Stepper Motor System

Faculty of Engineering
Communications and Electronics Depart.

ADVISOR ADVISOR ADVISOR ADVISOR
WORK TEAM
I. Mohammd
i. Yasv Mahdi A!
. RadIan Abdu A!
. Yasv Ahmd Abdu!
. Wa!d A!i Sa!h A!
,) ') +) ,
s Depart.
OR A OR A OR A OR\ \\ \ Eng. Mojeeb Al Eng. Mojeeb Al Eng. Mojeeb Al Eng. Mojeeb Al- -- -Hazmi Hazmi Ha Hazmi
d Abdu!!momn A!avikv. Io]iooi.
hdi A!-Dhuv'. oo]ioo.
bdu A!-Rhman A!-Mkh!aIi. i]ioo.
md Abdu!-Hamd A!-Qubati. ]iooi.
!i Sa!h A!-Badwi. ]ioo.
YEAR 2008-2009
Republic of Yemen
Sanaa University
azmi Hazmi Hazmi Hazmi
o]iooi.
o]ioo.
i]ioo.
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First Semester 2008-2009 Stepper Motor Systems
Sanaa University Page 2
Sanaa University
Faculty of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Depart.
Communications and Electronics Division

2008-2009

ConnecL us:
TEAM TEL.: 967+777493634

Email: mohriky@gmail.com
Web Site: www.englab-elec.com
All rights reserved.
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CONTENTS CONTENTS CONTENTS CONTENTS
I. Abstract
II. Introduction

1. STEPPING MOTOR SYSTEMS OVERVIEW
2. STEPPER MOTOR IN MOTION
2.1. States Of A Stepper Motor At Motion
2.2. Step Angle ( $s )
3. TYPES OF STEPPER MOTORS
3.1. Variable Reluctance Stepper
3.2. Permanent Magnet Stepper
3.2.1. Step Sequencing
3.2.1.1. Wave Drive
3.2.1.2. Full Step Drive
3.2.1.3. Half Step Drive
3.2.2. Construction of a permanent magnet stepper motor
3.3. Hybrid Stepper Motor
3.3.1. Features Of Hybrid Stepper Schematic
3.3.2. Hybrid Stepper Motor Rotation
4. TYPES OF STEPPER MOTORS IN SUMMARY
5. DESIGN SPECIFICATION AND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
5.1. Design Specification
5.2. Design Considerations
5.2.1. Inductance
5.2.2. Series, Parallel Connection
5.2.3. Driver Voltage
5.2.4. Motor Stiffness
5.2.5. Motor Heat
6. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF STEPPER MOTORS
6.1. ADVANTAGES OF STEPPER MOTORS
6.2. DISADVANTAGES OF STEPPER MOTORS
7. DRIVER TECHNOLOGY OVERVIEW
8. INDEXER OVERVIEW
9. STEPPER MOTOR CONTROL REQUIREMENTS
10. APPLICATIONS OF STEPPER MOTOR IN DIFFERENT PRACTICAL FIELDS
11. DESIGN OPPORTUNITIES
12. OUR MAIN REFERENCES AND SOURCES

I. Abstract
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uLLempLed Lo focus on fundumenLul prlnclples LhuL wlll be wldelv
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und u sLlmuluLlng envlronmenL ulong Lhe flrsL Lerm of veur zoo8-zooo ln
whlch Lhe ldeus of Lhls reseurch could be developed.

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II. Introduction
Conventional motois iotate continuously when powei is applieu to
them. Analog motoi its aimatuie tuins at speeu piopoitional to the
input voltage. By incieasing input voltage, aimatuie speeu inciease, the
speeu uoesn't have to be aujusteu in steps.

A steppei motoi- sometimes calleu a stepping motoi - is a special kinu
of motoi that moves in inuiviuual steps. Each step is contiolleu by
eneigizing one oi moie of the coils insiue the motoi which then
inteiacts with the peimanent magnets attacheu to the shaft. Tuining
these coils on anu off in sequence will cause the motoi to iotate foiwaiu
oi ieveise. The time uelay between each step ueteimines the motoi's
speeu.

