De&CF Theory 1

Number Systems and Digital Circuits 1- NUMBER SYSTEMS AND DIGITAL CIRCUITS
Introduction : Modern computers do not work with decimal numbers. Instead of, they process binary numbers, groups of Os and 1s. Why binary numbers? Because electronic devices are most reliable when designed for two states (Binary ) operation either on or off. People do not like working with binary numbers because they are very long. Entering binary numbers into computer becomes tadeous. Therefore octal and Hexadecimal numbers are widely used to compress long strings of binary numbers. Gate is a circuit with one or more input singles but only one output signal. It is used to construct a logical circuits which are the building blocks of a computer. Therefore it is necessary to study the basic operation of gates and logical circuits. This chapter discusses various number systems, gates and concepts needed to understand computer operation. 1.1 Number System: In general, in any number system there is an ordered set of symbols known as digits with rules defined for performing arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. A collection of these digits makes a number which in general has two parts integer and fractional, set a part by a radix point ( . ), that is (N)b = dn-1, dn-2 ---- d2 , ...... d1 , ........ d0 . d-1 , d-2...... d-f ..... d-m Interger portion redix fractional portion point The digits in a number are placed side by side and each position in the number is assigned a weight or index. Table 1.1 gives the details of commonly used number systems. Number system Binary Octal Decimal Base or radix (b) symbol used (di or d-f) 0,1 0,1,2,3,4 0,1,2,3,4,5 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 A,B,C,D,E,F weight assigned to position 2-i 2-f 8-i 8-f 10-i 10-f 16-i 16-f example 1011.11 3567.25 3974.57 3FA9.56
2 8 10 Hexadecimal 16
1.2. Binary number system: The number system with base (or radix ) two is known as the binary number system. Only two symbols are used to represent
Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals
numbers in this system and these are 0 and 1. these are known as bits. It is a positional system, that is every position is assigned a specific weight. Table 1.2 illustrates counting in binary number system. The corresponding decimal numbers are given in the right hand column. Similar to decimal number system the left most bit is known as most significant bit ( MSB) and the right most bit is known as the least significant bit(LSB). Any number of Os can be added to the left of the number without changing the value of the number. A group of four bits is known as nibble and a group of eight bits is known as a byte. Binary number B3 B2 B1 B0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 Decimal Number D1 D0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5
Table 1.2 4- bit binary numbers and their corresponding decimal numbers. Binary to decimal conversation: Any binary number can be converted into its equivalent decimal number using the weights assigned to each bit position. Since only two digits are used, the weights are powers of 2. these weights are20 ( Units ), 21 ( two s), 22 ( fours ) 23 ( eights ) and 24 ( sixteen ). If longer binary number involved, the weights continue in ascending powers of 2.
Number Systems and Digital Circuits
The decimal equivalent of a binary number equals the sum of all binary number equal the sum of all binary digits multiplied by their weights. Example 1.1 : Find the decimal equivalent of binary number 111112. Solution: The equivalent decimal number is, 4 3 2 1 0 =1 x2 + 1x2 + 1x2 + 1x2 + 1x 2 = 16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1 = ( 31 )
10
The steps involved in fast and easy conversion. 1. 2. 3. 4. Write the binary number Write the weights 1,2,4, 8 under binary digits. Cross out any weight under a 0 . Add the remaining weights.
Example 1.2 : Convert binary number 1 1 0 1 2 into decimal number. 1) 2) 3) 4) 1 2 8

3
1 2 4
2
0 2 2
1
1 2 1
0
write binary number write weights cross weight under 0 add weights
1 x 8 +1 x 4 + 2 x 0 + 1 x 1 = 13
2
Example 1.3 :Convert 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 64 1 32 1 16 0 8 1 4
into decimal number 1 1 117
0 2
Example 1.4: Determine the decimal numbers represented by the following binary numbers. a) 101101. 10101 n) 1001 . 0101
Solution: (101101. 10101) =

2
1x 2 5 + 0 x 2 4 + 1x 2 3 + 1x 2 2 + 0 x 21 + 1x 2 0 + 1x 2 1 + 0 x 2 2 + 1x 2 3 + 0 x 2 4 + 1x 2 5
= 32 + 0 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1 + = (45.65625)10
b)
1 1 1 +0 + + 0 + 2 8 32
(1001.0101)2
= 8 + 0 + 0 + 1 + 0 = 0.25 + 0 + 0.625 = (9.3125)10
Decimal to binary conversation: Any decimal number can be converted into its equivalent binary number. For integers, the conversion is obtained by contineous division by 2 and keeping track of the remainders, while for fractional parts, the conversion is effected by continuous multiplications by 2 and keeping track of the integers generated. The conversion process is illustrated by the following examples. How to convert decimal 13 to its binary equivalent.
2 |13 2| 6 2| 3 2|1 2| 0 1 0 1 1
13 = 1 1 0 1 10 2 equalent to binary number.
Read down to up of remainders which is
In this final division, 2 does not divide into therefore, the quotient is 0 with a remainder of 1. Whenever you arrive at a quotient of 0 with a remainder of 1, the conversion is finished the reminders when read downward give the binary equivalent. In this example, binary 1 1 0 1 is equivalent to decimal 13.
Number Systems and Digital Circuits Example 1.5: convert decimal 23 to binary.
2 | 23 2 |11 2| 5 2| 2 2 |1 2| 0 1 1 1 0 1
Read binary number 23 = 10111 10 2 Read down to up and becomes binary equialent number This says that binary 1 0 1 1 1 is equivalent to decimal 23. Example 1.5: Convert ( 0.65625) 10 to an equivalent base 2 number. Solution: 0.65625 X 2 1.31250 1 0.31250 X 2 0.62500 0 0.50000 X 2 1.00000 Thus, ( 0.62500 ) 10 = ( 0.10101 ) 2 Example 1.6: Express the following decimal numbers in the binary form. a)25.5 Solution: a) Integer part: b) 10.625 0.62500 X 2 1.25000 1 0.25000 X 2 0.50000 0
Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals Thus, ( 25) 10 = ( 11001)2

2 | 25 2 |12 2| 6 2| 3 2 |1 2| 0 1 0 0 1 1
Read down to up Fraction part 0. 5 X 2 1. 0 1 i.e 0 . 5 10 = 0.12 Therefore 25.510 = 11001.1 2 b) Integer part 1010 = 1010 2 Fractional part. 0.625 X2 1.250 1 i.e 10.625 0.250 X2 0.500 0.500 X2 1.000 1
10
0 = 1010.101
10
Therefore , 10.625
= 1010.101
1.3. Binary Arithmetic : We all are familiar with the arithmetic operations such as additions, subtraction, multiplication and division of decimal numbers. Similar operations can be performed on binary numbers. Binary arithmetic is much simpler than decimal arithmetic because here only two digits, 0 and 1 are involved.
Binary addition: The rules of binary addition are given in the following table. Augend addend sum 0 +0 0 0 +1 1 1 +0 1 1 +1 (1)0 1 carry in from 1 previous table (1)1
carryout to next most place Example 1.7: Add the following binary numbers. i) 1011 and 1100 ii) 0101 and 1111 Solution:i) 1 (+) 1 ->1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 ii) 0 (+) 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0
1 Carry 1 0
Binary subtraction: The rules of binary subtraction are given in the table. minus end subtrats end difference 0 -0 0 1 -1 0 1 -0 1 0 -1 1
The first three rules are the same as in decimal subtraction. The last rule requires a borrow from the next most significant place. The minuend is then binary 10 and the subtrahend is 1 with a difference of 1. Example 1.8: perform the following subtraction. i) 1011 ii) 01010101 __ 0110 __00111001 Solution: i) Subtraction 0 10 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 __ 1 0 1 ii) 0 0 0 1 0 0 10 0 1 1 10 0 1 1 1 10 0 1 1
1 0 1
0 0 0
1 1
8 Binary multiplication:
The rules of binary multiplication are given in the following table. Multiplied Multiplier X Product 0 0 0 X 1 0 0 X 0 1 0 X 1 1 1
When the multiplier is 1 in binary multiplication, the multiplicand is copied as the product. When the multiplier is 0, the product is always 0. Example 1.9 perform the following multiplication i) 1101 ii) 1001 X 101 X 1101 Sol: i) 1 1 0 1 X 1 0 1 1101 0000 1101 111 10110001 ii) 1 0 0 1 X 1 1 0 1 1001 0000 1001 1001 11 10 101
Observe: That binary multiplication is similar to decimal multiplication. Binary division: Binary division is obtained using the same procedure as decimal division. An example of binary division is given below. Example. 1.10 divide 1 1 1 0 1 01 by 1 0 0 1 Solution: 1 1 0 1<------------------ quotient Divisior: 1001) 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 <-- Dividend 1001 1011 1001 1001 1001 0
1.4. 1s complement of binary number: In a binary number, if each 1 is represented by 0 and each 0 by 1, the resulting number is known as the ones complement of the first number. In fact, both the numbers are complement of each other.
