1

Gio trnh

L THUYT HM GREEN
Trong Vt L














TS. V Quang Tuyn

B mn Vt l l thuyt, Khoa Vt l
i hc Khoa hc t nhin tp. HCM
2009
2

Hm Green (HG) c khai sinh bi nh ton hc Anh George Green nm
1828. Sau HG c ng dng bi ton in t v tr thnh mt cng c ton
hc rt c lc v ph bin gii nhng phng trnh vi phn khng ng nht
trong ton cng nh trong vt l. Trong vt l lng t, nht l trong vt l cht rn,
HG v ang l mt mt cng c rt quan trng nghin cu nhng h tng tc
phc tp.
Hc phn l thuyt HG ny s trnh by HG nh l mt phng php (ton hc)
nghin cu vt l. Hai chng s trnh by phng php HG cho bi ton phng
trnh vi phn tuyn tnh khng ng nht- l lp phng trnh vi phn thng gp
trong vt l. Hu ht cc v d, bi ton c a vo trong nhng chng ny u
c ni kt vi cc bi ton vt l.
T chng 3 chng ti s tp trung gii thiu phng php HG trong vt l
lng t, c bit trong trng thi rn. S gii hn HG cn bng nhit 0. Trong
thc t cc th nghim c thc hin nhit khc khng. Tuy nhin mt cch
gn ng ta c th s dng HG cho nhng th nghim nhit thp hoc nhng th
nghim c cc i lng ta quan tm khng thay i nhanh theo nhit Thc t
cho thy HG nhit 0 c s dng tnh ton v gii thch thnh cng nhiu
qu trnh vt l nhit hu hn.
Nu cn xt n nh hng ca nhit , ngi ta cng c th s dng HG nhit
hu hn Matsubara. i vi h khng cn bng th cn n HG khng cn bng.
Chng ti s ch trnh by mt s tng chnh ca cc loi HG ny sinh vin
(bc c nhn) nm c hng pht trin/m rng ca HG trong vt l lng t.
Hc phn ny nhm gip sinh vin nm c i) phng php cn bn ca HG
trong bi ton phng trnh vi phn khng ng nht, ii) phng php tm HG bng
hm ring v tr ring, iii) nh ngha v v ngha ca HG trong vt l lng t, iv)
phng php trin khai nhiu lon ca HG v mt s cch tnh gn ng ca HG v)
phng php gin Feynman cho HG.






3
Ti liu tham kho

* Hm Green v phng trnh vi phn tuyn tnh :
Duffy G. D. (2001): Greens Function with Applications (Chapman & Hall/CRC)
Tang K. T. (2006): Mathematical Methods for Engineers and Scientists (Springer,
Berlin)
Michio Masujima (2005) : Applied Mathematical Methods in Theoretical Physics
(Wiley)

* Hm Green v ng dng vo vt l lng t:
Abrikosov A. A., Gorkov L. P. Dzyaloshinski I. E. (1975) : Methods of Quantum
Field Theory in Statistical Physics (Dover Publ., New York)
Doniach S., Sondheimer E. H. (1998) : Greens Functions for Solid State Physicists
(Imperial College Press, London)
Economou E. N. (2006): Greens Functions in Quantum Physics (Springer-Verlag
Berlin)
Enz C. P. (1992) : A Course on Many-Body Theory Applied tp Solid-State Physics
(World Scientific, Singapore)
Fetter A. L., Walecka J. D. (1971) : Quantum Theory of Many-Particle Systems
(McGraw-Hill, New York)
Kadanoff L. P., Baym G. (1962): Quantum Statistical Mechanics (Benjamin, Berlin)
Mahan G. D. (1981) : Many-particle Physics (Plenum, New York)
Nguyn Vn Lin (2003): Hm Green trong Vt L Cht Rn (i Hc QG H Ni)

* L thuyt in t c in:
Jackson J. D. (1999) : Classical Electrodynamics (Wiley, New York)
4





Chng 1

1Dn nhp vo HG


Sinh vin vt l thng hay t hi ti sao cn hc HG, u l l do vt l cho
vic hc ny, ? thy c vai tr cng nh ngha ca HG, trong chng ny
s im li vai tr ca HG trong mt s bi ton ph bin trong vt l (c in); ng
thi cng cho thy trc mi tng quan trc tip ca HG vi nhng i lng vt l
c th o c trong th nghim, qua gip cho sinh vin, ngay t u, cm nhn
c vai tr v ng dng thit thc ca HG trong vt l (lng t).
1.1 HG trong vt l c in (HG c in) :
1.1.1 Th Coulomb :

HG c s dng ph bin trong bi ton th Coulomb to bi in tch im.
in tch e nh v ti im c vector v tr ' r

s to ra th in ( ) r o

ti im r

c tnh nh sau :
0
( )
4 | ' |
e
r
r r
o
tc
=

. (1.1.1)
Ta c th m rng cho trng hp nhiu in tch im hoc trng hp phn b
lin tc vi hm phn b in tch ( ) r p

. Trong trng hp sau, th nng l
3
0
( ')
( ) '
4 | ' |
r
r d r
r r
p
o
tc
=

. (1.1.2)
Th ny tha mn phong trnh Poisson
2
0
( ) ( ) / r r o p c V =

. (1.1.3)

Ta a vo HG c nh ngha nh sau :
0
1
( )
4
G R
R tc
= vi | ' | R r r =

. (1.1.4)
5

HG ny tha phng trnh Poisson i vi in tch im v th Coulomb c tnh
qua HG nh sau :
( ) ' ( ) ( ') r dr G R r o p =

. (1.1.5)
1.1.2 Phng trnh in t trng (Maxwell) :

Xt phng trnh Maxwell cho th in t :
2
2
2 2
1
( , ) ( , ) A A r t j r t
c t
u
c
V =

c




2
2
0 2 2
1
( , ) ( , ) / r t r t
c t
o o p c
c
V =

c


. (1.1.6)
Ngi ta c th gii hai phng trnh trn bng cch dng HG ( , ) G R T

tha phng
trnh
( ', ') ( ') ( ') ( ) ( ) G r r t t r r t t R T o o o o =


(1.1.7)

v nghim ca phng trnh (1.6) c xc nh qua HG di dng
0
1
( ) ' ' ( , ') ( ', ') r dr dt G R t t r t o p
c
=

(1.1.8)

Xt mt trng hp c bit : 0
G
G
T
c
= =
c
ti T=0. Khi ta thu c HG c dng
{ }
( )
( , ) ( ) ( )
4
c T
G R T R cT R cT
R
u
o o
t
= + (1.1.9)
Bi v R v T dng, s hng cui bng 0 v c
( , ) ( )
4
c
G R T R cT
R
o
t
= . (1.1.10)

Th in tr thnh
0
( ) ' ( ', / ) /
4
c
r dr r t R c R o p
tc
=

(1.1.11)

v y chnh l dng quen thuc ca th tr trong in ng lc hc.

6
1.2 H lng t :

y ch tm tt mt s mi lin h gia HG v nhng i lng vt l c th
o c trc tip hay gin tip trong thc nghim.
- ng nng, th nng v nng lng ton phn c tnh trc tip qua HG
- HG cho thng tin trc tip v mt ht

( ) ( ) ( ) n x x x v v = , mt dng, mt
spin,
- HG cho thng tin trc tip v cc hm tng quan
- Cc thng tin v tnh cht ph (nng lng), mt trng thi, tit din tn x
c bao gm trong HG tr.
-

Ngoi ra HG cho mt l thuyt nhiu lon rt h thng.





7





Chng 2

2Hm Green trong phng trnh
vi phn tuyn tnh


Phng trnh vi phn tuyn tnh khng ng nht l mt bi ton rt thng gp
trong ton l. Phng trnh th Coulomb, phng trnh sng, phng trnh truyn
nhit,... thuc v dng ton trn. V th gii nghim ca phng trnh ny l mt vic
rt quan trng trong vy l ton v HG chng t l mt cng c rt hiu qu.
Chng ny s trnh by phng php HG trong vic gii phng trnh vi phn tuyn
tnh.
2.1 Phng trnh vi phn tuyn tnh :

Kho st cc bi ton vt l thng dn n phng trnh vi phn c dng thc
nh sau :
( ) Lu f x = . (2.1.1)
Trong L l ton t vi phn, f(x) l hm bit v u l nghim cn tm. Vi ci
nhn vt l ta c th xem hm f(x) bn v phi ca phng trnh biu din lc-
tc ng ln h, v nghim u(x) ca phng trnh biu din s phn hi ca h.

* Ta ch xt ton t tuyn tnh, tc l L phi tha mn
( ) L f g Lf Lg o | o | + = + , (2.1.2)
y o v | l nhng s phc, f v g l hai hm trong khng gian hm.
Vi v d ton t tuyn tnh L:
i) nhn bi mt hng s v hng a: Lu au =
ii) o hm bc n ca mt hm (u) :
n
n
d
Lu u
dx
= hoc
n
n
d
L
dx
= gi l ton t
vi phn.
8
* Ngoi tnh tuyn tnh ta cng ch xt n nhng ton t Hermite (cn gi l ton
t self-adjoint), tc l L L
+
= . y L
+
c gi l ton t lin hp ca ton t L
v c nh ngha:
| | f Lg L f g
+
( , = ( , (2.1.3)
Ch ta s dng nh ngha tch trong:
*
| ( ) ( )
b
a
f g f x g x dx ( ,

vi f v g l
nhng hm xc nh trn [a,b], f* l lin hip phc ca f .
Thc t,
V d : Tm ton t lin hip ca
2 2
/ L d dx = :
2 2
2 2
| * *
d d d d
f Lg f g f gdx f g dx
dx dx dx dx



( , = = =




Tch phn tng phn
2
2
*
* *
d d dg df dg dg df d
f g dx f dx f g f gdx
dx dx dx dx dx dx dx dx





= = +






2
2
dg df d
f g f g
dx dx dx



= +



Vi iu kin , 0 f g khi x th ton t lin hip ca
2
2
d
L
dx
= l
2
2
d
L
dx
+
=
tha mn nh ngha (2.1.3).
Nhn xt: trong trng hp ton t vi phn, thng gp phi vn pht sinh do bi
iu kin bin. Thc vy, nh thy trong v d trn, v phi ca phng trnh (2.1.3)
c th c nhng s hng b sung lin quan n cc iu kin bin ca f v g. Nu f v
g c cng iu kin bin th cc s hng bin s kh nhau.
Ti sao quan tm ton t Hermit ? Ta ang xt bi ton vt l. Trong vt l lng
t mt i lng kho st c biu din bi ton t O v gi tr k vng ca i
lng ny c xc nh bi | O v v ( , trong v l hm sng m t trng thi ca h
ang xt. Nh vy | O v v ( , phi thc, tc l
| * | O O v v v v ( , = ( ,
Bi v
| * | O O v v v v ( , = ( , (tnh cht ca bra-ket : | | * o v v o ( , = ( , )
ta c : | | O O v v v v ( , = ( ,
Nh th ton t biu din mt i lng quan st c phi l Hermite.
9
Tng t nh trong bi ton tr ring ca ma trn, ta cng c bi ton tr ring
ca ton t vi phn :

n n n
Lo o = , (2.1.4)
vi
n
l mt hng s. Vi mt chn trc, hm s o tha mn (2.1.4) v iu kin
bin c gi l hm ring tng ng vi ; c gi l tr ring. i vi mt
ton t Hermite, cc tr ring l s thc v cc hm ring to thnh h trc giao
(
,
|
n m n m
o o o ( , = ) v y ( | | 1
k k
k
o o ,( =

).
2.2 Hm Green v phng trnh vi phn tuyn tnh :
2.2.1 Phng php HG cho phng trnh vi phn tuyn tnh:

Trong phn ny chng ta s trnh by cch dng HG tm nghim phng trnh
vi phn tuyn tnh khng ng nht. Phng php HG c th p dng cho nhng lp
phng trnh vi phn ph bin gm c phng trnh vi phn thng v phng trnh
o hm ring phn (xem v d Duffy D. (2001)).
Gi s chng ta mun gii phng trnh vi phn
( ) ( ) Lu x f x = , (2.2.1)
trn min xc nh xeO, tha iu kin bin cho trc v L l ton t vi phn tuyn
tnh Hermite. Nhn hm G(x,x) (hm cha bit, nhng y chnh l HG ta s tnh sau
ny) vo hai v ca (2.2.1) v ly tch phn theo x trn min O(tc l ta ang thc
hin tch trong ( | *( ) ( ) f g f x g x dx ( , =

) ca c hai v phng trnh (2.2.1) vi hm

G(x,x) theo bin x). Ta c :
( , ') | ( ) ( , ') | ( ) G x x Lu x G x x f x ( , = ( , . (2.2.2)
Vi nh ngha ton t lin hip L
+
ca L , nh nhn xt v (2.1.3), v tri ca
(2.2.2) c th c vit li nh sau:
( , ') | ( ) ( , ') | ( ) G x x Lu x L G x x u x
+
( , = ( , + s hng bin, (2.2.3)
hay
( , ') | ( ) ( , ') | ( ) L G x x u x G x x f x
+
( , = ( , + s hng bin (2.2.4)
By gi ta chn hm G(x,x) tha mn
( , ') ( ') L G x x x x o
+
= , (2.2.5)
v vi iu kin bin c chn thch hp kh i tt c nhng thnh phn cha
c bit trong s hng bin. Hm G(x,x) c gi l HG.
10
Thay (2.2.5) vo phng trnh (2.2.4) v lu n tnh cht ca hm delta-Dirac, ta
thu c :
( ') ( , ') | ( ) u x G x x f x = ( , + s hng bin bit. (2.2.6)
Vi f(x) bit trc v s hng bin bit, mt khi tnh c G(x,x) ta s tm c
nghim u. (2.2.6) c th c vit li nh sau :
( ) ( , ) ( ) u x G x f d c c c
O
=

+ s hng bin bit. (2.2.7)

Tm li gii phng trnh vi phn tuyn tnh khng ng nht ( ) Lu f x =
bng HG, trc ht ta gii phng trnh vi phn ( , ') ( ') L G x x x x o
+
= vi iu kin
bin chn la thch hp tm nghim G(x,x). Sau ta s c c nghim u ca
phng trnh vi phn xc nh qua (2.2.7).
2.2.2 ngha vt l ca HG :

Hm Green c th c gii thch nh sau. Nu phng trnh vi phn tuyn tnh,
v d (2.2.1), m t h vt l tuyn tnh, th nghim u(x) biu din s phn hi (tuyn
tnh) ca h di s kch thch ca lc ngoi f(x). Khi HG G(x,x) biu th phn
ng ca h vt l i vi lc ca mt ngun im ti im x. Ta cng c th xem
HG G(x,x) nh hm truyn kch thch hoc nh hm tng quan gia lc kch thch
v s phn hi ca h.
2.2.3 Tnh i xng ca HG :

HG c tnh i xng, cn gi l tnh cht o, nu L l ton t Hermite. Tht vy,
xt
( , ') ( ') LG x x x x o = , (2.2.8)
( , '') ( '') LG x x x x o = . (2.2.9)
Ly tch trong ca (2.2.8) vi ( , '') G x x t bn tri v (2.2.9) vi ( , ') G x x t bn phi :
( , ''), ( , ') ( , ''), ( ') G x x LG x x G x x x x o ( , = ( , ,
( , ''), ( , ') ( ''), ( , ') LG x x G x x x x G x x o ( , = ( , .
V ton t L l Hermite nn ( , ''), ( , ') ( , ''), ( , ') G x x LG x x LG x x G x x ( , = ( , . T hai
phng trnh trn c c ( , ''), ( ') ( ''), ( , ') G x x x x x x G x x o o ( , = ( , , tc l

*
( ', '') ( '', ') G x x G x x = . (2.2.10)
y l tnh cht o ca HG.
Nu ( , ') G x x l thc th HG c tnh i xng :
11
( ', '') ( '', ') G x x G x x = , (2.2.11)
2.3 Hm Green cho phng vi phn khng ph thuc thi gian:

Trong phn ny ta s kho st phng trnh vi phn tuyn tnh khng ng nht
khng ph thuc thi gian. Bi ton I c tnh minh ha phng php HG trnh by
trong phn trn.
Trong bi ton II, khi dng HG gii phng trinh vi phn, ta cng gii thiu
phng php hm ring v tr ring tm HG. Cc kt qu thu c cho php tm
hiu nhng tnh cht ca HG cng nh ngha vt l ca n.
2.3.1 HG khng ph thuc thi gian I:

Ta hy kho st phng trnh Schrdinger 1 chiu vi th U(x) :

2
2
2
( ) ( ) ( )
d
k x U x x
dx
m m

+ =


(2.3.1)
v gi thit ( ) 0 U x khi x . G s cc iu kin bin :
(0) a m = , '(0) b m = , (2.3.2)
v quan tm n nghim vi x>0.
Vit li phng trnh (2.3.1) di dng
( ) ( ) L x f x m = (2.3.3)
vi

2
2
2
, ( ) ( ) ( )
d
L k f x U x x
dx
m = + = . (2.3.4)
Hm Green :
Nhn hai v ca (2.3.3) vi g(x,x) v ly tch phn theo x t 0 n :

0 0
( , ') ( ) ( , ') ( ) g x x L x g x x f x m

=

. (2.3.5)
Tch phn tng phn (hai ln) trn v tri (2.3.5), thu c :
0 0 0
0
( , ')
( ( , ')) ( ) ( , ') '( ) ( ) ( , ') ( )
x
x
x
x
dg x x
Lg x x x dx g x x x x g x x f x dx
dx
m m m
=
=

=
=
+ =

(2.3.6)
Trong cc s hng bin, (0) m v '(0) m bit. kh nhng s hng bin cha bit
( ( ) m v '( ) m ) i hi iu kin bin cho g(x,x):
( , ') 0 g x = v
( , ')
0
dg x
dx

= . (2.3.7)
V chn g tha phng trnh
12
( , ') ( ') Lg x x x x o = . (2.3.8)
T (2.3.6) ta tm c :

0
0
(0, ')
( ') (0, ') '(0) (0) ( , ') ( )
(0, ')
(0, ') ( , ') ( )
dg x
x g x g x x f x dx
dx
dg x
bg x a g x x f x dx
dx
m m m

= +
= +

(2.3.9)
Tm nghim HG g(x,x) : vit li phng trnh cho HG di dng :

2
2
2
( , ') ( , ')
d
k g x x x x
dx
o

+ =


(2.3.10)
trn (0, ) x e vi ' (0, ) x e v iu kin bin :
( , ') 0 g x = (2.3.11)

( , ')
0
dg x
dx

= . (2.3.12)
i vi ' x x < ta c :
( , ') sin( ) cos( ) g x x A kx B kx = + . (2.3.13)
Khi ' x x > :
( , ') sin( ) cos( ) g x x C kx D kx = + . (2.3.14)
S dng cc iu kin bin (2.3.11) v (2.3.12) cho : 0 C D = = . Vy
( , ') 0 g x x = vi ' x x > . (2.3.15)
Ly tich phn hai v ca (2.3.10) theo x t ' x c n ' x c + v ly gii hn 0 c :

' ' 2
2
2
0 0
' '
lim ( , ') lim ( , ')
x x
x x
d
k g x x dx x x dx
dx
c c
c c
c c
o
+ +



+ =



. (2.3.16)
Vi i hi tnh lin tc ca ( , ') g x x khi qua ' x ta c :
( ' , ') ( ' , ') g x x g x x c c + = (2.3.17)
v

( ' , ') ( ' , ')
1
dg x x dg x x
dx dx
c c +
= . (2.3.18)
Ly 0 c
+
ta c h phng trnh xc nh h s A v B trong (2.3.13) :

sin ' cos ' 0
cos ' sin ' 1/ .
A kx B kx
A kx B kx k
+ =

+ =

(2.3.19)
H ny cho kt qu :

cos ' kx
A
k
= v
sin ' kx
B
k
= (2.3.20)
v HG cn tm l:
13

sin ( ')
( , ')
k x x
g x x
k

= vi ' x x < v ( , ') 0 g x x = vi ' x x > . (2.3.21)

Hm m (2.3.9) tr thnh :

'
0
sin ' sin ( ' )
( ') cos ' ( )
x
kx k x x
x a kx b f x dx
k k
m

= + +

. (2.3.22)
Ta c th vit li hmm cn tm vi ( ) ( ) ( ) f x U x x m = nh sau :

0
sin sin ( )
( ) cos ( ) ( )
x
kx k x
x a kx b U d
k k
c
m c m c c

= + +

. (2.3.23)
Nhn xt: phng trnh (2.3.23) l phng trnh tch phn Volterra loi hai.
2.3.2 HG khng ph thuc thi gian II:

Gi s phng trnh vi phn tuyn tnh khng ng nht (2.2.1) c dng

| |
( ) ( , ) ( ) r r f r m =

L (2.3.24)
trong ( ) f r

l hm cho v l bin phc, nghim cn tm ( , ) r m

tha mn
iu kin bin trn S thuc min Ocha r

v ' r

. ( ) r

L l ton t vi phn tuyn tnh

Hermite v khng ph thuc thi gian t.
gii (2.3.24) ta nh ngha ( , ', ) G r r

l nghim ca phng trnh vi phn
khng ng nht

| |
( ) ( , ', ) ( ') r G r r r r o =

L , (2.3.25)
cng tha mn iu kin bin nh (2.3.24).
Ta c th vit phng trnh (2.3.25) di dng Dirac

| |
( ) 1 G = L . (2.3.26)
tm nghim ca (2.3.26), ta xt bi ton hm ring v tr ring ca ton t L .
Gi |
n
o , v
n
E l hm ring v tr ring ca L :
| |
n n n
E o o , = , L . (2.3.27)
Cc hm ring ny s to h y v trc giao v tr ring
n
E l thc.
i) Gi s khng thuc ph tr ring ca L , khi cc tr ring ca
| |
L khc 0, t (2.3.26) ta tnh c HG nh sau:

| | 1 1
( ) | |
n n
n n
n n
n
G
E
o o
o o

,(
= = ,( =


L L
. (2.3.28)
Nu ph ca ton t L gm c gin an v lin tc th HG (2.3.28) c vit di
dng tng qut
14

| | | |
( )
n n E E
n
n
G dE
E E
o o o o

,( ,(
= +

(2.3.29)
hoc trong r

-biu din:

* *
( ) ( ') ( ) ( ')
( , ', )
n n E E
n
n
r r r r
G r r dE
E E
o o o o

= +

. (2.3.30)
Nghim ( , ) r m

ca phng trnh vi phn (2.3.24) c tnh qua HG ( , ', ) G r r

v
c dng :
( , ) ( , ', ) ( ') ' r G r r f r dr m =

(2.3.31)
ii) Xt trng hp thuc ph tr ring ca L . Ti nhng im
n
E = hm
Green ( , ', ) G r r

khng xc nh. Khi phng trnh (2.3.24) khng c li gii
ngai tr trng hp hm ( ) f r

trc giao vi tt c cc hm ring |

n
o , tng ng
vi tr ring
n
E . Tht vy, ta vit li phng trnh (2.3.24) vi
n
E = di dng
Dirac

| |
| |
n
E f

m , = , L , (2.3.32)
nhn |
n
o ( vi hai v v ly tch phn theo r

ta c

| | | |
| | | |
n n n n n n
E E E f

o m o m o ( , = ( , = ( , L . (2.3.33)
phng trnh c nghim ta cn |
n
f o ( , phi bng 0 vi mi |
n
o ( , tc l ( ) f r

trc
giao vi tt c cc hm ring.
i vi ph lin tc, ( ) G khng xc nh trn min E = , nhng lun gii
tch ti ln cn trn E i c = + v ln cn di E i c = vi mi 0 c > . Ta a vo
hm gii hn c nh ngha