Steppeis can be moveu to any uesiieu position ieliably by senuing them
the piopei numbei of step pulses. 0nlike seivo motois, steppeis can be
useu "open-loop" without the neeu foi expensive encoueis to check
theii position. Steppei motois aie much moie cost-effective than seivo
systems uue to theii simplifieu contiol anu uiive ciicuitiy. Theie aie no
biushes to ieplace in a steppei motoi, eliminating the neeu foi
maintenance. Even though a steppei motoi system can not achieve the
speeu of a seivo motoi system, theii ease of use anu ielatively highei
toique make them attiactive to be useu in computeiizeu contiol
systems.

1. STEPPING MOTOR SYSTEMS OVERVIEW
Motion Control, in electronic terms, means to accurately control the movement of an
object based on either speed, distance, load, inertia or a combination of all these
factors. There are numerous types of motion control systems, including; Stepper
Motor, Linear Step Motor, DC Brush, Brushless, Servo, Brushless Servo and more.
This document will concentrate on Step Motor technology.

In Theory, a Stepper motor is a marvel in simplicity. It has no brushes, or contacts.
Basically it's a synchronous motor with the magnetic field electronically switched to
rotate the armature magnet around.

A Stepping Motor System consists of three basic elements, often combined with
some type of user interface (Host Computer, PLC or Dumb Terminal):

Figure (1): stepping Motor System.
The Indexer (or Controller) is a microprocessor capable of generating step pulses
and direction signals for the driver. In addition, the indexer is typically required to
perform many other sophisticated command functions.

The Driver (or Amplifier) converts the indexer command signals into the power
necessary to energize the motor windings. There are numerous types of drivers, with
different current/amperage ratings and construction technology. Not all drivers are
suitable to run all motors, so when designing a Motion Control System the driver
selection process is critical.

The Step Motor is an electromagnetic device that converts digital pulses into
mechanical shaft rotation. Advantages of step motors are low cost, high reliability,
high torque at low speeds and a simple, rugged construction that operates in almost
any environment. The main disadvantages in using a step motor is the resonance
effect often exhibited at low speeds and decreasing torque with increasing speed.

2. STEPPER MOTOR IN MOTION
Figure (2) is the cross-section view of a single-stack variable reluctance motor. The
stator core is the outer structure and has six poles or teeth. The inner device is
called the rotor and has four poles. Both the stator and rotor are made of soft steel.
The stator has three sets of windings as shown in the figure. Each set has two coils
connected in series. A set of windings is called a phase. The motor above, using
this designation, is a three-phase motor. Current is supplied from the DC power
source to the windings via the switches I, II, and, III.
Figure (2): Stepper Motor States for Motion.
2.1. STATES OF A STEPPER MOTOR AT MOTION
According to Figure (2).
Starting with state (1) in the upper left diagram, note that in state (1), the winding of
Phase I is supplied with current through switch I. This is called in technical terms,
phase I is excited. Arrows on the coil windings indicate the magnetic flux, which
occurs in the air-gap due to the excitation. In state I, the two stator poles on phase I
being excited are in alignment with two of the four rotor teeth. This is an equilibrium
state.

Next, switch II is closed to excite phase II in addition to phase I. Magnetic flux is built
up at the stator poles of phase II in the manner shown in state (2), the upper right
diagram. A counter-clockwise torque is created due to the tension in the inclined
magnetic flux lines. The rotor will begin to move and achieve state (3), the lower left
diagram. In state (3) the rotor has moved 15.
When switch I is opened to de-energize phase I, the rotor will travel another 15 and
reach state (4). The angular position of the rotor can thus be controlled in units of the
step angle by a switching process. If the switching is carried out in sequence, the
rotor will rotate with a stepped motion; the switching process can also control the
average speed.

2.2. STEP ANGLE ($s)
The step angle, the number of degrees a rotor will turn per step, is calculated as
follows:
And for this motor:
3. TYPES OF STEPPER MOTORS
There are three types of stepper motors in order of increasing complexity: variable
reluctance, permanent magnet, and hybrid. The variable reluctance stepper has s
solid soft steel rotor with salient poles. The permanent magnet stepper has a
cylindrical permanent magnet rotor. The hybrid stepper has soft steel teeth added to
the permanent magnet rotor for a smaller step angle.

3.1. Variable Reluctance Stepper
A variable reluctance stepper motor relies upon magnetic flux seeking the lowest
reluctance path through a magnetic circuit. This means that an irregularly shaped
soft magnetic rotor will move to complete a magnetic circuit, minimizing the length of
any high reluctance air gap. The stator typically has three windings distributed
between pole pairs, the rotor four salient poles, yielding a 30
o
step angle. Figure (3)
A de-energized stepper with no detent torque when hand rotated is identifiable as a
variable reluctance type stepper.