Example 1.11: find the ones complement of the following. Binary numbers. a) 1011000110 b) 00100101 s Solution : a) 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 is 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 s b) 00100101 1 complement number is 11011010 Twos complement: If 1 is added to is complement of a binary number, the resulting number is known as the twos complement of the binary number. It is also observed that the 2s complement of the 2s complement of a number is the number is the number itself. Example 1.12: Find the twos complement of the following. Solution: a) Number is complement add 1 2s complen 01001110 10110001 1 10110010 b) 00110101 11001010 1 11001011
Octal number system : The number system with base ( or redixy) eight is known as the octal number system. In this system eight symbols, 0, 1 , 2 ,3,4,5,6, and 7 are used to represent the number. Similar to decimal and binary number systems, it is also a positional system and has, in general, two parts : Integer and fractional , set a part by a radix point. For example ( 6327. 4051)8 is an octal number. Using the weights it can be written as.
(6327. 4057 )8
6 x8 3 + 3 x8 2 + 2 x81 + 7 x8 0 + 4 x8 1 + 0 x8 2 + 5 x8 3 + 1x8 4 4 5 1 3072 + 192 + 16 + 7 + + 0 + + 8 512 4096 (3287. 5100098)10
= =
10
Using the above procedure, an octal number can be converted into an equivalent decimal number. The conversion from decimal to octal is similar to the conversion procedure from decimal to binary. The only difference is that number 8 is used tin place of 2 for division in the case of integers and for multiplication in the case of fractional numbers. Example 1.13 a) b) Convert 247 into octal convert0.6875 into octal
10 10
c) convert 3287.5100098 into octal 10 Solution

8 | 247 8 | 30 8|3 8|0 7 6 3
Quotient 30 3 0
Remainder 7 6 3
b)
Read the number from down to up reminder part 3 6 7 0.6 8 7 5 0.5000 X8 X8 5.5 0 0 0 4. 0 0 0 0 Thus (0.6875)10 = (0.54 )10 Quotient 410 51 6 0
8
5 c) Integer Part:
8 | 3287 8 | 410 8 | 51 8|6 8|0 7 2 3 6
Remainder 7 2 3 6
10
Now read the number from down to up as 6327 = 3287
11
0. 5 1 0 0 0 9 8 X8 4. 0 8 0 0 7 8 4 4
0.0 8 0 0 7 8 4 X8 0.6406272 0
0.6406272 X8 5. 1250176 5
0.1250176 X8 1.0001408 Therefore 3287.5100098 = 6327. 4051

10 8
Octal to binary: Octal numbers can be converted into equivalent binary numbers by replacing each octal digit by its 3 bit binary equivalent. The following table 1.3 gives octal Numbers and their binary equivalents for decimal numbers 0 to 15. octal Decimal Binary 0 0 000 1 1 001 2 2 010 3 3 011 4 4 100 5 5 101 6 6 110 7 7 111 10 8 001000 11 9 001001 12 10 001010 13 11 001011 14 15 16 17 12 13 14 15 001100 001101 001110 001111
12
Example 1.14: convert 7368 into an equivalent binary number. Solution: From the above table, the binary equivalents of 7, 3 and 6 are 111, 011 & 110 respectively. Therefore 736 8 = 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 2 Binary to octal: Binary numbers can be converted into equivalent octal numbers by making groups of three bits starting from LSB and moving towards MSB for integer part of the number and then replacing each group of three bits by its octal representation. For fractional part the groupings of three bits are made starting from the binary point. Example 1. 15: a) convert 1001102 to its octal equivalent. Solution : 100110 = 001 001 110 2 2 = 1 1 6 8 = 116 8 Octal number: 0.10100110 = 0.101 001 100 2 2 = 0.5 1 4 8 = 0.514
8
Application of octal number system: It is highly in convenient to handle long strings of binary numbers while entering into the digital systems. It may cause errors also. Therefore, octal numbers are used for entering binary data and displaying certain information. Hexadecimal Number system: Hexadecimal number system is very popular in computer uses. The base for hexadecimal number system is 16 which requires 16 distinct symbols to represent the number. These are numerals 0 through 9 and alphabets A through F. this is an alphanumeric number system because its uses both alphabets and numericals to represent a hexadecimal number. Table 1.4 gives hexadecimal number with their binary equivalents for decimal numbers 0 through 15.
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Table 1.4 Binary and decimal equivalents of hexadecimal numbers. Hexadecimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Binary 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111
Hexadecimal to decimal conversion: Hexadecimal numbers can be converted to their equivalent decimal numbers. Example 1.16: Obtain decimal equivalent of hexadecimal number 3A . 2F 16 solution.
3 A . 2 F16 = 3 x161 + 10 x 16 0 + 2 x 16 1 + 15 x16 2 = 48 + 10 + 2 15 + 16 16 2
= 58.183610
Decimal to Hexadecimal conversion: For conversion from decimal to hexadecimal the procedure used in binary as well as octal system is applicable, using 16 as the dividing ( nfor integer part) and multiplying ( for fractional part ) factor.
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Example 1. 17: convert the following decimal number into hexadecimal number. Solution: Integer Parat
16 | 95 16 | 5 16 | 0 15 5
Quotient 5 0
Remainder 15 5 5 F
Thus 95
10
= 5F
16
Fraction part:
0.5 x16 8.0 8 thus 0.5

10
= 0.8
16
Hexadecimal to binary conversion: Hexadecimal numbers can be converted into equivalent binary numbers by replacing each hex digit by its equivalent 4 bit binary numbers. Example 1.18: convert 2 F 9 A 16 to equivalent binary number using table 1.4 find the binary equivalent of each hex digit. 2 F . 9 A16 = 0010 1111 1001 1010 2 = 0010111110 011010 2 Binary to Hexadecimal conversion: Binary numbers can be converted into the equivalent hexadecimal numbers by making groups of four bits starting from LSB and moving towards MSB for integers part and then replacing each group of four bits by its hexadecimal representation. For the fractional part, the above procedure is repeated starting from the bit next to the binary point and moving towards the right.
15
Example 1.19. Convert the following binary numbers to their equivalent hex numbers. a) b) Solution: a) 101001101011112 = 0010 1001 1011 1111 { { { {
2 9 A F
10100110101111 0.00011110101101.
101001101011112 b)
= 29 AF16
0.000111101011012 = 0.0001 1110 1011 0100 1 3{ { { 2

1 E B 4
0.000111101011012
= 0.1EB 416
1.5. The ASCII code: To get information into and out of a computers, we need to use numbers, letters, and other symbols. This implies some kind of alphanumeric code for the I/O unit of a computer. At one time, every manufacturer had a different code, which led to all kinds of confusion. Eventually, industry settle on a input output code known as the American Standard code for Information Interchange ( abbreviated ASCII). This code allows manufacturers , to standerdize I/O hardware such as keyboards, Printers, video displays, and so on. The ASCII ( Pronounced ask ee ) code is a 7 bit code whose format (arrangement) is Where each x is a 0 or a 1. for instant , the letter kA is coded as
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Table The ASCII code. X X X X

2 2 1 0
X X
6
0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111
010 SP ! ,, # $ % & , * + , . 1
011 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 : ; = > ?