0
( , ', ) lim ( , ', ) G r r E G r r E i
c
c
+
+

= +

, (2.3.34)

0
( , ', ) lim ( , ', ) G r r E G r r E i
c
c
+

=

. (2.3.35)
Nhng gii hn trn lun tn ti. Khi trng vi tr ring E trong min ph lin tc,
nghim ca phng trnh vi phn khng thun nht c xc nh qua hm gii hn
G

nh sau :

0
( , ) ( , ) ( , ', ) ( ') ' r r G r r f r dr m m

= +

, (2.3.36)
trong
0
m l nghim ca phng trnh vi phn thun nht
| |
0
( ) ( , ) 0 r r m =

L .
2.3.3 Tnh cht v ngha ca HG:
- T (2.3.30) ta tm li tnh cht o ca HG:
15

* *
( , ', ) ( ', , ) G r r G r r =

(2.3.37)
V ngha vt l, iu ny cho thy phn hi ti r

i vi ngun im ti
' r

bng vi phn hi ti ' r

i vi ngun im ti r

.
- Tr ring ca ton t Hermite L l thc HG ( , ', ) G r r

gii tch khp trn
mt phng phc ngai tr nhng im (min) k d trn trc thc c
trng vi tr ring E
n
(E) ca L . Ti nhng im trn trc thc khng
trng vi tr ring ca L , HG ( , ', ) G r r

l Hermite v t (2.3.37) ta c
*
( , ', ) ( ', , ) G r r G r r =

; v khi ( , , ) G r r

l thc.
- Cc cc ca HG xc nh ph tr ring gin an ca ton t L .
- Thng d ca HG ti cc cc n cho thng tin v hm ring ca L :

{ }
*
( , ', ) | ( ) ( ')
n
E n n
Res G r r r r o o =

, (2.3.38)

{ }
2
( , , ) | | ( ) |
n
E n
Res G r r r o =

. (2.3.39)
- Trong trng hp ph lin lc ca L : G
+
khc G

v nh vy tn ti mt
ct nhnh dc theo trc thc m t ph lin tc ng vi trng thi lan truyn.
- Hm gii hn c mi lin h sau :

*
( , ', ) ( ', , ) G r r E G r r E
+
=


, (2.3.40)
tc l
Re ( , ', ) Re ( ', , ) G r r E G r r E
+
=


, (2.3.41)
Im ( , ', ) Im ( ', , ) G r r E G r r E
+
=


, (2.3.42)
Ngi ta cng quan tm n hm
~
G nh ngha nh sau :

~
( , ', ) ( , ', ) ( , ', ) G r r E G r r E G r r E
+
=

(2.3.43)
khi :

~
( , ', ) 2 Im ( , ', ) 2 Im ( , ', ) G r r E i G r r E i G r r E
+
= =


. (2.3.44)
- Gi N(E) l mt trng thi (s trng thi trong mt n v nng lng,
( ) ( )
n
n
N E E E o =

) v ( , ) r E p

l mt trng thi trn mt n v th
tch ( ( , ) ( ) r E dr N E p =

). Nh s thy di y, cc hm G

v
~
G cho ta
thng tin v N(E) v ( , ) r E p

.
S dng ng nht thc Dirac
16

0
0 0
1 1
( )
0
P i x x
x x i x x
to
+
| |
=
|

\ .
) (2.3.45)
cho G

(ch n (2.3.28)) ta c :

*
*
( ) ( ')
( , ', ) ( ) ( ) ( ')
n n
n n n
n n
n
r r
G r r E P i E E r r
E E
o o
t o o o

) (2.3.46)
v

~
*
( , ', ) 2 ( ) ( ) ( ')
n n n
n
G r r E i E E r r t o o o =

. (2.3.47)
Ly vt (trace, k kiu Tr) ca cc yu t cho ( , , ) G r r E

ca (2.3.46) cho :

1
( ) | ( ) | ( )
n n n
n n n
n
TrG E G E P i E E
E E
o o t o

= ( , =

) (2.3.48)
hay

1
( ) Im Tr ( ) N E G E
t

=

) . (2.3.49)
Hm mt trng thi c th vit di dng :

*
( , ) ( ) ( ) ( )
n n n
n
r E E E r r p o o o =

(2.3.50)
Khi ta c

1
( , ) Im ( , , ) r E G r r E p
t

=


) (2.3.51)
Hoc

~
1
( , ) ( , , )
2
r E G r r E
i
p
t
=

) . (2.3.52)

- HG G c th c biu din qua
~
G hoc ( , ) r E p

:
* *
( ) ( ') ( ) ( ')
( , ', ) ( )
n n n n
n
n n
n
r r r r
G r r dE E E
E E
o o o o
o

= =

~
( , ', )
2
i G r r E
dE
E t
=

(2.3.53)
v

( , )
( , , )
r E
G r r dE
E
p

(2.3.54)

17
2.3.4 V d:
Xt ton t
2
= V L trn V l
3
R . iu kin bin l cc hm ring ca L phi
hu hn v cng. Ta s tm HG cho phng trnh vi phn (2.3.25) vi ton t trn.
Phng trnh cho HG :

2
( , ', ) ( ') G r r r r o +V =


. (2.3.55)
Phng trnh Schrdinger ca ht t do
2 2
( / 2 ) E m v v V = h (vi nng lng
E
2
/ 2 p m = ) cho ta bit ton t
2
= V L c tr ring v hm ring

2 2 2
/ E p k = h , (2.3.56)

1
( ) |
ik r
k
r r k e
V
v

= ( , =

. (2.3.57)
HG cn tm c cho bi (2.3.30) c dng :
*
( ')
2 3 2 3 2
( ) ( ')
| | ' 1
( , ', )
(2 ) (2 )
ik r r
k k
k
r r
r k k r V e
G r r dk dk
k k k
v v

t t

( ,( ,
= = =

(2.3.58)
Ta s dng : ... ...
(2 )
D
D
k
L
dk
t

vi D l s chiu ca khng gian. y D=3.

Vi ' r r p =

v gi u l gc gia p

v k

th

2
cos
2 2
2
2 2
0
2 2
1
( , ', ) sin
(2 )
1
(2 )
1
4
ik
ik ik
ik
k dk
G r r d e
k
k dk e e
k ik
kdk
e
i k
p u
p p
p
u u
t
t p
t p

(2.3.59)
Trong trng hp khng thuc ph ca L , vi Im 0

>

, tch phn nh nh
l thng d cho

| '|
1 1
( , ', )
4 4 | ' |
i i r r
G r r e e
r r
p

tp t

= =

. (2.3.60)

Nu thuc ph ca L , E = , HG c xc nh qua cc hm gii hn (2.3.34)
v (2.3.35), ta c :

| '|
( , ', ) ; 0
4 | ' |
i E r r
e
G r r E E
r r t

= >

. (2.3.61)
Xt trng hp =0, phng trnh (2.3.55) chuyn v dng Laplace :
18

2
( , ') ( ') G r r r r o V =

, (2.3.62)
vi nghim l

1
( , ')
4 | ' |
G r r
r r t
=

. (2.3.63)
Phng trnh vi phn khng thun nht tng ng vi HG ny l phng trnh
Poisson cho th tnh in m :

2
( ) 4 ( ) r r m tp V =

. (2.3.64)
Th tnh c xc nh qua HG v c dng :

' ( ')
( ) 4 ' ( , ') ( ')
| ' |
dr r
r dr G r r r
r r
p
m t p = =

(2.3.65)
2.4 Hm Green cho phng trnh vi phn ph thuc thi gian:
2.4.1 Phng trnh vi phn cha o hm bc I v Hm Green

Xt phng trnh vi phn khng ng nht ph thuc thi gian c dng
( ) ( , ) ( , )
i
r r t f r t
c t
m
c

=

c


L (2.4.1)
v phng trnh ng nht tng ng
( ) ( , ) 0
i
r r t
c t
o
c

=

c


L , (2.4.2)
vi c l hng s dng v L l ton t vi phn tuyn tnh Hermite. Nghim ( , ) r t m


ca (2.4.1) c th c tnh qua HG tng ng tha phng trnh
( ) ( , ', , ') ( ') ( ')
i
r g r r t t r r t t
c t
o o
c

=

c


L . (2.4.3)
y cc hm ( , ) r t m

, ( , ) r t o

v ( , ', , ') g r r t t

tha cng iu kin bin.
Phng php chung tnh ( , ', , ') g r r t t

l chuyn phng trnh ph thuc thi
gian (2.4.3) sang dng khng ph thuc thi gian (2.3.25) bng php bin i Fourier
nh sau :

1
( ) ( )
2
i
g d e g
et
t e e
t

=

. (2.4.4)
Ta t ( ) ( ') ( , ') g g t t g t t t = ( gn cc bin , ' r r

tm thi n) v phng
trnh (2.4.3) cho thy g ph thuc hai bin thi gian di dng ' t t . Thay ( ) g t vo
(2.4.3) ta c
19
( ) ( , ', ) ( ') r g r r r r
c
e
e o

=



L . (2.4.5)
y chnh l phng trnh cho hm Green G khng ph thuc thi gian c kho
st mc trc. Nh vy
( ) ( / ) g G c e e = , (2.4.6)
trong ( ) G (vi / c e = ) l nghim ca phng trnh (2.3.25). Dng php bin
i Fourier (2.4.4) ta s tm c ( , ', ) G r r t

; v t tnh hm ( , ) r t m

. Tuy nhin
cn ch rng, tng t hm ( ) G , hm ( ) g e cng khng gii tch mt s im
gin on hay ct nhnh trn trc thc. Do khng th ly tch phn (2.4.4) trn
trc thc, tc l khng th tnh ( , ) r t m

trc tip t hm ( ) g t trn min thuc ph ca
L - min c ngha vt l v cha nhng thng tin vt l.
Nh vy ta cn n cc hm gii hn ca ( ) g t (PT. (2.4.4)) trong tch phn c
ly trn ng P
e
c gii hn n trc thc
R
P :

1
( ) lim ( / )
2 R
P P i
P P P
g d e G c
e e
e e
et
t e e
t

=

. (2.4.7)
Ta ch quan tm n hai cch chn c ngha vt l tng ng vi hai hm gii hn
G

c nh ngha (2.3.34) v (2.3.35) :

1
( ) ( / )
2
i
g d e G c
et
t e e
t

=

, (2.4.8)
Vi

0
| |
( / ) lim
/
n n
n
n
G c
c E i
c
o o
e
e c
+

,(
=

. (2.4.9)
T mi lin h ca G

(2.3.40) ta cng c h thc gia hai hm gii hn g

:

*
( , ', ) ( ', , ) g r r g r r t t
+
=


. (2.4.10)
V tng t hm
~
G trong (2.3.43) ta cng a ra hm
~
g c nh ngha :

~
( ) ( ) ( ) g g g t t t
+
= . (2.4.11)
Hoc s dng tnh cht (2.3.47) ca hm
~
G ta tnh c :
20

~ ~
1
( ) ( / )
2
1
( 2 ) ( / ) | |
2
| |
n
i
i
n n n
n
icE
n n
n
g d e G c
d e i c E
ic e
et
et
t
t e e
t
e t o e o o
t
o o