Figure (3): Three phase and four phase variable reluctance stepper motors.

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Figure (4): Stepping sequence for variable reluctance stepper.
The drive waveforms for the 3-< stepper can be seen in the Reluctance motor
section. The drive for a 4-< stepper is shown in Figure (4). Sequentially switching
the stator phases produces a rotating magnetic field which the rotor follows.
However, due to the lesser number of rotor poles, the rotor moves less than the
stator angle for each step. For a variable reluctance stepper motor, the step angle is
given by:

In Figure (4), moving from <1 to <2, etc., the stator magnetic field rotates clockwise.
The rotor moves counterclockwise (CCW). Note what does not happen! The dotted
rotor tooth does not move to the next stator tooth. Instead, the <2 stator field attracts
a different tooth in moving the rotor CCW, which is a smaller angle (15
o
) than the
stator angle of 30
o
. The rotor tooth angle of 45
o
enters into the calculation by the
above equation. The rotor moved CCW to the next rotor tooth at 45
o
, but it aligns
with a CW by 30
o
stator tooth. Thus, the actual step angle is the difference between
a stator angle of 45
o
and a rotor angle of 30
o
. How far would the stepper rotate if the
rotor and stator had the same number of teeth? Zerono notation.

Starting at rest with phase <1 energized, three pulses are required (<2, <3, <4) to
align the dotted rotor tooth to the next CCW stator Tooth, which is 45
o
. With 3-
pulses per stator tooth, and 8-stator teeth, 24-pulses or steps move the rotor through
360
o
.
By reversing the sequence of pulses, the direction of rotation is reversed above right.
The direction, step rate, and number of steps are controlled by a stepper motor
controller feeding a driver or amplifier. This could be combined into a single circuit
board. The controller could be a microprocessor or a specialized integrated circuit.
The driver is not a linear amplifier, but a simple on-off switch capable of high enough
current to energize the stepper. In principle, the driver could be a relay or even a
toggle switch for each phase. In practice, the driver is either discrete transistor
switches or an integrated circuit. Both driver and controller may be combined into a
single integrated circuit accepting a direction command and step pulse. It outputs
current to the proper phases in sequence.

Disassemble a reluctance stepper to view the internal components. Otherwise, we
show the internal construction of a variable reluctance stepper motor in Figure (5).
The rotor has protruding poles so that they may be attracted to the rotating stator
field as it is switched. An actual motor is much longer than our simplified illustration.

Figure (5): Variable reluctance stepper motor.
First Semester 2008-2009
Sanaa University
The shaft is frequently fitted with a drive screw.
of a floppy drive upon command by the floppy drive controller.
Variable reluctance stepper motors are applied when only a moderate level of torque
is required and a coarse step angle is adequate. A screw drive, as used in a floppy
disk drive is such an application
the position of the carriage. However, it can drive the carriage toward the optical
interrupter, calibrating the position at which the knife edge cuts the interrupter as
home. The controller counts step
torque does not exceed the motor torque, the
position.

Figure (6):
Stepper Motor Systems
tted with a drive screw. Figure (6), this may move the heads
mmand by the floppy drive controller.
per motors are applied when only a moderate level of torque
step angle is adequate. A screw drive, as used in a floppy
plication. When the controller powers-up, it does not know
age. However, it can drive the carriage toward the optical
he position at which the knife edge cuts the interrupter as
counts step pulses from this position. As long as the load
d the motor torque, the controller will know the carriage
Variable reluctance stepper drives lead screw
Page 12
y move the heads
ate level of torque
s used in a floppy
it does not know
oward the optical
the interrupter as
long as the load
now the carriage
ew.
Sanaa University Page 1S
3.2. Permanent magnet stepper
A permanent magnet stepper motor has a cylindrical permanent magnet rotor. The
stator usually has two windings. The windings could be center tapped to allow for a
unipolar driver circuit where the polarity of the magnetic field is changed by switching
a voltage from one end to the other of the winding. A bipolar drive of alternating
polarity is required to power windings without the center tap. A pure permanent
magnet stepper usually has a large step angle .Rotation of the shaft of a de-
energized motor exhibits detent torque. If the detent angle is large, say 7.5
o
to 90
o
, it
is likely a permanent magnet stepper rather than a hybrid stepper (next subsection).