100 @ A B C D E F G H I J K M N 0
101 P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
110 111 P A q b r C S d t e u f v g w h x i y j z n 0
Table shows the ASCII code. Read the table the same as a graph. For instance the letter A has an xxx of 100 and an X X X X of 0001. Its ASCII code is 3 2 1 0 100 0001 ( A) Table includes the ASCII code for lowercase letters. The letter is coded as. 110 0001 (a) 1.6. Logic gates: Circuits used to process digital signals are called logic gates. Logic symbols are used to identify these circuits. They have one or more input signals but only one output signal. Gates are often called logic circuits because they can be analyzed with Boolean algebra INVERTERS: An inverter is a gate with only one input signal and one out put signal; the out put state is always the opposite of the input state :
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Transistor Inverter Fig. 1.1 shows a transistor inverter. This common emitter amplifier switches between cut off and saturation when V in is low ( approximately ) , the transistor cuts off and Vout is high(1). On the other hand, a high Vin saturates the transistor, forcing Vout to go low. Table 1.5. summarizes the operation a low input produces a high outputs and a high input results in a low output. Table 1.5 gives the same information in binary form; binary 0 stands for low voltage and binary 1 for high voltage. An inverter is also called a NOT gate because the output is not the same as the input. The output is sometimes called the complement ( opposite) of the input. Table 1.5 truth table of Not gate V
IN
OUT
IN
OUT
Low High High Low V

IN
0 1 V
OUT
1 0 Fig. No.1.1
Logic Symbol OR gates The OR gate has two or more input signals but only one output signal. If any input signal is high, the output signal is high. Diode OR Gate Fig. 1.2 shows one way to build an orgate. If both inputs are low , the output is low. If either input is high, the diode with the high input conducts and the output is high. Because of the two inputs, we call this circuit a 2 input OR gate. A V0 B Fig. No.1.2
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Table 1.6 two input OR gate: A 0 0 1 1 B 0 1 0 1 Y 0 1 1 1
Table 1.6 summarizes the action; binary 0 stands for 10 w voltage and binary 1 for high voltage. Notice that one or more high inputs produces a high output; this is why circuit is called an OR gate. An OR gate can have as many inputs as desired; add one diode for each additional input. Three diodes results in a 3 input OR gate. No matter how many inputs, OR gates always produce high output when one or more inputs are high Fig. Shows the logic symbols for 2 and 3 OR gates. A B Its logical equation is given by Y AND GATES: The And gate has two or more input signals but only one output signal. All inputs must be high to get a high output.
5V A Y B Fig. No. 1.4 Diode AND gate by using diodes Fig.No.1.3(a)
Y A
Fig.No.1.3(b)
= A or B or C ---------- or N = A + B + C + --------- + N
Number Systems and Digital Circuits Diode and gate
19
Fig. 1.3 shows one way to build on AND gate. In this circuit the inputs can be either low or high . when both inputs are low, both diodes conduct and pull the output down to a low voltage. If one of the inputs is low and the other high, the diode with the low input conducts and this pulls the output down to a low voltage. The diode with the high input is reverse biased or cut off.
When both inputs are high both diodes are cut off since three is no current in the resistor, the supply voltage pulls the output up to a high voltage ( + 5V) Table 1. 7 two input AND gate:
A
A 0 0 1 1
B 0 1 0 1
Y 0 0 0 1
A B C Fig No. 1.5
AND gates Logic Symbol
Table 1.7 summarize the action. As usual , binary zero stands for low voltage and binary 1 for high voltage. As you see, A and B must be high to got a high output; this is why the circuit is called an AND gate. AND gates can have as many inputs as desired ; add one diode for each additional input. Three diodes, result in an 3 input and gate; No matter how many inputs, and gate has, the action can be summarized like this; all inputs must be high to get a high output for shows the logical symbols for 2 and 3 input and gates. Its logical equation is given by Y = A x B x C Y = A.B.C N inputs = ABC N inputs
20 NOR gates:
The NOR gate has tow or more input signals but only one output signal. All inputs must be low to get a high output?
Fig No. 1.6 NOR gates logic Symbol
Fig . 1.4 NOR gate : a) logical meaning; b) standard symbol two input gates Fig. 1. 4 ( a) shows the logical structure of a nor gate, which is an OR gate followed by an inverter. Therefore the final output is not the OR of the inputs. Now , the circuit is now referred to as a NOR gate. Fig. 1.4 b) is the standard symbol for a NOR gate. Notice that the inverter triangle has been deleted and the small circle OR bubble moved to the OR gate output. With fig 1.4 a) and b) the following ideas are clear. If both inputs are low, the final output is high. If one input is low and the other high, the output is low. and if both inputs are high. The output is low Table 1.8. two input NOR gate A B Y=A + B 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 Table. 1.8. summarizes the circuit action. The NOR gate recognizes only the input word whose bits are all Os in other words, all inputs must be low to get a high output. The Boolean equation for a 2 input NOR gate is Y=A+B Read this as Y equals NOT, A or B. If you use this equation, remember that the OR is done first, then the inversion. Regardless of how many inputs a NOR gate has, it is still logically equivalent to an OR gate followed by an inverter. Therefore, the boolean equation is
21
Y = A+B+C+. + N NAND GATES: The NAND gate has two or more input signals but only one output signal. All input signals must be high to get a low output.
A B C Y Y = ABC
logical meaning
Fig. 1.6. NAND gate : standard symbol. Two Input NAND gates Fig 1.5 a) shows the logical structure of a NAND gate an gate followed by an inverter. Therefore, the final output is NOT the AND of the inputs. Now the circuit is referred to as a NAND gate. Fig. 1.5 b) is the standard symbol for a NAND gate. The inverter triangle has been deleted and the bubble moved inputs are low the result of anding is low; therefore , the final inverted output is high only when all inputs are high does the AND ing produce a high signal; then the final output is low. Table 1.9 two input NAND gate: Table 1.9 summarizes the action of a 2 input NAND gate. As shown, the NAND gate Recognizes any input word with one or more Os that is one or more low inputs produce a high output. The Boolean equation for a 2 input NAND gate is. A 0 0 1 1 B 0 1 0 1 AB 1 1 1 0
Y = AB
22
Read high as Y equals NOT, AB if you use this equation remember that the AND ing is done first then the inversion. Regardless of how many inputs a NAN D gate has, its still logically equivalent to an AND gate followed by an inverter. Therefore, the Boolean equation is Y = ABC N Note : The NAND and NOR operation have become very popular and are widely used, because either NAND or NOR are sufficient for the realization of any logical expression. Because of this reason NAND and nor gates are known as universal gates. Ex OR gates( Exclusive OR gate): An OR gate recognizes words with one OR more 1s as inputs. Exclusive OR gate is different; it recognizes only inputs that have an odd number of 1s.
A Y B Fig. No. 1.7
= AB + AB
Two input: The above fig shows one way to build an exclusive OR gate, abbreviated EX-OR. The upper and gate forms the produce AB, and the lower and gate gives AB. The Boolean equation is Y = AB + AB In EXCLUSIVE - OR gate as got output, If and only if the two inputs are different then only there is a output. If both inputs are equal there is no output. A 0 0 1 1 B 0 1 0 1 AB + AB 0 1 1 0
23
In Boolean algebra the sign (+) stands for EX - OR addition this means the above equation can be written. Y = AB + AB Read this as Y equals A EX - OR B EXCLUSIVE NOR gates: The EX NOR gate, abbreviated nor is logically equivalent to an EX - NOR gate followed by an inverter. For example fog. 1.7 (a) shows a 2 input EX - NOR gate.
A B Y =AB + AB
Fig 1.8. A 2-input EX- NOR gate Symbol Because of the inversion on the output side, the truth table of an xnor gate is the complement of an xor truth table. As shown in table.1.11 the output is high when the inputs are the same. A 0 0 1 1 B 0 1 0 1 Y 1 0 0 1
Y = AB + AB All the logic functions introduced are commercially available in integrated circuit (IC) form. For example, available in 14 pin DIP). It has four identical, independent requires a + 56 V d.c. supply ( to be connected between Vcc and GND Pins) for operation of gates. Table gives connections , electrical characteristics, etc can be obtained from manufactures data catalogues.