=
= ,(
= ,(

. (2.4.12)
Ta c th vit li (2.4.12) di dng Dirac nh sau:

~
( ) | |
( )
ic ic
n n
n
g ice ice
icU
t t
t o o
t

= ,( =
=

L L
(2.4.13)
Trong ta nh ngha

( ')
( ')
ic t t
U t t e

=
L
(2.4.14)
v chnh l ton t tin ha :
| ( ) ( ') | ( ') t U t t t o o , = , , (2.4.15)
vi | ( ) t o , l nghim ca phng trnh ng nht (2.4.2). Nh vy nghim ca
phng trnh vi phn ng nht c th c biu din qua HG
~
g , trong r

-biu din
ta c:

~
( , ) ( , ', , ') ( ', ') ' '
i
r t g r r t t r t dr dt
c
o o =


(2.4.16)
Ch rng gia
~
g v g
+
hoc g

c mi lin h trc tip. Tht vy, hy kho

st tch phn (2.4.8). Thay (2.4.9) vo (2.4.8) v chuyn sang tch phn chu
tuyn ng l na hnh trn C

(hoc C
+
) bn knh v hn thuc na mt phng di
(hoc trn) nu 0 t > (hoc 0 t < ) . Vi cch chn nh th tch phn trn chu tuyn
v cc bng 0. Bng vic s dng nh l thng d v nh l Cauchy m rng
nh gi tch phn chu tuyn v vi nh ngha (2.4.11) ta tm c

~
( ) ( ) ( ) g g t u t t

= , (2.4.17)
vi ( ) 1 u t = nu 0 t > v ( ) 0 u t = nu 0 t < .
Tng t (2.3.36), nghim ca phng trnh vi phn khng ng nht (2.4.1) c
tnh qua HG g
+
hoc
~
g nh sau :
( , ) ( , ) ' ' ( , ', ') ( ', ')
t
r t r t dr dt g r r t t f r t m o
+

= +


(2.4.18)

21
2.4.2 Phng trnh vi phn cha o hm bc II v Hm Green

Phn ny trnh by tm tt phng php HG ca phng trnh vi phn cha o
hm bc hai theo thi gian. Xt phng trnh khng ng nht

2
2 2
1
( ) ( , ) ( , ) r r t f r t
c t
m
c
=

c


L (2.4.19)
v phng trnh ng nht

2
2 2
1
( ) ( , ) 0 r r t
c t
o
c
=

c


L . (2.4.20)
HG tng ng tha phng trnh

2
2 2
1
( ) ( , ', , ') ( ') ( ') r g r r t t r r t t
c t
o o
c
=

c


L (2.4.21)
trong cc hm ( , ', , ') g r r t t

, ( , ) r t m

v ( , ) r t o

tha cng iu kin bin trn mt S
bao r

v ' r

.
tm ( , ', , ') g r r t t

ta dng php bin i Fourier chuyn phng trnh (2.4.21)
sang dng khng ph thuc thi gian. Ch n s ph thuc ca HG vo t-t , ta c:

1
( ) ( )
2
i
g d e g
et
t e e
t

=

. (2.4.22)
Thay vo (2.4.21) thu c :

2
2
( ) ( , ', ) ( ') r g r r r r
c
e
e o

=



L . (2.4.23)
Nh vy

2 2
( ) ( / ) g G c e e = (2.4.24)
vi ( ) G l nghim ca (2.3.26) vi
2 2
/ c e = .
Tng t ( ) G , HG ( ) g e cng khng gii tch ti nhng im trn trc thc c
2 2
/ c e trng vi tr ring E ca L . Nu 0 E < th cc cc ca ( ) g e l phc. Tuy
nhin ta ch quan tm n trng hp cc im k d thuc trc thc.
Ngi ta cng nh ngha cc hm gii hn tng t (2.4.7) v ty vo ng ly
tch phn chn ra nhng hm c ngha vt l nh sau :
* HG nhn qu :

2 2
0
1
( ) lim ( / )
2
c i
g d e G c i
et
c
t e e c
t



= +

(2.4.25)
* HG tr:
22

2 2
0
1
( ) lim ( / Sign( ))
2
r i
g d e G c i
et
c
t e e c e
t



= +

(2.4.26)
* HG sm:

2 2
0
1
( ) lim ( / Sign( ))
2
a i
g d e G c i
et
c
t e e c e
t



=

(2.4.27)
Trong
1
Sign( )
1
e
+
=

,
,

0
0
e
e
>
<

Ngoi ra ta cng nh ngha hm
~
g

~
( ) ( ) ( )
r a
g g g t t t = (2.4.28)
v tm c :

~
sin( )
( ) | |
n
n n
n
n
c E
g c
E
t
t o o = ,(

, (2.4.29)
hoc di dng ton t :

~
sin( )
( )
c
g c
t
t =
L
L
vi ' t t t = . (2.4.30)
Nghim ca phng trnh vi phn khng ng nht c biu din qua HG nh
sau :

~
( , ) ( , ) ' ' ( , ', ') ( ', ')
( , ) ' ' ( , ', ') ( ', ')
t
r
t
r t r t dr dt g r r t t f r t
r t dr dt g r r t t f r t
m o
o

= +
= +




, (2.4.31)
vi ( , ) r t o

l nghim ca phng trnh ng nht tng ng.

Bi tp
Bng phng php HG hy tm dch chuyn ( ) u x ca si dy (hai u c
nh) di tc ng ca lc phn b ( ) f x cho trc.
Phng trnh xc nh ( ) u x cho bi
2
2
( )
( )
d u x
f x
dx
= , (0,1) xe
vi iu kin bin : (0) 0 u = v (1) 0 u =
23






Chng 3

3Hm Green trong Vt l lng t


HG trnh by chng trc ch thun li cho bi ton mt ht trong trng
(lc) ngoi, trong ta c th xc nh HG trc tip qua tr ring v hm ring (ca
ton t L -v d l ton t Hamilton H). Trong h nhiu ht thc t cn phi xt
n tng tc gia cc ht v khi v nguyn tc khng xc nh c tr v hm
ring ca H. Do cn mt hnh thc lun HG m rng hn, d nhin thng l gn
ng, khng da vo thng tin trc tip ca hm v tr ring.
Chng ny s dn ra HG c xy dng trn ton t trng trong lng t ha ln
II. chun b vic dn xut cho HG nh th, trc ht chng ta s trnh by li mt
s kin thc v cc biu din v S-ma trn.
3.1 Cc biu din :

m t s ph thuc thi gian ca cc h vt l, trong c lng t ngi ta
thng dng mt trong ba biu din, cng thng gi l bc tranh, tng ng sau:
biu din Schrdinger, biu din Heisenberg, biu din tng tc (cn gi l biu
din Dirac).
3.1.1 Biu din Schrdinger:

Trong bc tranh Schrdinger (mt s ti liu cn thm tn gi khc l bc tranh
trng thi)
ton t c lp vi thi gian : H
hm sng hay vector trng thi ph thuc vo thi gian : | ( )
S
t v ,
T c lng t ta c phng trnh chuyn ng :
24
- i vi nhng trng thi thun khit | ( )
S
t v , trong h c lng t:
| ( ) | ( )
S S
i t H t
t
v v
c
, = ,
c
h (3.1.1)
- v i vi nhng trng thi pha trn ( )
S
t p (dng cho h v m c m t
mt cch thng k):
| |
( ) ( ),
S S
i t t H
t
p p

c
=
c
h . (3.1.2)
( )
S
t p thng c gi l ma trn mt v c nhng tnh cht sau:
i) | |
S m m m
m
p p v v = ,(

, (3.1.3)
vi
m
p l xc sut h trong trng thi |
m
v , ,
ii) gi tr k vng ca i lng kho st A ( , tng ng vi ton t A c xc nh
( )
S
A Tr A p ( , = (3.1.4)
( ( ) Tr A : vt ca A. i khi ngi ta cng dng k hiu Sp thay cho Tr), v
iii) ( ) 1
S
Tr p = . (3.1.5)
Phng trnh (3.1.1) cho nghim hnh thc :

( ')
0
| ( ) | ( )
i
H t t
S S
t e t v v

, = ,
h
(3.1.6)
vi
0
t l thi im c nh no v ngi ta thng chn
0
0 t = .
3.1.2 Bc tranh Heisenberg:

Bc tranh Heisenberg (i lc cn c tn gi bc tranh ton t) m t bi ton c
lng t bng cch xt
hm sng (vector trng thi) khng i theo thi gian : |
H
v , ,
trong khi ton t ph thuc thi gian : O(t).
S ph thuc vo thi gian ca ton t c xc nh nh sau

0 0
( ) ( )
0
( ) ( )
i i
H t t H t t
H H
A t e A t e

=
h h
(3.1.7)
hoc chn
0
0 t = :
( ) (0)
i i i i
Ht Ht Ht Ht
H H S
A t e A e e A e
| |
= =
|
\ .
h h h h
. (3.1.8)
Ta cng c th vit li (3.1.8) di dng phng trnh chuyn ng :
| |
( ) ( ), i A t A t H
t

c
=
c
h . (3.1.9)
25

S tng ng gia bc tranh Schrdinger v Heisenberg : hy xt phn t ma
trn m t s chuyn di gia hai trng thi 1 v 2 :
- trong bc tranh Schrdinger phn t ma trn ca ton t A l :

1 2 1 2
( ) (0) ( ) (0) (0) (0)
i i
Ht Ht
t A t e A e v v v v

+ +
( , = ( ,
h h
, (3.1.10)
- trong bc tranh Heisenberg ta c :

1 2 1 2
(0) ( ) (0) (0) (0) (0)
i i
Ht Ht
A t e A e v v v v

+ +
( , = ( ,
h h
. (3.1.11)
Nh vy hai bc tranh cho cng phn t ma trn- chng tng ng nhau.
3.1.3 Biu din tng tc (biu din Dirac):

Biu din tng tc c xem nh lai trung gian ca hai biu din trn. Trong
biu din ny ton t v vector trng thi u ph thuc thi gian.
Xt ton t Hamilton H ca h. Ta chia ton t H thnh hai phn :

0
H H W = + . (3.1.12)
y ton t
0
H l phn khng nhiu lon v thng c chn sao cho c th gii
chnh xc. W l th tng tc ph thuc thi gian.
S ph thuc thi gian ca hm sng v ton t trong bc tranh tng tc c
xc nh nh sau :

0 0
( ) (0)
i i
H t H t
I
A t e A e

=
h h
, (3.1.13)

0
| ( ) | (0)
i i
H t Ht
I I
t e e v v

, = ,
h h
. (3.1.14)
i vi vector trng thi, ta vit li (3.1.14) di dng phng trnh chuyn ng :
0
0 0 0
0
( )
| ( )
| ( ) ( ) | (0)
| (0)
I
i i
H t Ht
I I
i i i i
H t H t H t Ht
I
V t
t
t ie H H e
t
i e Ve e e
v
v v
v

,
c
, = ,
c
= ,
h h
h h h h
.
.

Nh vy
| ( ) ( ) | ( )
I I
i t V t t
t
v v
c
, = ,
c
h . (3.1.15)
Phng trnh chuyn ng (3.1.15) cho thy th tng tc ph thuc thi gian W(t)
quy nh s thay i theo thi gian ca vector trng thi, trong khi s ph thuc thi
gian ca ton t c quyt nh bi phn Hamilton khng nhiu lon
0
H .
26
Ch rng vi tnh ph thuc thi gian (3.1.13) v (3.1.14), nu xt phn t ma trn
chuyn di gia hai trng thi
1 2
( ) ( ) ( ) t A t t v v
+
( , , s tm thy s tng ng gia
biu din tng tc v hai biu din trn.