Permanent magnet stepper motors require phased alternating currents applied to the
two (or more) windings. In practice, this is almost always square waves generated
from DC by solid state electronics. Bipolar drive is square waves alternating between
(+) and (-) polarities, say, +2.5 V to -2.5 V. Unipolar drive supplies a (+) and (-)
alternating magnetic flux to the coils developed from a pair of positive square waves
applied to opposite ends of a center tapped coil. The timing of the bipolar or unipolar
wave is wave drive, full step, or half step.

3.2.1. Step Sequencing
There are three modes of operation when using a stepper motor. The mode of
operation is determined by the step sequence applied. The three step sequences
are:
3.2.1.1. Wave drive
Conceptually, the simplest drive is wave drive. Figure (7) The rotation sequence left
to right is positive <-1 points rotor north pole up, (+) <-2 points rotor north right,
negative <-1 attracts rotor north down, (-) <-2 points rotor left. The wave drive
waveforms below show that only one coil is energized at a time. While simple, this
does not produce as much torque as other drive techniques.

Figure (7): PM wave drive sequence (a) J1+, (b) J2+, (c) J1- , (d) J2-.
The waveforms in Figure (8) are bipolar because both polarities, (+) and (-) drive the
stepper. The coil magnetic field reverses because the polarity of the drive current
reverses.

Figure (8): Waveforms: bipolar wave drive.
As in Figure (9), the waveforms are unipolar because only one polarity is required.
This simplifies the drive electronics, but requires twice as many drivers. There are
twice as many waveforms because a pair of (+) waves is required to produce an
alternating magnetic field by application to opposite ends of a center tapped coil. The
motor requires alternating magnetic fields. These may be produced by either
unipolar or bipolar waves. However, motor coils must have center taps for unipolar
drive.

Figure (9): Waveforms: unipolar wave drive.
Figure (10) illustrates that Permanent magnet stepper motors are manufactured with
various lead-wire configurations.
The 4-wire motor can only be driven by bipolar waveforms. The 6-wire motor, the
most common arrangement, is intended for unipolar drive because of the center
taps. Though, it may be driven by bipolar waves if the center taps are ignored. The
5-wire motor can only be driven by unipolar waves, as the common center tap
interferes if both windings are energized simultaneously. The 8-wire configuration is
rare, but provides maximum flexibility. It may be wired for unipolar drive as for the 6-
wire or 5-wire motor. A pair of coils may be connected in series for high voltage
bipolar low current drive, or in parallel for low voltage high current drive.

Figure (10): Stepper motor wiring diagrams
A bifilar winding is produced by winding the coils with two wires in parallel, often a
red and green enamelled wire. This method produces exact 1:1 turns ratios for
center tapped windings. This winding method is applicable to all but the 4-wire
arrangement above.

3.2.1.2. Full step drive
Full step drive provides more torque than wave drive because both coils are
energized at the same time. This attracts the rotor poles midway between the two
field poles. Figure (11) illustrates that.

Figure (11): Full step, bipolar drive.
Full step bipolar drive as shown in Figure (11) has the same step angle as wave
drive. Unipolar drive (not shown) would require a pair of unipolar waveforms for each
of the above bipolar waveforms applied to the ends of a center tapped winding.
Unipolar drive uses a less complex, less expensive driver circuit. The additional cost
of bipolar drive is justified when more torque is required.
3.2.1.3. Half step drive
The step angle for a given stepper motor geometry is cut in half with half step drive.
This corresponds to twice as many step pulses per revolution. As its shown in
Figure (12), half stepping provides greater resolution in positioning of the motor
shaft. For example, half stepping the motor moving the print head across the paper
of an inkjet printer would double the dot density.

Figure (12): Half step, bipolar drive.
Half step drive is a combination of wave drive and full step drive with one winding
energized, followed by both windings energized, yielding twice as many steps. The
unipolar waveforms for half step drive are shown above. The rotor aligns with the
field poles as for wave drive and between the poles as for full step drive.

Microstepping is possible with specialized controllers. By varying the currents to
the windings sinusoidally many microsteps can be interpolated between the normal
positions.

3.2.2. Construction of a permanent magnet stepper motor
The construction of a permanent magnet stepper motor is considerably different from
the drawings above. It is desirable to increase the number of poles beyond that
illustrated to produce a smaller step angle. It is also desirable to reduce the number
of windings, or at least not increase the number of windings for ease of manufacture.