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Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals 1.7. Block diagram of 7400 IC IC NO. 7400 7402 7404 7408 7432 7486 74135
14 13 12
DESCRIPTION Quad 2 - input Nand gates Quad 2 - input Nor gates Hex inverters Quad 2 - input and gates Quad 2 - input or gates Quad Ex - or gats Quad Ex - or / nor gatse
11 10 9 8
Fig. No. 1.9 Block Diagram of 7400 IC
Some of available IC gates 1.8. HALF ADDER : A logical circuit for addition of two one bit numbers is referred to as an half adder. fig.1.10 shows how to build a half adder. Here A and B are two inputs. The output of the EX - OR gate is called the SUM. While the output of the AND gate is the CARRY The AND gate produces a high output only when both inputs are high. The exclusive or gate produces a high output if either input, but not both is high. Table 1.12 shows the truth table of a half adder. A 0 0 1 1 B 0 1 0 1 CARRY 0 0 0 1 SUM 0 1 1 0
25
A B AB= carry
sum = AB+AB
Fig. No. 1.10
Half - Adder When you examine each entry in table you can know the fact that a half adder performs binary addition. It does electronically when we do mentally when we odd 2 bits. Here is the action, entry by entry. 1. 2. 3. 4. when A = 0 and B = 0 , the sum is 0 with carry of 0; When A = 0 and B = 1 the sum is 0 with carry of 0; When A = 1 and B = 0 the sum is 1 with carry of 0; When A = 1 and B = 1 the sum is 0 with carry of 1;
Applications for the half adder are limited. We need a circuit that can add 3 bits at a time. 1.10. Full adder : A logic circuit that can odd 3 bits at a time is to referred to as a full adder. The third bit is the carry from, a lower column. Fig 1.11. shows how to build a full adder. The output of the EX OR gate is called the sum. While the output of the orgate is the carry.
A B C
Carry
SUM
Fig. No. 1.11
Full - adder
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Fig. 1.9. A full adder Table 1.13. full adder truth table A 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 B 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 C 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 CARRY 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 SUM 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
Table 1.13 shows the truth table of a full adder. When you examine each entry in table you can see that a full adder performs. Binary addition on 3 bits. Half Subs tractor : A logic circuit for the substraction of B ( subtrahand ) from A ( minuend ) where A and B are 1 bit numbers is referred to as a half subtractor. Here, A and B are the two inputs and difference and borrow are the two outputs. Fig. 1.10 Realization of a half substractor.
Table 1.14 Truth table of a half - substractor A 0 0 1 1 B 0 1 0 1 Difference 0 1 1 0 Borrow 0 1 0 0
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Short answer questions 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11) 1. 2. 3. What is an ASCII code? What is a logic circuit ? What is meant by or gate? What is meant by not gate? What is meant by not gate Why nor and nand gates are called universal gates ? What is Half adder? What is full adder ? Draw the symbols of or and not gates? Draw the symbols of nand, nor gates? What is ex or gate ? SELF TESTING REVIEW Binary means ___________ binary numbers have a base of 2. the digits used in a binary number system are ___________ and ___________( two ; 0; 1) A gate is a logic circuit with one or more input signals but only ___________ output signal. These signals are either ___________ or high. ( one low ) An inverter is a gate with only ___________ input ; the output is always in the opposite state from the input. An inverter is also called as ___________ gete. Sometimes the output is referred to as the complement of the input ( 1 , not) The orgate has two or more input signals; if any input is ___________ the output is high. The numbers of input words in a truth table always equals ___________ where n is the number of input bits. A nor gate has two or more input signals. All inputs must be ___________ to get a high output. A nor gate recognizes only the input word whose bits are ___________the nor gate is logically equivalent to or gate followed by an ___________ (low Os inverter) A NAND gate is equivalent to an AND gate followed by an inverter. All inputs must be ___________ to get a low output. Demorgans second theorem says that a nand gate is equivalent to a bubbled ___________ gate ( high , or )
4. 5.
6.
28
Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals PROBLEMS Convert the following binary numbers to decimal numbers a) 0011 b) 110011 Convert 0 the following hexadecimal numbers to binary. a) FF b) ABC Convert the binary numbers to hexadecimal number. a) 111 0 1000 b) 11001011 Convert the hexadecimal numbers to decimal equivalent a) FF b) 9B Convert the decimal numbers to hexadecimal; a) 4,095 b) 16, 383 If you cascade seven inverters, does the overall circuit act like an inverter or non inverter? Long Answers & questions Explain the operation of two input or gate with its truth table? Explain the operation of transistor INVERTER? Explain the operation of two input And gate with its truth table ? Explain the operation of nand gate with its truth? Explain the operation of half adder circuit? Explain the operation of nor gate with its truth table ? Explain the operation of full adder circuit? What is ex or and ex nor gates ? explain ?
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Flip-Flops, Registors, Counters 2- FLIP FLOPS , REGISTERS AND COUNTERS 2.0.Introduction :
29
Gates are decision making elements. As studied in the preceeding chapter, they can perform binary addition and subtractions. But these elements are not enough. A computer also needs memory elements, devices that can store a binary digit. A flip flop is one such circuit, and characteristics of the most common types of flip flops are used in digital systems are considered in this chapter. They are used in the construction of Registers and counters, and in numerous other applications. A register is another important digital building block. It is simply a group of flip flops that can be used to store binary information. The other kind of Registers will modify the stored word by shifting its bits left or right. A counter is a special kind of register, designed to count the number of clock pulses arriving at its input. This chapter discusses some basic registers and counters used in micro computer. A brief introduction of Multiplier / Demultiplexer and encoder / decoder is presented. 2.2. RS LATCHES: A flip flop is a device with two stable states; it remains in one of these states until triggered into the other. The RS latch/flip-flop , discussed in this section, is one of the simplest flip-flop. Transistor Latch: In fig 2.1 a each collection drives the opposite has through a 100 k resister. In this circuit, one of the transistors is saturated and the other is cut off. For instance, if the right transistor is saturated, its collector voltage is approximately OV. This means that there is no base abive for the left transistor so it cuts off and its collector voltage approaches. + 5 . V this high voltage produces enough base current in the right transistor to sustain its saturation. The overall circuit is latched with the left transistor cut off ( dark shading ) and the right transistor saturated. O is approximately OV. By a similar arguments, if the left transistor is saturated, the right transistor is cut off fig b illustrates this other state. Q is approximately 5 V for this condition. Output Q can be low or high binary 0 or 1.
30
+5V
5k

+5V
5k
SK
SK
Rc
SK
SK
Rc
RB
100k
RB
100k
RB
100k
RB
100k
Latched state (a)
Control Inputs: The control the bit stored in the latch , we can add the inputs shown in fig. 2.1 these control inputs will be either low ( OV) or high (+ 5 V). A high set input S forces the left transistor to saturates. As soon as the left transistor saturates. The overall circuit latches and Q = 1.
+5V
5k
Fig. No.2.1
Latched state (a)
SK
SK
Rc
RB
100k
RB
100k
S R
trigger inputs
Fig. No.2.2
Once set, the output will remain a 1 even though the S input goes back to OV a high reset input R drives the high right transistor into saturation. Once this happens the circuit latches and Q = 0. Truth Table: Table 2.1 summarizes the operation of the transistor latch. With both control inputs low no change can occur in the output and the circuit remains latched in the last state.
Flip-Flops, Registors, Counters
31
Table 7.1 Transistor Latch R 0 0 1 1 S 0 1 0 1 Q NC 1 0 * COMMENTS No Changes Set Reset Race
When R is low and S is high, the circuit sets the Q output to a high. One the other hand, if R is high and S is low the Q output resets to a low. RACE CONDITION
S R Q
Q-
Fig. No.2.3
Look at the last entry in table 7.1 R and S are simultaneously. This is called a race condition; it is never used because it leads to unpredictable operation. If both control inputs are high both transistors saturated when the R and S inputs return to low, both transistor try to come out of saturation. It is a race between the transistors to see which one desaturates first. The faster transistor ( the one with the shorter saturation delay time) will win the race and latch the circuit. If the faster transistor is on the left side of fig C, the Q output will be 10 W. If the faster transistor is on the right side, the Q output will go high. NOR LATCHES: A discrete circuit like Fig. 2.1 C is rarely used because we are in the age of integrated circuits. Now a days you build Rs. Latches with nor gates or NAND gates.