Ton t tin ha : Trong (3.1.14) t

0
( )
i i
H t Ht
U t e e

=
h h
, (3.1.16)
ta c | ( ) ( ) | (0)
I
t U t v v , = , . Nh vy ( ) U t l mt ton t tin ha thi gian: di
tc ng ca n vector trng thi ti 0 tin sang trng thi ti t. Ton t ny c c
tnh :
(0) 1 U =
v tun theo phng trnh
( ) ( ) ( ) i U t W t U t
t
c
=
c
h . (3.1.17)
Nghim ca (3.1.17) l
1 1 1
0
( ) (0) ( ) ( )
t
i
U t U dt W t U t =

h

hoc

1 1 1
0
( ) 1 ( ) ( )
t
i
U t dt W t U t =

h
. (3.1.18)
Bng php tnh lp cho (3.1.18) ta c th biu din ( ) U t thnh chui v hn :

1
2
1 1 1 2 1 2
0 0 0
( )
1
( ) 1 ( ) ( ) ( ) ...
1 ( )
t t t
n
n
i
U t i dt W t dt dt W t W t
U t

=
| |
= + +
|
\ .
= +

h
(3.1.19)
trong
1 1
( )
1 2 1 2
1
0 0 0
( ) ... ( ) ( )... ( )
n
n
t t t
n
n n
n
i
U t dt dt dt W t W t W t

=
| |
=
|
\ .


h
(3.1.20)
(
1 2 0
...
n
t t t t t > > > > ).
Vi ton t thi trnh (ton t trnh t thi gian) T c nh ngha

| |
1 2
1 2
2 1
( ) ( ),
( ) ( )
( ) ( ),
W t W t
T W t W t
W t W t

1 2
2 1
t t
t t
>
>
(3.1.21)
hoc
| |
1 2 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) T W t W t t t W t W t t t W t W t u u = + (3.1.22)
(u l hm bc nhy), ta c th vit li chui ca ton t tin ha nh sau :
27

1 1
1
0 0
1
( ) 1 ... [ ( )... ( )]
!
n
t t
n n
n
i
U t dt dt T W t W t
n

=
| |
= +
|
\ .


h
. (3.1.23)
Chui trn l khai trin ca hm e ly tha v nh vy ta c dng vit gn ca ton t
tin ha :

1 1
0
( ) exp ( )
t
i
U t T dt W t

=

h
. (3.1.24)
3.2 S-ma trn :

S ma trn c mi lin h trc tip vi ton t tin ha va kho st trn v c
tng quan cht ch vi bin xc sut chuyn di, vi thit din tn x ca cc
tng tc khc nhau. S ma trn c nh ngha nh l ton t thay i vector trng
thi | ( ')
I
t v , thnh trng thi | ( )
I
t v , :
| ( ) ( , ') | ( ')
I I
t S t t t v v , = , . (3.1.25)
S ma trn c nhng tnh cht sau
i) ( , ') ( ) ( ') S t t U t U t
+
= (3.1.26)
(S dng nh ngha ton t tin ha
| ( ) ( ) | (0)
I I
t U t v v , = ,
cho | ( ')
I
t v , trong (3.1.25) ta c
| ( ) ( , ') ( ') | (0)
I I
t S t t U t v v , = , .
T y ta c mi lin h gia S v U)

ii) ( , ) 1 S t t =
iii) ( , ') ( ', ) S t t S t t
+
=
iv) ( , ') ( , '') ( '', ') S t t S t t S t t =
v) S tha phng trnh :
( , ') ( ) ( ') ( ) ( ) ( ') ( ) ( , ')
i i
S t t U t U t W t U t U t W t S t t
t t
+ +
c c
= = =
c c h h
, (3.1.27)
vi) V nh vy, tng t ton t tin ha, ta c th biu din S di dng nh sau :

1 1
'
( , ') exp ( )
t
t
i
S t t T dt W t

=

h
. (3.1.28)

H thc Gell-Mann v Low. Trong phng trnh xc nh s bin i theo thi gian
ca hm sng | ( )
I
t v , (3.1.14) cng nh trong cc dn xut ra ton t tin ha v S
28
ma trn chng ta a ra hm sng ti 0 t = | (0)
I
v , . Ch rng y cng chnh l
hm sng khng ph thuc thi gian |
H
v , trong biu din Heisenberg v l hm
sng ti 0 t = | (0)
S
v , trong biu din Schrdinger ; v v vy ta gi chung l
| (0) v , . Ta cn phi tm ra mi lin no gip ta xc nh | (0) v , v n nh l iu
kin ban u t c th xc nh trng thi ti nhng thi im khc.
Trong biu din tng tc, ton t Hamilton c tch ra lm hai phn W v
0
H .
Trong phn khng nhiu lon
0
H c chn sao cho c th xc nh chnh xc h
hm ring v tr ring ca n. Gi s trng thi c bn ( bit) ca
0
H l
0
| o , . Khi
mi lin h gia
0
| o , v trng thi cha bit | (0) v , c Gell-Mann v Low
kho st v ch ra :

0
| (0) (0, ) | S v o , = , . (3.1.29)
tm hiu h thc ny, ta hy dn ra | (0) v , t nh ngha S ma trn : tc ng
(0, ) S t ln phng trnh | ( ) ( , 0) | (0) t S t v v , = , v s dng tnh cht iv) v ii) ca S
ma trn, ta c :
| (0) (0, ) | ( ) S t t v v , = , .
Ly gii hn t cho
| (0) (0, ) | ( ) S v v , = , . (3.1.30)
So snh (3.1.30) vi (3.1.29) ta c
0
| ( ) | v o , = , . V ta din t h thc Gell-Mann
v Low da trn gn ng on nhit nh sau: qu kh rt xa, lc khng c tng
tc h trng thi
0
| ( ) | v o , = , . Khi thi gian tng dn t , th tng tc W
c bt m v c a dn dn vo h cho n khi 0 t = th tng tc c a
vo hon ton vi hm sng tng ng l | (0) v , . Ni cch khc ton t (0, ) S
chuyn mt cch on nhit hm sng
0
| ( ) | v o , = , n thi im t=0 ti th
tng tc W hin din hon ton, v nh vy hm sng tng ng | (0) v , ti t=0
chnh l hm ring ca Hamilton ton phn H.
Hy xt thm trng hp h tin v tng lai xa, t + : th tng tc s c tt
i mt cch on nhit v ti + khng cn tng tc, h s tr v trng thi c bn
| ( ) v , , (gi thit rng) c lin h vi trng thi c bn
0
| o , bng mt tha s pha :
0
| ( ) |
i
e
o
v o , = , .
Nh vy ta c :

0 0
| | ( ) ( ,0) | (0) ( , ) | ( ) ( , ) |
i
e S S S
o
o v v v o , = , = , = , = , (3.1.31)
v
0 0
| ( , ) |
i
e S
o
o o = ( , (3.1.32)

29
3.3 Hm Green :

Trong phn ny chng ta s gii thiu HG trong vt l lng t v nh ni,
chng ta gii hn trng hp nhit 0.
3.3.1 nh ngha Hm Green fermion:

Chng ta bt u vi nh ngha HG electron :
( , ') | ( ) ( ') |
i
G t t Ta t a t
v
v v
+
= ( ,
h
. (3.1.33)
y v l s lng t v thng bao gm vector sng k

v spin o : ( , ) k v o =

.
|, l trng thi ca h v nhit 0 trng thi ny phi l trng thi c bn; nu
Hamilton ca h l H th |, l trng thi ring ca H. Cc ton t ph thuc thi gian
( ), ( ) a t a t
+
trong biu din Heisenberg v tin ha theo qui lut :

/ /
/ /
( )
( )
iHt iHt
iHt iHt
a t e a e
a t e a e
v v
v v

+ +
=
=
h h
h h
(3.1.34)
vi ( 0), ( 0) a a t a a t
v v
v v
+ +
= = = m t trng thi ca
0
H . T l ton t thi trnh: t
ton t c bin thi gian sm hn v bn phi (hoc d nh : tr sang tri) v ch
i vi ton t fermion cn thm du tr cho mi ln hon v; nh vy ta c th vit
li nh ngha HG nh sau :
( , ') | ( ) ( ') |
i
G t t a t a t
v
v v
+
= ( ,
h
nu ' t t > , (3.1.35)
( , ') | ( ') ( ) |
i
G t t a t a t
v
v v
+
= + ( ,
h
nu ' t t > , (3.1.36)
hoc
( , ') ( ') | ( ) ( ') | ( ' ) | ( ') ( ) |
i i
G t t t t a t a t t t a t a t
v v
v v v
u u
+ +
= ( , + ( ,
h h
, (3.1.37)
vi hm u l hm bc nhy.
ngha ca HG : t nh ngha (3.1.35) ( ' t t > ) ta thy HG m t qua 1 trnh trong
mt ht c to ra ti ' t ri truyn n t v b hy. Trong trng hp ' t t > ,
(3.1.36), HG m t qu trnh hy mt ht (tc l to 1 l trng) ti t sau ht li
c to ra (l trng b hy) ti ' t . Nh vy HG m t qu trnh truyn ht (l trng)
v v th thng gi l hm truyn.

30
S dng (3.1.34) ta c

' '
( ') ( ')
( , ') | |
| |
i i i i
Ht Ht Ht Ht
i i
E t t H t t
i
G t t e a e e a e
i
e a e a
v
v
v v
v

+

+
= ( ,
= ( ,
h h h h
h h
h
h
(3.1.38)
trong gi s E tr ring ng vi trng thi c bn ca h vi Hamilton H:
| | H E , = , . Biu thc (3.1.38) cho thy HG ph thuc vo ' t t . Tng t ta cng
c tnh cht ny i vi trng hp ' t t > .

Ngoi HG (nhn qu hay cn gi HG theo trt t thi gian) va nh ngha trn,
ngi ta cng a ra cc HG tr, sm, nh v ln nh sau :

( , ') ( ') | [ ( ), ( ')] |
( , ') ( ' ) | [ ( ), ( ')] |
( , ') | ( ') ( ) |
( , ') | ( ) ( ') |
r
a
i
G t t t t a t a t
i
G t t t t a t a t
i
G t t a t a t
i
G t t a t a t
v
v
v
v
v v
v v
v v
v v
u
u
+

< +
> +
= ( ,
= ( ,
= ( ,
= ( ,
h
h
h
h
(3.1.39)
Thc ra khi xt h cn bng, v nguyn tc, ta ch cn mt HG, v d HG nhn qu
(3.1.37), v tt c cc HG (3.1.39) c th biu din qua n. Tuy nhin ty trng hp
m mi HG c u im ring v v th i khi ngi ta vn s dng chng :
i)
,
( , ')
r a
G t t
v
c cu trc gii tch tt, cha thng tin v tnh cht ph, mt trng
thi,.
ii)
,
( , ') G t t
v
< >
c mi lin h trc tip vi nhng tnh cht ng hc nh mt
ht/hm phn b, dng.
c bit, nu xt h khng cn bng th tt c cc HG trn u quan trng v khng
th b qua.