Figure (13): Permanent magnet stepper motor, 24-pole can-stack construction.
The permanent magnet stepper (Figure (13)) only has two windings, yet has 24-
poles in each of two phases. This style of construction is known as can stack. A
phase winding is wrapped with a mild steel shell, with fingers brought to the center.
One phase, on a transient basis, will have a north side and a south side. Each side
wraps around to the center of the doughnut with twelve interdigitated fingers for a
total of 24 poles. These alternating north-south fingers will attract the permanent
magnet rotor. If the polarity of the phase were reversed, the rotor would jump
360
o
/24 = 15
o
. We do not know which direction, which is not useful. However, if we
energize B-1 followed by B-2, the rotor will move 7.5
o
because the B-2 is offset
(rotated) by 7.5
o
from B-1. See below for offset. And, it will rotate in a reproducible
direction if the phases are alternated. Application of any of the above waveforms will
rotate the permanent magnet rotor.

3.3. Hybrid stepper motor
The hybrid stepper motor combines features of both the variable reluctance stepper
and the permanent magnet stepper to produce a smaller step angle. The rotor is a
cylindrical permanent magnet, magnetized along the axis with radial soft iron teeth,
Figure (14) and Figure (15). The stator coils are wound on alternating poles with
corresponding teeth. There are typically two winding phases distributed between
pole pairs. This winding may be center tapped for unipolar drive. The center tap is
achieved by a bifilar winding, a pair of wires wound physically in parallel, but wired in
series. The north-south poles of a phase swap polarity when the phase drive current
is reversed. Bipolar drive is required for un-tapped windings.
Figure (14): Hybrid stepper motor.
Note that the 48-teeth on one rotor section are offset by half a pitch from the other.
See rotor pole detail above. This rotor tooth offset is also shown below. Due to this
offset, the rotor effectively has 96 interleaved poles of opposite polarity. This offset
allows for rotation in 1/96
th
of a revolution steps by reversing the field polarity of one
phase. Two phase windings are common as shown above and below. Though, there
could be as many as five phases.

Figure (15): Typical Section of Hybrid Stepper Motor.
The stator teeth on the 8-poles correspond to the 48-rotor teeth, except for missing
teeth in the space between the poles. Thus, one pole of the rotor, said the South
Pole, may align with the stator in 48 distinct positions. However, the teeth of the
South Pole are offset from the north teeth by half a tooth. Therefore, the rotor may
align with the stator in 96 distinct positions. This half tooth offset shows in the rotor
pole detail above, or Figure (6).

As if this were not complicated enough, the stator main poles are divided into two
phases (<-1, <-2). These stator phases are offset from one another by one-quarter
of a tooth. This detail is only discernable on the schematic diagrams below. The
result is that the rotor moves in steps of a quarter of a tooth when the phases are
alternately energized. In other words, the rotor moves in 2 96=192 steps per
revolution for the above stepper.

The above drawing is representative of an actual hybrid stepper motor. However, we
provide a simplified pictorial and schematic representation (Figure (16)) to illustrate
details not obvious above. Note the reduced number of coils and teeth in rotor and
stator for simplicity. In the next two figures, we attempt to illustrate the quarter tooth
rotation produced by the two stator phases offset by a quarter tooth, and the rotor
half tooth offset. The quarter tooth stator offset in conjunction with drive current
timing also defines direction of rotation.

Sanaa University Page 2u
Figure (16): Hybrid stepper motor schematic diagram.
3.3.1. Features of hybrid stepper schematic (Figure (16))
o The top of the permanent magnet rotor is the south-pole, the bottom north.

o The rotor north-south teeth are offset by half a tooth.

o If the <-1 stator is temporarily energized north top, south bottom.

o The top <-1 stator teeth align north to rotor top south teeth.

o The bottom <-1 stator teeth align south to rotor bottom north teeth.

o Enough torque applied to the shaft to overcome the hold-in torque would move
the rotor by one tooth.

o If the polarity of <-1 were reversed, the rotor would move by one-half tooth,
direction unknown. The alignment would be south stator top to north rotor bottom,
north stator bottom to south rotor.

o The <-2 stator teeth are not aligned with the rotor teeth when <-1 is energized.
In fact, the <-2 stator teeth are offset by one-quarter tooth. This will allow for
rotation by that amount if <-1 is de-energized and <-2 energized. Polarity of <-1
and <-2 drive determines direction of rotation.
Figure (17): Hybrid stepper motor rotation sequence.
3.3.2. Hybrid stepper motor rotation (Figure (17))
o Rotor top is permanent magnet south, bottom north. Fields <-1 and <-2 are
switchable: on, off, reverse.