R Q
Q-
Fig. No.2.4
32
Fig. 2.2 shows how its done with NOR gates. It is the most basic and useful sequential logic circuit. It is called the R S flip flop because it has two inputs. The S( set ) and R ( reset ) inputs. The two outputs denoted by Q and Q are complementary to each other. Whenever, Q is at the state 1 , the Q is at the state 0 and vice versa. Table 2.2 NOR latch. R S Q COMMENTS 0 0 NC No Changes 0 1 1 Set 1 0 0 Reset 1 1 * Race As shown in table a low R and a low S give us the inactive state; that is remain circuit remains in the same state. A low R and a high S represent the set state, while a high R and a low S give the reset state. Finally, a high R and a high S produce a race conditions therefore, we must avoid R = S = 1 when using a NOR latch. NAND LATCHES: A slightly different latch can be constructed by using NAND gates as shown in figure 2.3 to understand how this circuit functions, recall that a low on any input to a nand gate will force its output high. Thus a low R and high S set a Q to low and Q = 0 A high R and low S reset Q to low. Because of NAND gate inversion, the in active and race conditions are reversed.
R Q Q
R 0 0 1 1
S 0 1 0 1
Q * 1 0 NC
Comments Race Set Reset No Changes
Q-
Fig. No.2.5
2.3 NAND gate latch and truth table.
Flip-Flops, Registors, Counters Clocked RS flip flop
33
Two different methods for constructing an RS flip flop were discussed in the previous section with NOR gate and NAND gate realization. Both of these RS flip flops or latches, are said to be transparent ; that is any change in input at R or S is transmitted immediately to the output at Q and Q thus they acts as short term memory. It is possible to store or clock the flip flop in order to store information ( set it or reset it ) at any time, and then hold the stored information for any desired period of time. This flip flop is called clocked RS flip flop. The circuit of a clocked RS flip flop is shown in figure 2.6 with its symbol and truth table.
R R1 Q CLK
QS S1
Fig. No. 2.6 CLK 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 R 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 S 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 Q NC NC NC NC NC 1 0 * ( Race)
34
Fig. 2.4 clocked RS flip flop x symbol and its truth table It consists of two additional and gates added at the input of R S flip flop. In addition to control inputs R and S, there is a clock input CK. The output of the two and circuits ( S1 and R1 ) will be 0 as long as CK = 0. then the state of the flip flop will remain unchanged and if S = 0 , R = 1 then S = 0 R = 1 and the flip flop is reset to 0. On the other hand if S = 1 , R = 0 then S =1 R = 1 and the flip flop is set to 1. the presence of R1 =1 and S1 =1 , will however , results in an undetermined state. JK FLIP FLOP Fig. 2.5 shows one way to build a JK flip flop the variables J and K are called control inputs because they determine what the flip flop does on the arrival of a positive clock edge.
CLK
R K
CLK 0 1 X
K X X X 0 0 1 1
L X X X 0 1 0 1
Q NC NC NC NC 0 1 Toggle
Fig2.7 JK flip flop symbol and its truth table.
35
Inactiver: When J and K are both low, both AND gates are disabled and the circuit is inactive at all times including the rising edge of the clock. Reset : When J is low and K is high, the upper gate is disabled; so there is no way to set the flip - flop. The only possibility is reset. When Q is high, the lower gate passes a reset trigger as soon as the next positive clock edge arrives. This forces Q to become low. Therefore, J=0 and K=1 means that the next positive clock edge resets the flip-flop. Set: When J is high and K is low, the lower gate is disabled; So it is impossible to reset the flip-flop. But you can set the flip-flop as follows. When Q is low, Q is high; therefore, the upper gate passes a set trigger on the positive clock edge. This drives Q into the high state. That is , J=1 and K =0 means that the next positive clock edge sets the flip - flop. Toggle: When J and K both are high ( notice taht this is the forbidden state with an RS flip - flop), it is possible to set or reset the flip - flop. If Q is high, the lower gate passes a reset trigger on the next positive clock edge. When Q is low, the upper gate passes a set trigger on the next positive clock edge. Either way Q changes to the compliment of the last state. Therefore, J =1 and K=1 means that the flip - flop will toggle on the next positive clock edge. (toggle means switch to opposite state) JK MASTER - SLAVE FLIP-FLOP: a master - slave flip-flop is a combination of two clocked latches. The first one is called master and second one is the slave. Here are master is positively clocked while slave is negatively clocked. This means: 1. While the clock is high, the master is active and slave is inactive. 2. While the clock is low, the master is inactive and slave is active. Fig. 2.8. shows the logic diagram of JK master - slave flip - flop; symbol and its truth table. CLK J K Q X 0 0 NC 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 Toggle
36

S
J Master F.F K
J Slave F.F
Q Logic diagram
Q M/S
K LLR Symbol
Fig No. 2.8
Set: To start tghe analysis, lets assume low Q and high Q. For an input condition of high J, law K and high CLK, the master goes into the set state, producing high S and Low R. Nothing happens to the Q and Q outputs because the slave is inactive while the clock is high. When the clock goes low, the high S and low R forces tghe slave into the set state, producing a high Q and a low Q. Reset: When the slave is set, Q is high and Q is low. for the input condition of low J, high K and high CLK, tghe master will reset, forling S to go low and R to go hig. again, no changes can occur in Q and Q because tghe slave is in active while the clock is high. When the clock returns to low state, the low S and high R forces the slave to reset. Toggle: If the J and K inputs are both high, the master toggles once while the clock is high and then slave toggles once when the clock goes low. The basic idea behind the master slave flip - flop is that, every action the master slave flip - flop is that, every action of the master with high CLK is copied by teh slave when CLK goes low. It is used to avoid reacing condition.
37
D Flip - flop: We will modify the design of Rs flopo flop to eliminate the possibility of a raced condition. the rsult is a new kind of flip - flop known as D loatch.
D R Q
D 0 1
Q 0 1
Q S
Fig. No. 2.9 Fig. 2.9. shows one way to build a D latch ( unlocked) because of the inverter, data bit D drives the S input of a NAND latch and compliment D drives tghe R input. Therefore, a high D sets the latch, and low D reset it. Observe, there is no race condition in this truth table. The inverter guarantees that S and R will always be in opposite states. Therefore it is impossible to set up a race condition in the D latch. Applications of Flip - Flops: Some of the common uses of flip - flops are: 1) latch 2) Registers 3) Counters 4) Memory ( RAM) 2.3. Need for a Register: As discussed in previous section a flip flop can store 1 bit of digital information ( 1 or 0 ) it is also referred to as a 1- bit register. But in digital system a situation will a raise to store more than 1 bit of information. For example, the binary number 0101 is called as 4 bit binary number. A 4 bit register is needed to store this 4 bit binary number. There are 4 flip flops in an 4 bit register 8 flip flops in an 8 bit register, and so on. The 8 bit and 16 bit registers are extensively used as a part of CPU of a 8/ 16 bit microprocessors. They are involved in all mathematical / logical operations that can be performed by CPU and in storing the information temporarily.
38
Register : . A register is simply a group of flip flops ( memory elements ) that can be used to store binary information. There must be one flip flop for each bit in the binary number. For example a register used to store an 8 bit binary number must have eight flip flops. Types of Register : Registers are classified depending upon the way in which data are entered and retrieved. There are four possible modes of operation : 1. Serial in serial out 2. Serial in parallel out 3. Parallel in serial out 4. Parallel in parallel out
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
d a
2.4. Transferring data from Register to Register : A register is used to enter data into a microprocessor or computer and extract data from it. Wire cables are generally used in transferring the data. If a parallel register is used, the data is shifted in parallel . an 8 bit register required a cable having at least 8 wires, and 16 wires for a 16 0 bit register and so on.