Ngi ta cng thng s dng nh ngha HG nhit 0 nh sau

:

0 0
0 0
| ( , ) ( ', ') |
( , ; ' ')
|
T x t x t
i
G x t x t
u v
uv
v v
+
(+ + ,
=
(+ + , h
(3.1.40)

Khng t sinh vin gp lng tng trong tham kho ti liu khi gp cc nh ngha khc nhau ca HG. nh
ngha HG ny c gii thiu cng nhm gip sinh vin lm quen vi nhng tip cn khc nhau.
31
trong , u v l s lng t spin ; trong trng hp h khng nh hng t v
khng trong t trng th u v = .
0
| + , l trng thi c bn ca h bao gm tng
tc. Ta xt h ng nht, khi HG ph thuc ch vo hiu cc bin x-x, t-t.
, v v
+
l nhng ton t trng (trong biu din Heisenberg), chng c th trin khai
chuyn sang ton t sinh hy , a a
+
:

*
( , ) ( ) ( )
( , ) ( ) ( )
k k k
k k k
x t x a t
x t x a t
u
u u
u
u u
v m
v m
+ +
=
=

(3.1.41)
vi m l hm sng (mt ht), trong gn ng n gin nht l sng phng:
( )
ik x
k
e
x
V
u
u
m o

, (3.1.42)
u
o l ch s spin. Khai trin (3.1.41) chnh l php bin i Fourier chuyn t khng
gian x

sang khng gian k

. Gi s trng thi c bn chun ha, tc l

0 0
| 1 (+ + , = ,
khi HG trong khng gian Fourier k

( ')
( ') ( ', ')
ik x x
k
G t t dxe G x x t t
u
u

=

(3.1.43)
tng ng vi HG trong (3.1.33). Php bin i ngc li l

( ') ( ')
3
1 1
( ', ') ( ') ( ')
(2 )
ik x x ik x x
k k k
G x x t t e G t t dke G t t
V
u
u u
t

=

(3.1.44)
Ngi ta cng thng dng HG ph thuc tn s qua php bin i Fourier theo thi
gian

( ')
( ) ( ')
i t t
k k
G dte G t t
e
u u
e

(3.1.45)
v ngc li

( ')
1
( ') ( )
2
i t t
k k
G t t d e G
e
u u
e e
t

=


. (3.1.46)
Vi ton t thi trnh T ta c th vit li (3.1.40) nh sau

0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
| ( , ) ( ', ') |
( , ; ' ') ( ')
|
| ( ', ') ( , ) |
( ' )
|
x t x t
i
G x t x t t t
x t x t
i
t t
u v
uv
v u
v v
u
v v
u
+
+
(+ + ,
=
(+ + ,
(+ + ,
+
(+ + ,
h
h
(3.1.47)

32
HG trong biu din tng tc. HG trong biu din Heisenberg khng thch hp cho
l thuyt nhiu lon. Ta s chuyn HG sang biu din tng tc. p dng php bin
i theo thi gian (3.1.13) cho cc ton t a
v
v a
v
+
trong (3.1.34) ta c

0 0
0 0
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
i i i i
Ht H t H t Ht
i i i i
Ht H t H t Ht
a t e e a t e e
a t e e a t e e
v v
v v


+ +
=
=
h h h h
h h h h
(3.1.48)
Vi a l ton t trong biu din tng tc. S dng nh ngha ton t tin ha
(3.1.16)
0
( )
i i
H t Ht
U t e e

=
h h
v tnh cht i) ca S ma trn ( , ') ( ) ( ') S t t U t U t
+
= cho kt
qu

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (0, ) ( ) ( , 0)
( ') ( ) ( ') ( ') (0, ') ( ') ( ', 0)
a t U t a t U t S t a t S t
a t U t a t U t S t a t S t
v v v
v v v
+
+ + + +
= =
= =
(3.1.49)
Gi
0
| o , l trng thi c bn ca Hamilton khng nhiu lon
0
H , khi trng thi c
bn ca Hamilton ton phn H cho bi (3.1.29)
0
| (0, ) | S o , = , .
Thay kt qu ny v (3.1.49) vo (3.1.37) ta c :

0
0
0
0
( , ') ( ') | ( , 0) (0, ) ( ) ( , 0)
(0, ') ( ') ( ', 0) (0, ) |
( ' ) | ( , 0) (0, ') ( ') ( ', 0)
(0, ) ( ) ( , 0) (0, ) |
i
G t t t t S S t a t S t
S t a t S t S
i
t t S S t a t S t
S t a t S t S
v
v
v v
v
u o
o
u o
o
+
+
= (
,
+ (
,
h
h
(3.1.50)
V
0 0
(0, ) | (0, ) |
i
S S e
o
o o , = , v vi (3.1.32) ta c
0
0 0
0 0
| ( , 0)
| ( , 0) | ( , 0)
| ( , ) |
i
S
S e S
S
o
o
o o
o o

(
( = ( =
( ,
.
S dng ng thc ny v cc tnh cht ca S ma trn, HG (3.1.50) c dng :

0 0
0 0
0 0
1
( , ')
| ( , ) |
[ ( ') | ( , ) ( ) ( , ') ( ') ( ', ) |
( ' ) | ( , ') ( ') ( ', ) ( ) ( , ) | ]
i
G t t
S
t t S t a t S t t a t S t
t t S t a t S t t a t S t
v
v
v
v
v
o o
u o o
u o o
+
+
=
( ,
( ,
( ,
h
(3.1.51)
S dng ton t thi trnh T cho phn trong [], v d s hng u, ta c
0 0
0 0
( ') | ( , ) ( ) ( , ') ( ') ( ', ) |
( ') | ( ) ( ') ( , ) |
t t S t a t S t t a t S t
t t Ta t a t S
v
v
v
v
u o o
u o o
+
+
( ,
= ( ,

33
Tht vy, ton t ( , ) S gm ba ton t tc ng trn ba khong thi gian ( , ) t ,
( , ') t t v ( ', ) t . Ton t thi trnh T s t ng sp xp chng theo ng trnh t
cn thit : i t tri (tr : t) sang phi (sm : t) th ( , ) S t bn tri ( ) a t , ri n
( , ') S t t , k l ( ) a t
+
v sau cng l ( ', ) S t . Nh vy ta c c dng n gin
ca HG trong biu din tng tc :

0 0
0 0
| ( ) ( ') ( , ) |
( ')
| ( , ) |
Ta t a t S
i
G t t
S
v
v
v
o o
o o
+
( ,
=
( , h
. (3.1.52)
Xt trng hp c bit khng c tng tc, W=0, v v th S=1. Khi HG c
dng

0, 0 0
( ') | ( ) ( ') |
i
G t t Ta t a t
v
v v
o o
+
= ( ,
h
. (3.1.53)
HG ny m t ht khng tng tc v thng c gi l HG t do hay HG khng
nhiu lon. N c vai tr quan trng v qua n ta c th tnh cc HG c tng tc nh
s thy trong phn khai trin nhiu lon ca HG.
3.3.2 Phng trnh chuyn ng ca HG :

By gi ta ly o hm HG theo thi gian t dn ra phng trnh chuyn ng
ca HG. Chng ta chn HG c nh ngha trong khng gian x (3.1.47) v mun c
s so snh vi phng trnh HG trong bi ton phng trnh vi phn khng ng
nht. Vi ( ') / ( ') t t t t t u o c c = v ( ' ) / ( ') t t t t t u o c c = v gi s trng thi c
bn
0
| + , chun ha cng nh tm b qua cc ch s spin ta c

0 0
0 0
( , ; ', ') ( ') | [ ( , ), ( ', )] |
( , )
| ( ', ') |
i G x t x t t t x t x t
t
i x t
Ti x t
t
o v v
v
v
+
+
c
= (+ + ,
c
c
(+ + ,
c
h
h
h
(3.1.54)
Trong (3.1.54) ta dng ton t T gp cc s hng cho gn. S dng h thc
phn giao hon
[ ( , ), ( ', )] ( ') x t x t x x v v o
+
=
cho ta

0 0
( , )
( , ; ', ') ( ') ( ') | ( ', ') | .
i x t
i G x t x t t t x x Ti x t
t t
v
o o v
+
c c
= (+ + ,
c c
h h
h
(3.1.55)
Ch vi s hng u bn v phi ta c c phng trnh HG tng ng vi phng
trnh vi phn tuyn tnh khng ng nht kho st trong chng trc. Nhng
34
nhn chung s hng th hai trong v phi khc 0 v cng thng phc tp ; v vy ni
chung HG trong vt l lng t khng c ngha ton hc nh HG trong phng
trnh vi phn tuyn tnh.
Ta hy xt trng hp (c bit) ht t do. Phng trnh chuyn ng ca hm sng
cho bi phng trnh Heisenberg :

2 2
( , )
[ ( , ), ] ( , )
2
x
x t
i x t H x t
t m
v
v v
V c
= =
c
h
h . (3.1.56)
Thay vo phng trnh (3.1.55) ta c phng trnh chuyn ng cho HG t do
0
G :

2 2
0
( , ; ', ') ( ') ( ')
2
i G x t x t t t x x
t m
o o
c V
+ =

c

h
h . (3.1.57)
Nh vy phng trnh vi phn cho HG ht t do l phng trnh Schrdinger khng
ng nht, thuc lp phng trnh vi phn tuyn tnh khng ng nht ph thuc thi
gian (qua o hm bc I) chng ta bn ti trong chng 2.
3.3.3 Mi lin h gia HG v mt s i lng vt l :

Cu hi thng c t ra : nhng HG tru tng trn c vai tr nh th no
i vi cc i lng c th o lng (trong thc nghim) ? Di y ta s ch ra mt
s tng quan in hnh gia HG v cc i lng c th kho st trong thc nghim.

Mt ht c cho bi ( ) ( ) ( ) n x x x v v
+
( , = ( , . Ta thy ngay i lng ny c
lin h trc tip vi HG (xem (3.1.40)):
( ) ( , ; , ) n x i G x t x t
+
( , = h (3.1.58)
trong
0
lim( ) t t
o
o
+
+

= + bo m theo ng trt t thi gian.

Gi tr k vng (expectation value) ca ng nng T v nng lng ton phn
E c xc nh nh sau [Fetter v Walecka (1971)] :

2 2
2 2
0 0
0 0
2 2
' '
| ( , ) ( , ) |
2
2 |
limlim ( , ; ', ')
2
x x t t
x t x t
m
T dx dx
m
i dx G x t x t
m
v v
+
+

V
(+ + ,
V
( , = =
(+ + ,
V
=

h
h
h
h (3.1.59)

2 2
' '
limlim ( , ; ', ')
2 2
x x t t
i
E H dx i G x t x t
t m
+

c V
= ( , =

c

h h
h ; (3.1.60)
chuyn sang khng gian Fourier vi (3.1.44) v (3.1.46)
35

2 2
( ') ( ')
4
' '
2 2
4
0
1
limlim ( )
(2 ) 2
V
lim ( ) ,
(2 ) 2
i t t ik x x
k
x x t t
i
k
T i dx dkd e e G
m
k
i dk d e G
m
e
ec
c
e e
t
e e
t
+
+

V
( , =
=

h
h

h
h (3.1.61)

2 2
( ') ( ')
4
' '
2 2
4
0
1
limlim ( )
(2 ) 2
V
lim ( ) .
(2 ) 2
i t t ik x x
k
x x t t
i
k
E i dx dkd i e e G
t m
k
i dk d e G
m
e
ec
c
e e
t
e e e
t
+
+

c V
=

c


= +

h
h h

h
h h (3.1.62)
Ngoi ra ngi ta cng c th tnh mt spin, mt dng ht, qua HG.


