V.1. midbrain  Motor coordination  Visual reflex and auditory relay center

Anatomy and Physiology

V.2. Pons  Regulates breathing- resp. center breathingV.3. Medulla oblongata  Contains efferent/afferent fibers  Cardiac, respiratory, vomiting and vasomotor center( bld. vessel diameter)

Anatomy and Physiology

VI. Cerebellum  Coordinates sm muscle mov t  coordinates, posture, equilibrium and muscle tone VII. Spinal cord  Starts from C1-L2 C1 Carries sensory and motor impulses  Ave. length 45 cms. or 17 inches

Spinal Cord

   

Spinal nerves 31 pairs Posterior roots- Efferent(motor) rootsAnterior roots- Afferent(sensory) roots-

HYDROCEPHALUS - congenital anomaly inc amount of CSF in ventricles.

Peripheral Nervous System



made up of the sense organs, the sensory neurons, & the nerves that link the CNS with the effectors 2 systems:
1. somatic system responsible for body balance in relation to outside world 2. autonomic system responsible for internal body balance

Cranial Nerves


12 pairs emerge from the brain transmit information from sense receptors to the brain

I-olfactory- sensory for smell olfactory II- optic-sensory for vision II- optic III-oculomotor- motor to III-oculomotorSR,IR,MR &IO; to internal eye ms which controls lens shape and pupil size  IV- motor to SO IV VI- motor to LR VI V- Trigeminal-sensory to skin Trigeminalof face, motor to ms of chewing


 

VII-FacialVII-Facial- motor to mS of facial expression, senory to taste(ant. Tongue) VIIIVIII- sensory to hearing and balance IX- glossopharyngealIX- glossopharyngeal- motor to pharynx & saliva production, sensory to tase( post. Tongue) X- Vagus- sensory & motor to pharynx, Vaguslarynx, abdominal and thoracic viscera XI- AccessoryXI- Accessory- motor to sternocleidomastoid and trapezius XII-HypoglossalXII-Hypoglossal-motor and sensory to tongue

Comparison of Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Actions on Selected Effectors

Sympathetic Action Effector Heart Bronchial tubes Iris of eye Sex organs Blood vessels Sweat glands Intestine Liver metabolism Adipose tissue Adrenal medulla Salivary glands Increases rate and strength of contraction Dilates Dilates (pupil becomes larger) Constricts blood vessels; ejaculation Generally constricts Stimulates Inhibits motility Stimulates glycogen breakdown Stimulates free fatty acid release from fat cells Stimulates secretion of epinephrine and norepinephrine Stimulates thick, viscous secretion Decreases rate; no direct effect on strength of contraction Constricts Constricts (pupil becomes smaller) Dilates blood vessels; erection No innervation for many No innervation Stimulates motility and secretion No effect No effect No effect Stimulates profuse, water secretion Parasympathetic Action

senses

External Anatomy of the Eye

EYE structures
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Pupil Conjunctiva Cornea Sclera Choroid Iris Ciliary body Lens aqueous chamber aqueous humor

10. vitreous chamber 11. vitreous humor 12. Retina 13. rods & cones 14. optic nerve 15. optic disc 16. macula 17. fovea centralis

CORNEA
the transparent, avascular layer that covers the iris & the pupil at the front of the eye frequently referred to as the window of the eye function: to bend, or refract the rays of the light

Sclera
 

the white of the eye tough, fibrous, connective tissue that extends from the cornea on the anterior surface of the eyeball to the optic nerve

Choroid


a layer inside the sclera made of black pigment cells that absorb light rays so that they are not reflected back rich in blood vessels that supply nutrients to the eye

Iris


the colored portion of the eye that surrounds the pupil smooth ms constrict the pupil in bright light & vice-versa vicecolor is determined by the amount of pigment present (blue has the least, brown has the most)

Ciliary Body And Lens



located on each side of the lens, contains ms that can adjust the shape & thickness of the lens lens is a clear, crystalline body that may be thinned or flattened for distant vision & thickened for close vision refractive power of the lens is called accommodation

Anterior & Vitreous Chamber



the lens lies at the rear of the anterior chamber filled with a fluid called aqueous humor that maintains shape & nourishes the structures within behind the lens is the vitreous chamber that is filled with a soft, jelly-like jellymaterial, the vitreous humor

Retina
 

the thin, delicate, and sensitive nerve layer of the eye contains specialized sensory cells, the rods & cones
rods: rods: 120M, for vision in dim light or darkness & peripheral vision cones: cones: 6.5M, for vision in bright light, color vision, & central vision

cones are most concentrated in the fovea centralis and is the region of sharpest vision

Optic Nerve & Disc



light energy, when focused on the retina, causes a chemical change in the rods & cones nerve impulses travel to the brain via optic nerve region where optic nerve meets the retina is called optic disc ( also known as blind spot due to absence of rods & cones)

Extraocular muscles of the Eye

Eye

Ears

Eustachian Tube


connects the middle ear & the external environment through the throat equalizes the pressure on the two sides of the eardrum susceptible to bacterial infection middle ear infection

Nose

Nose

TASTE


The sense of taste is perceived through the taste buds on the tongue and in various parts of the mouth. average of 10,000 taste buds in the normal adult mouth. As an individual gets older the number of taste buds gradually decreases. The taste buds are able to discriminate among four primary tastes: sweet, sour, salty, and bitter. bitter. Both the facial (CN VII) and the glossopharyngeal (CN IX) nerves transmit the sensory input to the brain.