o (a) <-1=on=north-top, <-2=off. Align (top to bottom): <-1 stator-N: rotor-top-S,
<-1 stator-S: rotor-bottom-N. Start position, rotation=0.
o (b) <-1=off, <-2=on. Align (right to left): <-2 stator-N-right: rotor-top-S, <-2
stator-S: rotor-bottom-N. Rotate 1/4 tooth, total rotation=1/4 tooth.

o (c) <-1=reverse (on), <-2=off. Align (bottom to top): <-1 stator-S: rotor-bottom-
N, <-1 stator-N: rotor-top-S. Rotate 1/4 tooth from last position. Total rotation
from start: tooth.

o Not shown: <-1=off, <-2=reverse (on). Align (left to right): Total rotation: 3/4
tooth.

o Not shown: <-1=on, <-2=off (same as (a)). Align (top to bottom): Total rotation
1-tooth.

An un-powered stepper motor with detent torque is either a permanent magnet
stepper or a hybrid stepper. The hybrid stepper will have a small step angle, much
less than the 7.5
o
of permanent magnet steppers. The step angle could be a fraction
of a degree, corresponding to a few hundred steps per revolution.
4. TYPES OF STEPPER MOTORS IN SUMMARY
Type of Motor Its Summary
VARIABLE-RELUCTANCE
STEPPER MOTOR
The rotor is a soft iron cylinder with salient (protruding)
poles.
This is the least complex, most inexpensive stepper
motor.
The only type stepper with no detent torque in hand
rotation of a de-energized motor shaft.
Large step angle
A lead screw is often mounted to the shaft for linear
stepping motion.
PERMANENT-MAGNET
STEPPER MOTOR
The rotor is a permanent magnet, often a ferrite sleeve
magnetized with numerous poles.
Can-stack construction provides numerous poles from a
single coil with interleaved fingers of soft iron.
Large to moderate step angle.
Often used in computer printers to advance paper.
HYBRID STEPPER MOTOR
The step angle is smaller than variable reluctance or
permanent magnet steppers.
The rotor is a permanent magnet with fine teeth. North
and south teeth are offset by half a tooth for a smaller
step angle.
The stator poles have matching fine teeth of the same
pitch as the rotor.
The stator windings are divided into no less than two
phases.
The poles of one stator windings are offset by a quarter
tooth for an even smaller step angle.
TABLE (1): Stepper Motor Types in Points.
5. DESIGN SPECIFICATION AND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
5.1. DESIGN SPECIFICATION
When a design brief has been agreed on, it is necessary to draw up a design
specification. This is a detailed description of what a product or system would be like,
what it will do and who will use it.

If a stepper motor is to be used, you must decide on which commercial type and how
to drive it. There are a variety of commercial stepper motors available, each of which
comes with its own performance specification. You are advised to experiment with
this or a similar motor using a 'Bit by Bit' controller board. This will quickly familiarize
you with the way stepper motors are controlled. The same board might also be used
as a dedicated control board for your project.

5.2. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
The electrical compatibility between the motor and the driver are the most critical
factors in a stepper motor system design. Some general guidelines in the selection
of these components are:

5.2.1. INDUCTANCE
Stepper motors are rated with a varying degree of inductance. A high inductance
motor will provide a greater amount of torque at low speeds and similarly the reverse
is true.

5.2.2. SERIES, PARALLEL CONNECTION
There are two ways to connect a stepper motor; in series or in parallel. A series
connection provides a high inductance and therefore greater performance at low
speeds. A parallel connection will lower the inductance but increase the torque at
faster speeds.

The following (Figure (18)) is a typical speed/torque curve for a driver and motor
connected in series and parallel:

Figure (18): Series vs. Parallel Motor Connections.
5.2.3. DRIVER VOLTAGE
The higher the output voltage from the driver, the higher the level of Torque vs.
Speed. Generally, the driver output voltage should be rated higher than the motor
voltage rating.

5.2.4. MOTOR STIFFNESS
By design, stepping motors tend to run stiff. Reducing the current flow to the motor
by a small percentage will smooth the rotation. Likewise, increasing the motor
current will increase the stiffness but will also provide more torque. Trade-offs
between speed, torque and resolution are a main consideration in designing a step
motor system.