36
Chng 4

4Khai trin nhiu lan ca hm Green


HG trong biu din tng tc (3.1.52) ph thuc vo S-ma trn ( , ) S ; ma trn
ny l chui v hn ca tng tc W:

1 1
1 1
1
( , ) exp ( )
1
1 ... [ ( )... ( )]
!
n
n n
n
i
S T dt W t
i
dt dt T W t W t
n

=


=


| |
= +
|
\ .

h
h
(3.1.63)
Nh vy HG cng l mt chui v hn ca nhng s hng ph thuc vo th tng
tc.
4.1 Khai trin nhiu lon v nh l Wick
kho st HG, trc ht ta vit t s ca HG di dng chui ny, khi :

1
1 1
0
| ( ) ( ') ( , ) |
( ')
| ( , ) |
1 1
... | [ ( )... ( ) ( ) ( ')] |
| ( , ) | !
n
n n
n
Ta t a t S
i
G t t
S
i
dt dt T W t W t a t a t
S n
v
v
v
v
v
+
+

+
=

( ,
=
( ,

| |
= ( ,
|
( ,
\ .

h
h
(3.1.64)
Nh vy ta c mt phc nhiu lon cho HG.
Chng ta hy xt ring phn t s ca HG. Phn t cn quan tm l

1
| [ ( )... ( ) ( ) ( ')] |
n
T W t W t a t a t
v
v
+
( , (3.1.65)
c cu trc c xc nh qua th tng tc. Hy xt hai tng tc in hnh l tng
tc e-e (qua th Coulomb) v tng tc e-phonon.
Tng tc ht tch in qua th tng tc Coulomb c dng:

0 '
, ,
1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
k q k q k k
k k q
W t V q a t a t a t a t
+ +
+
'
=

, (3.1.66)
vi
2
0 2
0
4
( )
e
V q
v q
t
c
= .
Tng tc e-phonon:

, ,
( ) ( ) ( )[ ( ) ( )] ( ) ( ) ( )
q k q k q q q k q k q
k q k q
W t M a t a t b t b t M a t a t B t
+ + +
+ +
= + =

(3.1.67)
37
Mi loi tng tc cha 3 hay 4 tan t trng, trong s ton t trng fermion l
chn v s ton t sinh bng s ton t hy. V vy ta cn nh gi nhng s hng
kiu nh

1 2 3
1 2 3
| [ ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )] |
k k k k
T a t a t a t a t
+ +
( , , (3.1.68)
v cc s hng tng t bc cao hn.
lm vic ny ngi ta dng nh l Wick: Biu thc (3.1.68) (trung bnh T-tch
(tc ton t thi trnh)) l tng cc bt cp kh d.
Ch rng:
i) nhng bt cp ca tan t sinh vi sinh hoc hy vi hy khng c ng
gp:
2 2
| [ ( ) ( )] | | [ ( ) ( )] | 0 T a t a t T a t a t
u v u v
+ +
( , = ( , = , d u bng hoc khc v .
ii) v do vy ch cn nhng cp gia 1 ton t sinh v mt tan t hy kiu nh
2
2
| [ ( ) ( )] |
k k
T a t a t
+
( , ; chng s ch khc khng khi
2
k k = , tc l:
2
2
2 2
,
| [ ( ) ( )] | | [ ( ) ( )] |
k k k k
k k
T a t a t T a t a t o
+ +
( , = ( , . V nh vy nu c n ton t sinh
v n tan t hy, ta c n! cp.
iii) | ( ) | 0
k
A t ( , = v v th tt c cc T-tch c s l cc tan t u bng khng.
Do , vi tng tc e-phonon, trong chui (3.1.64) ch nhng s hng vi n
chn tn ti, nhng s hng vi n l trit tiu v s ton t trng ca phonon
l l.
Ngai ra, cn mt s nguyn tc sau:
a) Mi ln hon v tan t fermion: nhn thm (-1) nu s ln hon v l l
th thm du tr
b) Khi xt T-tch ca cp gia tan t sinh v hy
2
2
| [ ( ) ( )] |
k k
T a t a t
+
( ,
- nu hai tan t cng thi gian th tan t sinh c t bn tri:
2 2 2 2
0
, , , ,
| [ ( ) ( )] | [ ( , )]
k k k k
k k k k k k k k
T a t a t iG t t n n o o o o
+ +
( , = = ( , =
- nu khc thi gian th ton t sinh c t bn phi:
2
2 2
0
2 2
, ,
| [ ( ) ( )] | ( )
k k k
k k k k
T a t a t i G t t o o
+
( , =
c) T-tch cha cc tan t khc loi (v d electron v phonon)v giao han
nhau th c th tch thnh cc T-tch ca mi lai:
2 1 1 2
2 1 3 3 1 2 3 3
| [ ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )] | | ( ) ( ) | | ( ) ( ) |
k k k k k k k k
T a t B t a t B t Ta t a t TB t B t
+ +
( , = ( ,( ,

38
Vi nh l Wick, ta hy kho st HG trong trng hp tng tc e-phonon. S hng
vi n=1 bng khng, nh ni trn. T s ca HG c dng:

1 2 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 2
1 2 1 2
3
0
1 2
1 2 1 1 2 2
( ) ( )
( )
( ')
2!
| ( ) ( ) | | ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ') |
...
k
q q q q k k q k k q k k
q q k k
phonon electron
i
G t t dt dt
M M TB t B t Ta t a t a t a t a t a t

+ + + +
+ +

+
( , ( ,
+

. .
(3.1.69)

Phn T-tch ca ton t phonon cho:

1 2 1 2 1
0
1 2 1 2
( ) | ( ) ( ) | ( )
q q q q q
phonon i TB t B t D t t o
+
=
( , = (3.1.70)

Phn T-tch ca cc tan t electron cho 6 t hp ca cc T-tch ca cc cp:

( )
( )
1 1 1 2 2 2
1 1 1 2 2 2
2 2 2 1 1 1
1 1 2 2
1 1 2 2
2 2 1 1
( ) | ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ') |
| ( ) ( ) | | ( ) ( ) | | ( ) ( ') |
| ( ) ( ) | | ( ) ( ) | | ( ) ( ') | 2
|
1
k k q k k q k k
k k q k k q k k
k k q k k q k k
k
electron Ta t a t a t a t a t a t
Ta t a t Ta t a t Ta t a t
Ta t a t Ta t a t Ta t a t
Ta
+ + +
+ +
+ + +
+ +
+ + +
+ +
= ( ,
= ( , ( , ( ,
+( , ( , ( ,
+( ( )
( )
( )
1 1 1 2 2 2
1 1 1 2 2 2
2 2 1 1 1 2
1 1 2 2
1 1 2 2
2 1 1 2
( ) ( ) | | ( ) ( ') | | ( ) ( ) |
| ( ) ( ') | | ( ) ( ) | | ( ) ( ) |
| ( ) ( ) | | ( ) ( ) | | ( ) ( ') |
3
| ( )
4
5
k q k k k q k
k k k q k k q k
k k q k q k k k
k k
t a t Ta t a t a t a t
Ta t a t a t a t a t a t
Ta t a t a t a t Ta t a t
Ta t a
T
T T
T
+ + +
+ +
+ + +
+ +
+ + +
+ +
, ( , ( ,
+( , ( , ( ,
+( , ( , ( ,
+( ( )
1 2 2 2 1 1
1 2 2 1
( ') | | ( ) ( ) | | ( ( 6 ) ) |
k k q k k q
t Ta t a t Ta t a t
+ + +
+ +
, ( , ( ,
(3.1.71)
Hoc chuyn i sang HG t do v ton t s ht ta c:


( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
1 1 2 1
2 1 1 1
1 1 2
1 2 1 2
1 2 1
2
3 0 0 0
1 1 2 2
3 0 0 0
2 2 1 1
2 0 0
0 1 1
0
0 0
2 0 0
0 2 2
3
( ) ( ) ( ')
( ) ( ) ( ')
( ) ( ')
( '
1
)
( ) ( ')
2
3
4
5
k k q k k k q k
k k q k k k q k
q k k k k k
q q k k k
q k k k k k
k
i G t t G t t G t t
i G t t G t t G t t
i n G t t G t t
i n n G t t
i n G t t G t t
i
o
o
o o
o o
o o
o
= + =
= = +
= =
= =
= =

+
+
+
+
( )
1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0
1 2 2 1
( ') ( ) ( 6 )
q k k k k q
G t t G t t G t t
= +

(3.1.72)
4.2 Gin Feynman
Phng php gin trong khai trin chui ca HG c Feynman xut v
t ra rt hu ch gip ta c mt ci nhn c th v trc quan v qu trnh tng tc.
Phng php ny theo quy tc nh sau:
39
i. HG fermion
0
( ')
k
G t t c biu din bng ng lin nt vi mi tn i t
' t n t
ii. HG phonon (boson v hng)
0
( ')
q
D t t c biu th bng ng cch nt
ni ' t v t . HG boson vect c biu th bng ng sng ni ' t v t .
iii. Th Coulomb c biu din bng ng sng hoc ziczac ni ' t v t .
iv. Mt n c biu th bng vng kn bt u v kt thc ti cng mt im
v. Bo tan xung lng ti mi nh c th hin qua hm o

40
4.3 Phng trnh Dyson
4.3.1 Kin thc h tr:

- Hamiltonian c bn:
e ion e ion ex
H H H H H

= + + + (3.1.73)
0
e e e e
H H H

= + (3.1.74)
0 0 0
ion ion ion ion ion ion ion ph
H H H H H H

= + = + + (3.1.75)
0
e ion e ion e ph
H H H

= + (3.1.76)
Phn
ion ion
H

c tch thnh 2 thnh phn:
0
ion ion
H

m t tng tc khi cc
ion v tr cn bng;
ph
H l phn hiu chnh tnh n dao ng mng
(phonon). Cng th i vi
e ion
H



- M hnh jellium: dnh cho kh electron. Trong m hnh ny ngi ta xt
cc ion nh mt nn in tch dng khng i. Khi tt c cc tng tc
lin quan n mng ion c biu th qua th mng ion
L
U :
0
e L ex
H H W U H = + + + (3.1.77)

- Hamilton kh electron


1 1 1 1
1 2 1 2 1 2 2 1
( ) ( , ) ( , )( ( , )
1
( , ) ( , ) ( ) ( , ) ( , )
2
H t dx x t h x t x t
dx dx x t x t V x x x t x t
v v
v v v v
+
+ +
=
+

(3.1.78)
y

2 2
0
1 1 1 1 1 1
( , ) ( ) ( , ) ( , ) ( , ) ( , )
2
e ex L ex L
h x t H x H x t U x t H x t U x t
m
V
= + + = + +
h
(3.1.79)
v
1 2
( ) V x x l th Coulomb.
4.3.2 Phng trnh Dyson trng hp nhiu lon khng ph thuc thi
gian: (tham kho, v d HG ca Nguyn Vn Lin trang 93-95, hoc
Greens Functions in quantum Physics ca Economou, trang 55-56)
Xt trng hp Hamiltonian
0
H H W = + khng ph thuc thi gian, ta c c:

0 0
0 0
G G GWG
G GWG
= +
= +
(3.1.80)
y c xem nh phng trnh Dyson cho HG.
Trong r-biu din:

0 1 2 0 1 1 2 2
( , ', ) ( , ', ) ( , , ) ( , ) ( , ', ) G r r G r r drdr G r r W r r G r r = +

(3.1.81)
41
v trong k-biu din:

0 0 1 1 2 2
( , ', ) ( , ', ) ( , , ) ( , ) ( , ', ) G k k G k k G k k W k k G k k = +

(3.1.82)
4.3.3 Phng trnh Dyson trng hp nhiu lon ph thuc thi gian:

- Phng trnh chuyn ng ca HG (3.1.55):


0 0
( , )
( , ; ', ') ( ') ( ') | ( ', ') | .
i x t
i G x t x t t t x x Ti x t
t t
v
o o v
+
c c
= (+ + ,
c c
h h
h
(3.1.83)
vi

( , )
[ ( , ), ( )]
x t
i x t H t
t
v
v
c
=
c
h . (3.1.84)
S dng Hamiltonian (3.1.78) ta c:

2 2 2 2
[ ( , ), ( )] ( , ) ( ) ( , ) ( , ) ( , ) x t H t h x t dx V x x x t x t x t v v v v v
+
= +