R e g i s t e r A (8) R e g i s B t e r R e g i s t e r A (16) R e g i s B t e r
Fig. No. 2.10 Data also transferred ( shifted) between register within a digital system. It is common registers within a digital system. It is common practice to use an arrow between registers for these collections of wires. The number 8 in parentheses means that there are 8 wires and used to transfer 8 bit of data in parallel from register A to register B.
(a) An 8-bit data bus
(b) An 16-bit data bus
39
The eight wires represented by this arrow are called a data bus. The double arrow shown in fig. 2. 10 (b) means 16 bits of data can be shifted in parallel from A to B or from B to A. this is a 16 bit bi-directional data bus. Buffer Register : A buffer register is the simplest land of registers. If simply stores a digital word. The given fig. 2.11 shows a buffer register built with positive edge triggered D flip flops X X X X
Q3 D3 Q2 D1 Q1 D1 Q0 D0
CLK
Fig. No. 2.11 The X bits ( X3 X2 X1 X0 ) are used for loading ( storing ) the flip flops. Therefore when a positive clock pulse arrives, the X bits entered into the flip flops and stored word becomes. Q3 Q2 Q1 Q0 = X 3 X 2 X1 X 0
2.5. Shift Registers: Registers in which data are entered obtain out in serial form are called as shift Registers. It moves the stored bits in the right direction ( right - shift register ) or in the left direction ( left shift register ) with the occurrence of clock pulses. This bit shifting is essential for certain arithmetic and logical operations used in micro processors. 2.6. Left shift register: Fig. 2.12 is a shift left register. As shown dim sets up the right flip flop. Q sets up the second flip flop Q the third, and so on. When the positive clock strikes the stored bits move one position to the left.
Q3 D3 Q2 D1 Q1 D1 Q0 D0 Din
CLK Fig. 2.12 Shift left register
As an example , consider
40
Q = 0 0 0 0 and dim = 1 ( i.e D = 1) All data inputs except the one on the right are OS. The arrival of first clock pulse sets the right flip flop and the stored word becomes, Q = 0001 This new word means D as well as D now equal 1. when the next clock pulse hits, the Q flip flop sets and the stored word becomes Q = 0011 One the arrival of third clock pulse Q becomes. Q = 0111 and the fourth clock pulse gives Q = 1111. Right Shift Register: Fig. 2.12 is a shift right register. As shown each Q output sets up the D input of the preceding flip flop. When the positive clock pulse arrives, the stored bits move one position to the right.
Q3 D3 Q2 D1 Q1 D1 Q0 D0
Din
Fig. 2.13 Shift Right register
As an example , consider Q = 0000 and Dim = 1 ( That is D == 1) All data inputs except the one on the left are O s. The arrival of first clock pulse sets the left flip flop and the stored word becomes, Q = 1000. This new word means D as well as D1 now equals 1 . when the next clock pulse hits, the Q2 flip flop sets and the stored word becomes Q = 1100 The third clock pulse give Q = 1110 and the forth clock pulse give Q = 1111. 2.70. Counters: A counter is a special kind of register, designed to count the number of clock pulses arriving at its input. It is one of the most useful subsystem in a digital systems. The input to this counter is a rectangular waveform called clock. Each time the clock signal changes state from low to high, the counter will add one (1) to the number stored in its slip flop. This means the counter will count the number of clock transitions from low to high.
41
A 1 2
C 3
D 4
|H
L
0000 (Begin)
0001
0010
0011
0100
0101
0110
0110 (End)
Fig. No. 2.14 A clock having a small circle (bubble) in the input side would count clock transitions form high to low. Since clock pulses occur at know intervals, the counter can be used as an instrument for measuring time and therefore frequency. There are basically two different types of counters synchronous and Asynchronous. A ripple counter can be constructed by use of clocked JK flip flops as shown in the Fig. 2.14. here negative edge triggered, JK flip flops are connected in cascade. The clock pulse ( square wave ) drivers flip flop A. the output of A drives B, and the output of B drives flip flop C. All the J and K inputs are tied to + Vcc. This means that each flip flop will change state( toggles) with negative transition at its input.
Q3
J3 K3
Q2
J2 K2
Q1
J1 K1
Q0
J0 K0
High
Q3
Q2
Q1
Q0
CLR
Fig. 2-16 Synchronous counter
The above waveforms shows the action of counter. Lets assume that all the flip flops are reset to produce 0 outputs. If we consider A output as least significant Bit (L.S.B) and C the most significant Bit ( MSB) then the contents of the counter is CBA = 000 For every clock transition flip flop A will change state. This is indicated by arrows ( ) on the time line. Thus at point a on the time line A goes high, at
42
point B it goes back low, at C it goes back high and so on. Since A acts as clock for B, for each negative transition in A , flip flop B will toggle. Thus at point b on the time line B goes high; it then goes low at d and toggles back high again at pint F. Similarly B acts as clock for C , for each negative transition in B, flip flop C, will toggle. Thus C goes high at point d and goes back at point h. If we observe the output condition of all flip flop it is the binary number equivalent to the number of negative clock transitions that are occurring. Prior to point A, the output is CBA = 000 at point a it changes to CBA = 001, at point b it changes to 010, and so on. That is counter content advances on count with each negative clock transition. It is summarized in the truth table. It is observed that a counter having n flip flop will have 2n output conditions. For example. The three flip flop counter just discussed has 23 = 8 output conditions ( 000 through 111). The largest number that can be represented by n flip flop has decimal equivalent of ( 2n- 1). In this example, it is ( 23 1) 7. A three flip flop counter is also called a modulus 8 counter ( mod 8) since it has eight states. Similarly mod = 16. mod 32and mod 64 counters are also available. Synchronous counters: The ripple counter is the simplest of all kinds of counters. But the problem with it is its delay time. In a ripple counter each flip flop has a delay time and these delay times are additive. Therefore the total settling time for the counter is equal to the delay time multiplied by total number of flip flops. This problem can be overcome by the use of a synchronous or parallel counter. Here every flip flop is triggered in synchronism with the clock. The following fig. 2.15 shows how to build a synchronous counter with positive edge triggered flip flop. Here the clock pulses drive all the flip flop in parallel. The J and K inputs of Q0 flip flop are tied to a high voltage. Therefore,
43
it responds to each positive clock edge. But he remaining flip flops can responds to the tve clock edge with certain conditions. The Q1 flip flop toggles on the tve clock edge only when Q0 is 1. the Q2 flip flop toggles only when Q1 , Q0 and are 1 s. the Q3 a flip flop toggles only when Q2 ,Q1 and Q0 are 1. That is , a flip - flop toggles on the next tve clock edge if all lower bits are1s. Here is the counting action. A low CLR reset the counter. Q = 0000. When the CLR goes high, the counter is ready to go. The first + ve clock edge sets Q, therefore Q = 0001. Since Q is now 1 , the Q flip flop toggles on the next positive clock edge. When the second + ve clock edge arrives, Q and Q simultaneously toggle and the o/p word becomes , Q = 0010. the third + ve clock edge advances the count by 1; and the o/p world becomes , Q = 0011. Because Q and Q are now is, the Q, Q and Q flip flops are toggled on the next + ve clock edge( fourth clock pulse) and the output word becomes Q = 0100. For successive + ve clock edges Q words are 0101, 0110, 0111 and so up to 1111. the next + ve clock edge reset the counter and cycle repeats. Ring Counter: A ring counter is a shift left register because the bits are shifted left one position per positive clock edge. But the final output is feedback to the Do input. This kind of action is known as rotate left the bits are shifted left and fed back to the input. The following figure is a ring counter built with D flip flops. The Q0 output sets the D1 input the Q1 output sets the D2 input, and so on.
Q3 J3 K3 Q2 J2 K2 Q1 J1 K1 Q0
PR
J0 K0
CLR
Q3
Q2
Q1
Q0
Fig. 2-16 Ring counter
When CLR goes low, the initial o /p word is Q = 0001. the first positive clock edge shifts MSB into LSB. The other bits shift left one position. Therefore the output word becomes Q = 0010.