5.2.5. MOTOR HEAT
Step motors are designed to run hot (50-90 C). However, too much current may
cause excessive heating and damage to the motor insulation and windings. Some
step motors reduce the risk of overheating by providing a programmable Run/Hold
current feature.

6. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF STEPPER MOTORS
6.1. ADVANTAGES OF STEPPER MOTORS
a. Position error is noncumulative. A high accuracy of motion is possible,
even under open-loop control.

b. Large savings in sensor (measurement system) and controller costs
are possible when the open-loop mode is used.

c. Because of the incremental nature of command and motion, stepper
motors are easily adaptable to digital control applications.

d. No serious stability problems exist, even under open-loop control.

e. Torque capacity and power requirements can be optimized and the
response can be controlled by electronic switching.

f. Brushless construction has obvious advantages.

6.2. DISADVANTAGES OF STEPPER MOTORS
a. They have low torque capacity (typically less than 2,000 oz-in)
compared to DC motors.

b. They have limited speed (limited by torque capacity and by pulse-
missing problems due to faulty switching systems and drive circuits).

c. They have high vibration levels due to stepwise motion.

d. Large errors and oscillations can result when a pulse is missed under
open-loop control.

7. DRIVER TECHNOLOGY OVERVIEW
Now we will shortly discuss other important complementary parts of the stepping
motor system. The stepper motor driver (Figure (19)) receives low-level signals from
the indexer or control system and converts them into electrical (step) pulses to run
the motor. One step pulse is required for every step of the motor shaft. In full step
mode, with a standard 200 step motor, 200 step pulses are required to complete one
revolution. Likewise, in microstepping mode the driver may be required to generate
50,000 or more step pulses per revolution.

Figure (19): Driver in a stepping motor systems.

Speed and torque performance of the step motor is based on the flow of current from
the driver to the motor winding. The factor that inhibits the flow, or limits the time it
takes for the current to energize the winding, is known as inductance. The lower the
inductance, the faster the current gets to the winding and the better the performance
of the motor. To reduce inductance, most types of driver circuits are designed to
supply a greater amount of voltage than the motors rated voltage.

8. INDEXER OVERVIEW
The indexer, or controller, provides step and direction outputs to the driver. Most
applications require that the indexer manage other control functions as well,
including acceleration, deceleration, steps per second and distance. The indexer can
also interface to and control, many other external signals. (Figure (20))

Figure (20): Indexer in a stepping motor system.

Some applications require a high degree of synchronization, such as circular or
linear interpolation. Here, it may be necessary to coordinate the movement with a
central processor.
9. STEPPER MOTOR CONTROL REQUIREMENTS
We prefer to focus separately on the motor control this section deals with a unipolar
drive topology and focuses on the full and half-step operation mode. The principal
driver design for a unipolar stepper motor is shown below, in Figure (21).

Figure (21): Unipolar Stepper Motor drive.

The circuit contains four power MOSFETs responsible for the current flow through
the windings. The center tap of the motor winding is connected to the positive
voltage supply. Each coil can be energized in either direction by turning on the
appropriate MOSFET. The driving pattern is similar to the energizing states shown in
Figure (21).

When a motor is operated at a fixed rated voltage its torque output decreases as
step rate rises. This is because the increasing back EMF and the rise time of the coil
current limits the power actually delivered to the motor. The effect is governed by the
motor time constant (L/R). Because of their higher winding resistance unipolar
motors have a better (L/R) ratio than their bipolar equivalents.

The effect can be compensated by either increasing the power supply voltage to
maintain constant current as stepping rate increases, or by increasing supply voltage
by a fixed amount and adding series resistors to the circuit.

There is good reason to run a stepping motor at a supply voltage above that needed
to push the maximum rated current through the motor windings. Running a motor at
higher voltages leads to a faster rise in the current through the windings when they
are turned on, and this, in turn, leads to a higher cutoff speed for the motor and
higher torques at speeds above the cutoff.

In this application design a PI Regulator is used to maintain current at an average
user defined level. The whole PI Regulator is software based to keep external parts
as few as possible.
The following figure (Figure (22)) shows a schematic for general motor control
design with a microcontroller.