. (3.1.85)
Do vy

' ' ' ' ' '
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1
' '
2 1 2 0 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 0
( , ; , ) ( ) ( ) ( , ; , )
( ) | ( , ) ( , ) ( , ) ( , ) |
i G x t x t t t x x hG x t x t
t
i
dx V x x T x t x t x t x t
o o
v v v v
+ + +
c
= +
c
(+ + ,

h
h
(3.1.86)
1 1
t t
+
= l bo m trt t trong (3.1.85). Ta c th vit gn li vi vic t
1 1
1 ( ) x t = :
2 1
1
0 0
(1,1') (1 1') (1,1')
2 (1 2) | (2 ) (2) (1) (1') |
t t
i G hG
t
i
d V T
o
v v v v
+ + +
=
c
= +
c
(+ + ,

h
h
(3.1.87)
y ta t
2 2
t t
+
= v
1 2 1 2
(1 2) ( ) ( ) V V x x t t o = ;
2 2
2 d dx dt = .
Hoc:

2 1
2
2
1
1
0 0
(1,1') (1 1') ( ) (1,1')
2
2 (1 2) | (2 ) (2) (1) (1') |
ex L
t t
i G H U G
t m
i
d V T
o
v v v v
+ + +
=
| | c
+ V = + +
|
c
\ .
(+ + ,

h
h
h
(3.1.88)
Nu h electron c lp (khng tng tc) th ta c ngay phng trnh cho HG
t do:

2
2 0
1
1
(1,1') (1 1')
2
i G
t m
o
| | c
+ V =
|
c
\ .
h
h (3.1.89)
(HG o:
42

2
0 1 2
1
1
(1,1') (1 1')
2
G i
t m
o

| | c
= + V
|
c
\ .
h
h (3.1.90)
vi
1
0 0
2 (12) (21') (1 1') d G G o

(3.1.91)
)

- HG hai ht
i vi h tng tc, HG (1,1') G ph thuc vo thnh phn gm 4 tan t
trng. H 4 tan t ny tng ng HG hai ht
2
G c nh ngha nh sau:

' '
2 2
1
(121' 2') | (1) (2) (2 ) (1) |
( )
G T
i
v v v v
+ +
= ( ,
h
(3.1.92)
PT cho HG c th c vit li:
2 1
2
2
1
1
2
(1,1') (1 1') ( ) (1,1')
2
2 (1 2) (121' 2 )
ex L
t t
i G H U G
t m
i d V G
o
+
=
| | c
+ V = + +
|
c
\ .

h
h
h (3.1.93)
Nh vy trong trng hp c tng tc, phng trnh cho HG mt ht khng
phi l phng trnh ng! V v s tng tc, tm HG 1 ht, ta phi bit
HG 2 ht v c th ta phi bit HG n ht.

Mt s nt v HG
2
G
HG
2
G m t qu trnh truyn ca hai ht c thm (sinh) vo h ti 1' v 2' v xut
hin (hoc c di (hy) khi h) ti 1 v 2. Ni chung chuyn ng ca cc ht c
tng quan vi nhau v cc ht tng tc vi nhau. Gin cho HG
2
G :


2
(121' 2') G =


Ch : thnh thong ngi ta dng gin trn minh ha cho trng hp
' '
1 2 1 2
, t t t t = = ; v gin cho
2
G trong trng hp tng qut l







HG
2
G dng m t h hai ht tng tc vi nhau, v d exciton- ht c to thnh
do s bt cp gia electron v l trng qua tng tc Coulomb.

Gn ng cho HG
2
G
o gn ng bc nht ta c th b qua tng quan ca cc ht v xem rng cc ht
truyn qua mi trng hon tan c lp vi nhau:
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
43


2
(121' 2') G =



=



= (11') (22') (12') (21') G G G G (3.1.94)
(du + dnh cho boson, du tr dnh cho fermion)
Gn ng ny chnh l gn ng Hartree-Fock (HF). S hng th nht tng ng gn
ng Hartree, s hng th hai tng ng gn ng Fock. Trong (3.1.94) xt n
tnh ng nht ca cc ht: v cc ht ng nht nn ta khng th phn bit cc qu
trnh i) ht c thm 1 v xut hin 1 vi cc qu trnh ii) ht c thm 1 v
xut hin 2. [Gn ng HF thuc v lai gn ng trng trung bnh (mean field)]

o Gn ng bc cao hn: Gn ng thang (ladder approximation; i khi cn gi l
gn ng Bethe-Salpeter mc d gn ng BS ny tng qut hn gn ng thang)


2
(121' 2') G =



= +


=

2
(11') (22') (12') (21') 4 5 (14) (25) (45) (451' 2') G G G G i d d G G W G +

h (3.1.95)

Nu ta thc hin php lp gii phng trnh tch phn trn th s c chui v hn
cc gin thang (ladder diagram)


2
(121' 2') G = + + +


+ s hng trao i






HG trong gn ng HF

Vi gn ng HF (3.1.94) phng trnh chuyn ng ca HG (3.1.93) thnh

1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
2
1
2
1 1
2
1
2
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
1

2

1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
44

2
2
1
1
(2)
(1,1') (1 1') ( ) (1,1')
2
2 (1 2)[ (11') (22 ) (12') (21')]
(1 1') [ 2 (1 2) (22 )] (1,1') 2 (1 2) (12') (21')
ex L
Hartree Fock
ex L
n
i G H U G
t m
i d V G G G G
H U i d V G G i d V G G
o
o
+
+
| | c
+ V = + +
|
c
\ .

= + + +

h
h
h
. .
h h
.
(3.1.96)
S hng Hartree v
L
U thng kh nhau. Ta c PT:

2
2
1
1
(1,1') (1 1') (1,1') 2 (1 2) (12') (21')
2
ex
i G H G i d V G G
t m
o
| | c
+ V = + +
|
c
\ .

h
h h (3.1.97)


- Phng trnh Dyson
H PT (3.1.93) khng kn; v vy ta tm mt h phng trnh ng mt cch
hnh thc bng vic a vo ton t nng lng ring Ec xc nh nh
sau:

2
3 (1 3) (131' 3 )
2 (12) (21') 3 (1 3) (11') (33 )
i d V G
d G i d V G G
+
+

= E

h
h
(3.1.98)
Vi nh ngha ny ta c phng trnh Dyson cho HG:
2
2
1
1
(1,1') (1 1') (1,1') 2 (12) (21')
2
ex
i G H G d G
t m
o
| | c
+ V = + + E
|
c
\ .

h
h (3.1.99)
(Ta xem s hng Hartree v
L
U kh nhau.) Dng thc c th ca nng
lng ring s c tho lun sau. Vi HG o (3.1.90) c th chuyn PT
Dyson sang dng PT tch phn

0 0 0
(1,1') (1,1') 2 (1, 2) (2,1') 2 3 (1, 2) (23) (31')
ex
G G d G H G d d G G = + + E


(3.1.100)
Hoc dng gn hn:

0 0 '
(1,1') (1,1') 2 3 (1, 2) (23) (31') G G d d G G = + E

(3.1.101)
vi
(12) (12) (12) (1 2) (12)
ex
H
o
o o = E + E = + E (3.1.102)


Nng lng ring E:
Ngi ta dn ra c rng:
(12) 4 5 (51) (14) (425) i d d W G E = I

h (3.1.103)


45
Trong Ic gi l hm nh v c cho bi

(12)
(123) (1 2) (1 3) 4 5 6 7 (46) (673) (75)
(45)
d d d d G G
G
o o
cE
I = + I
c

, (3.1.104)
W l th tng tc chn
(12) (1 2) 3 4 (2 3) (34) (41) W V d d V L W = +

(3.1.105)


vi L gi l hm phn cc v c dng
(12) 3 4 (13) (342) (41 ) L i d d G G
+
= I

h (3.1.106)


Cc PT (3.1.100) - (3.1.106) to thnh mt h PT kn. gii h ny ngi ta phi
thc hin nhng gn ng khc nhau, ty cnh hung cho php.

Gn ng HF chn (SHFA):
Ch gi li s hng u ca hm nh:

(123) (1 2) (1 3) o o I = (3.1.107)
v gn ng ny gi l b qua hiu chnh nh. C khi cn gi l gn
ng HF chn (SHF- screened HF). Vi gn ng ny ta c c

(12) (21) (12) i W G E = h , (3.1.108)


(12) (1 2) 3 4 (2 3) (34) (41) W V d d V L W = +

(3.1.109)


vi
(12) (12) (21 ) L i G G
+
= h (3.1.110)


Gn ng ny cho hm phn cc L tng ng vi gn ng RPA
(Random Phase Approx.). V th thnh thong thut ng RPA v SHFA
c dng ch cng mt gn ng (trong khi RPA ch nhm n hm
phn cc L, cn SHFA th dnh cho c nng lng ring v L).
Vi h ng nht (ch ph thuc vo ta tng i ' r r p = v
' t t t = ) cc PT trn c th c vit trong khng gian xung lng; v
d PT (3.1.109) cho th chn tr thnh:
( , ) ( ) ( ) ( , ) ( , ) W q V q V q L q W q e e e = + (3.1.111)
Hay

( )
( , )
1 ( ) ( , )
V q
W q
V q L q
e
e
=

(3.1.112)
46
Khi xem xt th chn, ngi ta thng a vo khi nim hm in mi
(dielectric function) ( , ) q c e c nh ngha nh sau:
( , ) ( ) / ( , ) W k V q q e c e = (3.1.113)
T (3.1.112) ta c
( , ) 1 ( ) ( , ) q V q L q c e e = (3.1.114)
i vi kh electron, vi nh ngha ca hm phn cc, c th kh d
dng tm c:
( , )
( )
k q k
k
k q k
n n
L q
i
e
e o c c

=
+ +

h
(3.1.115)
V
( , ) 1 ( )
( )
k q k
k
k q k
n n
q V q
i
c e
e o c c

=
+ +

h
(3.1.116)
y l cng thc Lindhard cho hm in mi.


Xt kh electron 3 chiu, ngi ta ta c th dn ra kt qu, khi ly 0 e ,

2
2
( , 0) 1 q
q
k
c = + (3.1.117)
vi k gi l s sng chn

2
0
4 e n t
k
c u
c
=
c
(3.1.118)
Nh vy

2
3 2 2
0
4 1
( ) ( , 0)
s
e
V q W q
L q
t
c k
=
+
(3.1.119)
Kt qu ny cho thy th chn kh i s phn k ca th Coulomb ti 0 q . Php
bin i Fourier ca (3.1.119) cho

2 2
3 2 2
0 0
4 1
( ) ( )
iq r r
s s
q q
e e
V r V q e e
L q r
k
t
c k c

= = =
+


(3.1.120)
y l th Yukawa !


Gn ng HF
Nu b qua phn chn trong th tng tc, tc l ch gi li s hng u
trong (3.1.109) th nng lng ring c dng n gin l
(12) (2 1) (12) i V G E = h , (3.1.121)
thay vo (3.1.99) th ta c li PT HG trong gn ng HF dn ra trong
(3.1.97) .

Khng xt tng tc vi trng ngai v gi s h ng nht, ta c th
vit PT Dyson trong khng gian k nh sau:
47

2 2
( , ) 1 ( , ) ( , )
2
k
G k k G k
m
e e e e
| |
= + E
|
\ .
h
h (3.1.122)
Hay

0
1
( , )
( , )
k
G k
k
e
e c e
=
E h
(3.1.123)
(cht ch hn, mu s phi c thm io vi 0 o .) So vi trng hp
ht t do, PT (3.1.123) cho thy nng lng ht t do c thay th
bng
0
( , )
k
k c e +E do h qu ca tng tc. E r rng l mt hiu chnh
nng lng v mang tnh t thn ca h tng tc. V vy ngi ta gi l
nng lng ring.