44
The second positive clock edge causes another rotate left and o/p word becomes Q = 0100. After third positive clock edge, the output word is Q = 1000. The fourth positive clock edge starts the cycle and rotate left produces Q = 0001. The stored 1 bit follows a circular path. This is why the circuit is called a ring counter. By adding more flip flops we can build a ring counter of any length. 2.8. Decode counter ( Mode 10 counter) : A counter with 10 distinct states is known as a decade counter. This counter counts 10 sequences and reset on 10 th clock pulse. That is , the circuit count and from 0000 to 1001 and on the tenth clock pulse, it generates its own clear signal and count jump back to 0000. The following is the mod 10 counter design. The counter can be reset, if the AND gate output is low. This can be happened with a low CLR or low Y. Initially low CLR produce Q = 0000. when CLR is high, the counter is ready and count sequence progress. The output of the NAND gate is, Y = Q3 Q1. This output is high for the first nine states ( 0000 to 1001). Nothing happens when the circuit is counting from 0 to 9. on the tenth clock pulse, the Q word becomes; Q = 1010, which means that Q3 and Q1 are high. Then immediately Y goes low, forcing the counter to reset to Q = 0000.
High
Q3
J3 K3
Q2
J2 K2
Q1
J1 K1
Q0
PR
J0
CLK
Q3
Q2
Q1
Q0
K0
CLR
Fig. 2-17 Decade counter
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2.9. Applications of counters: Some of the common uses of digital counters are as follows. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. To count the number of events that are happening in an operation. An instrument for measuring time and therefore frequency. To construct for measuring time and therefore frequency. In a digital voltmeters and frequency counters. To count and control a sequence of operations in a microprocessors and computers.
Asynchronous counter( ripple counter) : When the output of a flip flop is used as the clock input for the next flip flop we call the counter as a ripple counter or asynchronous counter. The triggers move through the flip flops like ripple in water because of this, the over all settling time is the sum of the individual delays. The ripple counter is simple in operation and construction and need a minimum of Hardware.
+vCC J K A A A Time Cock A B C K K K K K K J K B B B K K K J K C C C K
Negative
Clock C transitions
B A
State or count
0 a b c d e f g h
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0
0 0 0
Fig. No. 2.15 Multiplexer : The term multiplex means many to one. A Multiplexer is a circuit with many inputs but only one output. By applying control signals, we can steer ( allow ) any input to the output. Fig. Illustrates the idea. There are n input lines. There is a single output line which is connected to the computer. By applying control signals on the C bus , the switch will connect to one of the input lines. Then the data from that input line is entered into the computer. Change in the control signals will connect a different input. Thus,
46
data from multiple sources can be connected to a single port.

C
n input lines
One output line
One output line
n output lines
Fig. 2.19 a) A multiplexer. (b) A demultiplexer ( DEMUX)
Demultiplexer: The opposite of multiples is Demultiplex, which means One to many. A demultiplex is a logic circuit signal, we can steer the input signal to one of the output lines. Fig. 2. 19 (b) illustrate the general idea. This digital circuit simply connects the single data input line to one of the output lines, according to the control signals on the C bus. Thus serial data from the computer can be directed to different destinations. Encoder: Any information entered into a digital system must be in the form of digital number. A circuit that changes data into an required digital form is called an encoder. The following is the encoder which will change a decimal number into its binary equivalent. It may be used with keyboard. For example, when you press the number 4 on a key board, it will produce a high on s /p line 4 of the encoder. The all other input lines are to be low., this will results in encoder output as binary number 0100 which is binary equivalent of decimal number 4.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Decimal inputs
Fig. 2.20 a) An encoder
b) A decoder
Decoder : Taking digital information from the output of a computer and changing it into decimal form is done with a circuit called decoder. The decoder as shown in fig. 2. 19 (b) will accept a 4 bit binary number and indicate its
Decimal inputs
A B C D
Decimal Decimal outputs inputs
A B C D
47
decimal equivalent between 0 and 9. as shown the binary input 0110 will cause output line 6 to be high, while all other output lines remain low. Short answer questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. What is a latch ? What is a flip flop? Name the types of flip flops ? Give the applications of flip flops ? What is a register ? What are the types of Register ? What are the applications of Registers? What is a counter? What is a ring counter? What is a decade counter? What are the applications of counters? What is Multiplexer? What is Demultiplexer? What is a decoder? What is a encoder?
Long answers Questions: 1. Explain the operation of NOR and NAND latcher? 2. Explain the operation of CLK R S flip flop ? 3. Explain the operation of J K flip flop ? 4. Explain the operation of J K master slave flip flop ? 5. Explain the operation of D flip flop? 6. Explain the operation of Shift left register? 7. Explain the operation of shift right register ? 8. Explain the operation of ripple counter? 9. Explain the operation of synchronous counter? 10. Explain the operation of Decade counter?
48
3- SEMICONDUCTOR MEMORIES 3.0.Introduction: The ability to store information in an important requirement in a digital system circuits or systems designed for this purpose are called as memory. It is a part of computer where the program and data area stored. A flip flop and Register are two kinds of simple memory elements which can store a one bit and a one word of binary information. In a large system, such as a microcomputer, a huge amount of registers each storing a binary with thousands of registers each storing a binary word. The latest generation of computer uses semiconductor memories because they are less expensive and easy to work. A typical microcomputer has a semiconductor memory of 655360 memory locations, each capable of storing 1 byte ( 8 bit size) of information 3.1. Semiconductor memories: Recent developments in semiconductor technology have provided a number or reliable and economical MSI and LSI memory circuits. The typical semiconductor memory consists of a rectangular array of memory cells. The basic memory cell is typically a transistor flip flop or a circuit capable of storing charge and used to store 1 bit of information. The two general categories of semiconductor memories are RAM and ROM. They can be further divided into various types as illustrated in fig. 1
RAM Random Access Memory
SRAM Static RAM Bipolar MOS SRAM Dynamic RAM DOS
ROM Read Only Memory
Fig. No. 3.1
SRAM Programmable ROM Bipolar MOS
EPROM Erasable PROM MOS
EEPROM Electrically erasable PROM MOS
Semiconductor Memories 3.2 Memory as a shift registor
49
All these memories are classified as either bipolar , metal oxide semiconductor (MOS) or complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS), according to the type of transistor used to construct the basic memory cell. Moving storing the data into memory is called write operation. Copying / detecting data from memory, without destroying the contents, is called read operation. The read/ write memory is most often called a RAM( Random Access Memory) Generally RAM is volatile, which means it will be lost its data if the power to the IC is turned off for even an instant. RAM s are further subdivided into two groups namely static RAM and Dynamic RAM. The static RAM retains stored information indefinitely as long as the IC is powered. A dynamic RAM, on the other hand, does not retain stored data indefinitely. The stored data must be stored again ( refreshed) periodically. SRAMS are used in high speed operations such as cache memory. DRAMS are used as the bulk of the memory. 3.3. Memory Terminology: Read only memories come in four versions. The standard ROM is programmed by the manufacturer. The PROM can be programmed permanently by the user or manufacturer using special equipment. It can be programmed only once. The EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) can be programmed and erased by the user. Stored data in EPROM can be erased by passing high intensity ultraviolet light through a special transparent window in the top of the IC. Another erasable PROM is the EEPROM ( electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) . The EEPROM can be erased and programmed by the user with special equipment. It is erased electrically rather than with ultraviolet light. All the types of ROM s are non volatile light. All the types of ROM s area non volatile, which means they will not lose their data when power to the IC is turned off:
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Diode ROM: Figure shows how to build a ROM Tagle 9.1. Diode ROM Register R0 R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 Address 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Word 0111 1000 1011 1100 0110 1001 0011 1100
R0 R0 R0 R0 R0 R0 R0 R0 D3 D2 D1 D0
Fig. 3.2 ROM with on-chip decoding
Each horizontal row is a register or memory location. The R0 Register contains three diodes, the R1 register has one diode, and son on. The output of ROM is the word, D = D3 D2 D1 D0.