Figure (22): General Motor Control Design.
The functions of the components in detail are shown in TABLE (2) below:

Main Supply Provides circuit energy.
Microcontroller Power
Supply
Regulates voltage and current for the
microcontroller.
Microcontroller
Produces the accurate signals for switching the
MOSFETs also contains protection circuit, which
ensures on change of the clock frequency that the
stepping motor does not loose steps.
Microcontroller observes and regulates the
current flow through the motor.
Driver
Switches the power necessary for the motor
phases.
Current Sensor
Gives continuously information about the current
flow through the windings to the microcontroller.
TABLE (2): Functions of Stepper Motor Control Components.
Stepper motor control requirements are summarized below:

o Driver circuit to provide necessary power for the stepper motor.
o Current limiting device (software based).
o Interrupted based microcontroller algorithm to produce exact output
signals.

For the closed loop current control of the motor:

o Measurement of the motor current.
o PWM Signal to control motor current and power.

Sanaa University Page Su
10. APPLICATIONS OF STEPPERS IN PRACTICAL FIELDS
Electric motors of different types and sizes are used in increasingly large numbers in
manufactured products ranging from cars to childrens toys. This reflects increasing
consumer expectations, advances in manufacturing methods and motor design (with
cost reductions), and the need for specialized motors generated by a new generation
of products such as video recorders, computer and computer accessories.

Nowadays, stepper motors are used in a wide variety of applications. They are
prevalent in consumer office equipment such as printers, scanners, copiers and
plotters. They also play an important role in the industry, use in robotics or
dashboard indicators, climate control systems in the automotive industry.

Figure (23): a 3D-view of a stepper motor.
A stepper motor has a permanent magnet rotor that revolves within fixed stator coils.
Unlike a brushless motor, however, there are no sensors. The rotor is driven around
by switching the coils on and off in a special sequence using a driver circuit.

Sanaa University Page S1
Although generally more expensive than the other types, stepper motors offer many
more opportunities for precision control because they can be made to turn through
an exact number of steps. Stepper motors are therefore used, for example, to drive
the moving parts of CNC machine tools and computer printers. Up to 15 stepper
motors might be used to affect the mechanical paper feeding operations in a modern
photocopier.
Figure (24): Photocopier and other applications.

11. DESIGN OPPORTUNITIES
It is often thought that stepper motors are difficult to use and are suitable only for
specialized commercial applications. This is not correct. It is very easy to learn how
to use and drive a stepper motor using, for instance, a 'Bit by Bit' controller. (This can
also be turned into a very powerful dedicated control board by adding external logic
etc.) It is also very straightforward to design and make other types of stepper motor
controller.

There are likely to be many local problems in an industrial, domestic or commercial
context where the use of a stepper motor offers an advantage in providing precise
positional control.
Examples include the following:

A small conveyor system driven by a single stepper motor that needs to be
started or stopped more or less instantly by a control signal.

Figure (25): Stepper Motor in an Industrial Conveyor
Sanaa University Page SS
A stepper-motor-driven linear table which fits onto a drilling machine. The
steps of the motor are displayed on an inexpensive electronic counter to show
the precise distance moved by the table. Uses of the table include drilling
holes at precise spacings for making gear boxes whose gears need to be
precisely depthed.

A 'micro-manipulator' robot using a single stepper motor to transport very small
components over short distances. (This is a SCARA - Semi Compliant
Articulated Robot Arm which moves in just one plane.)

Figure (26): An Articulated Robot.

An advertising system using a number of vertical columns which viewed as a
whole, display an image. When the columns are rotated through an angle, one
image fades and another takes its place.

Figure (27): A Public advertisement board.

Also stepper motors has been used in Film advance.

Figure (28): Using a Stepper Motor for Filming.

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Another widely using of stepper motors in Labeling Machines.

Figure (29): A Labeling Machine.

It is frequently used in Window Blind Gluing.

Figure (30): Window Blind Gluing.

Finally stepper motors are too used in the Factorys Tube Cutter.

Figure (31): A Factorys Tube Cutter.
12. OUR MAIN REFERENCES AND SOURCES
1. James T. Humphries, Motors and Controls Motors and Controls Motors and Controls Motors and Controls, Merrill Publishing Co., 1988.

2. D P Kothari and I J Nagrath, Electric Machines Electric Machines Electric Machines Electric Machines, Tata McGraw-Hill, 3
rd
Edition,
2007.

3. Tony R. Kuphaldt, Lessons In Electric Circuits Lessons In Electric Circuits Lessons In Electric Circuits Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume II Sixth Edition, 2007.

4. Internet Web Sites.

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