Semiconductor Memories
51
As shown in the table, the address of a memory location is the same as the subscript of the register storing the word. The address of memory locations can be known with three input pins A2 A1 and A0. the 1 of 8 decoder produce a high output to one of the registers depending on logic bits present on input pins (A2 A0). For examples if ADDRESS = A2 A1 A0 = 100. The 1 of 8 decoder applies a high voltage to the R4 register, and ROM output is D= = 0110. If you change the address word to ADDRESS = 110. You will read the contents of memory location 6, which is D = 0011. The above circuit is a 32 bit ROM organized a s8 words of 4 bits each. It has three address ( input) lines and four data ( output) lines. This is a vary small ROM compared with other rooms. PROMS AND EPROMS: The term ROM is generally reserved for memory chips that are programmed by the manufacturer. You have to send a list of data to be stored in the different memory locations to the manufacturer, who then produce a mask. Now the user can be able to read the stored. Data from the ROM. Programmable: A programmable ROM(PROM) is different. It allows the user to store the data. An instrument called a PROM programmer is used in storing the data( also called burning in). once this has been done, the programming is permanent, that is the stored bits cannot be erased. Erasable: The erasable PROM(EPROM) used MOSFETs. Data is stored with a PROM programmer. Later , data can be erased with ultraviolet light passing through a window present on the top of memory chip. This releases stored charges and the effect is to wipe out the stored contents. The user can erase and store until the program and data are perfected. EEPROM: Another type of reprogrammable ROM device is the EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Read Only Memory). It is a non volatile like EPROM but does not require ultraviolet light to erase the data. It can be erased by using electrical pulses. It can be used for slower application.
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Semi conductor RAMs: Semiconductor RAMs may be static or dynamic. The static RAM uses bipolar or MOS flip flops . A dynamic RAM uses MOSFET s and capacitors to store the data. The stored data must be refreshed ( Recharged) for every few milliseconds. Because the capacitor charge leaks off. Static RAM: The figure shows one of the flip flops used in a static MOSRAM. Q1 and Q2 acts like switches. Q3 and Q4 are active leads which means they behave like resistors. The Circuit action is similar to the transistor latch discussed in chapter2. Either Q1 is cut off or vice versa. A static RAM will contain thousands of flip flop like this. As long as power is applied, the flip flop remains latched and can store the bit indefinitely. Sense
line
Q3 X Q1
Q4 X Q2
Control line
Storage Capacitor
Fig. 9-4(a) Static Cell
Fig. 9-4(b)
Dynamic RAM: Figure shown one of the memory elements( called calls) in a dynamic RAM. When the sense and control lines go high, the MOSFET conducts and charges the capacitor. When the sense and control lines go low, the MOSFET opens and the capacitor retains its charge. In this way, it can store 1 bit. A dynamic RAM may contain thousand of memory cells like this. Since only a single MOSFET and capacitor are needed, the dynamic RAM contains more memory cells than a static RAM of the same physical size. The disadvantage of dynamic RAM is the need to refresh the capacitor charge every few milliseconds. BASIC MEMORY TERMINOLOGY: Word Length: The number of bits stored in a memory location is called its word length. It will depend upon the number of flip flops in a row of the register. Generally 4, 8 and 16 size of memory locations are available in
Semiconductor Memories
53
semiconductor memories. CAPACITY: The capacity or size of a memory is defined as the number of memory locations available in the memory multiplied by the number of bits in each location. Mathematically it is given by. Where, C= MxN C is the no. of memory locations and N is the no of bits in each memory location.
The commonly used values of the number of memory location are 64, 256, 512, 1024, 2048, 4096 and the number of bits in each memory location( i.e. word length) are 1,4 and 8. Address: The different memory locations in a memory chip are identified by its unique address. This unique address is identified by placing appropriate 0 s and 1s on the address pins. For accessing any one of M memory locations, P address lines are required , where 2p = m. This set of P lines is called address bus. For example , a ROM with 256 memory locations can be accessed with 8 address lines. ( 28 = 256) Write operation: Moving 1 storing the data into the selected memory location is called write operation. For writing a word into a particular memory location, the following sequence of operations is to be performed. 1) The chip select signal is applied to the CS terminal. 2) Place the DATA to be stored on the data input terminals. 3) Place the ADDRESS of the desired memory location on the address input terminal. 4) Finally apply a write command signal to the write control input terminal. In response to the above operations, the information memory location is cleared off and the information present on the DATA input terminal is stored. Read Operation: Copying/ detecting data from memory, without destroying the contents, is called read operation. For reading a data from a particular memory location, the following sequence of operation is to be performed.
54 1) 2) 3)
Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals The chip select signal is to be applied to the CS terminal. Place the ADDRESS of desired memory location on the address input terminal. Apply a READ command signal to the read control input terminal.
In response to the above operations, the data from the addressed memory location appears on the DATA OUTPUT terminal. Write cycle Time ( TWC) This is the minimum amount of time for which the valid address must be present for writing a word in the memory. That is, it is the minimum time required between two successive write operations. Read cycle time ( TRC) : This is the maximum time amount of time for which the valid address must be present for reading a word from the memory. That is, it is the minimum time required between two successive read operations. Sequential access memory: It is a memory in which the words ( datas) are stored in and read out in sequence. For example if the 10th location is being th accessed at a particular time, then 15 location is not accessable, unless all th other intermediate locations ( i.e. 11,12,13 and 14 ) have been accessed one by one. This means that the access time is not same for all the locations. Advantages of semiconductor memories: The following are the major advantage of semiconductor memories. 1) They are available in small size (min the form of Ics) 2) Low cost and high speed of operations 3) High Reliability 4) Easy to expand memory size( capacity) Applications: The following are some of basic applications of semiconductor memories. 1) 2) 3) 4) RAMS are used for temporary storage of user programs and data. SRAMS are used for cache memory. ROMs are most often used of storing permanent instruction necessary for stratup and operation of a computer. In micro controllers for specialized applications.
Semiconductor Memories Short answer questions: 1) What is a memory 2) What is semiconductor memory? 3) What are the types of memories? 4) What is a ROM and RAM? 5) What is EPROM? 6) What is the difference between SRAM and DRAM? 7) What is a cache memory? 8) What is a word length. 9) What is a write operation? 10) What is a read operation? 11) What is a access time. 12) What are the advantages of semi conductor memories? 13) Give the applications of memories? Long answer questions: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) Classify the semi conductor memories? Explain the operation of diode ROM memory? Explain the operation of SRAM and DRAM? Explain the READ operation? Explain the write operation? Explain the address of memory? What is the capacity of memory? Explain?
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Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals 4 A/ D AND D/ A CONVERTERS
4.0. Introduction: Digital systems are widely used in many applications such as communication , control , computers, instrumentations etc. In many of these applications , the signals are available only in analog form , but not in digital form. Hence by using digital hardware. These analog signals have to be converted into digital form. The process of converting analog signals into digital form is known as analog to digital conversion ( A/D). the system which is used for this process is known as A/D converter ( ADC) Conversely, it is often necessary to convert the digital output of the system into analog voltage or current. This process is known as Digital to analog conversion ( D/A) and the system used for this purpose is known as digital to analog D/A converter (DAC). 4.1 Need for A/D and D/A conversion: In many of the applications digital systems must be interfaced with analog equipment. In such cases, the digital system is needed for A/D and D/A converters ; for the communication or the data transfer with analog equipment. 1) In the Fig. 2.1 shows a typical situation in which the digital system has analog inputs and outputs. The input section is a variable voltage source, giving a continous voltage ranging from 0 to 10 V. then the A/D converter translates the analog input digital data. After the computer of processing the data in the digital system, the system gives the digital 1 data output. This output will be translated into an analog voltage by the D/A converter. This output analog voltage is indicated by the voltmeter. Variable Voltage Source No Converter Digital System D/A converter
Analog output V
Fig. 4.1 Digital System with A/D and D/A converters
A/D, D/A Converters
57
Thus the above situation necessitate A/D and D/A converters along with the digital system. 2) Similarly , a digital communication system is used to transmit the signals, which are in the form of electric signals. This necessitate or requires an D/A converter at the transmitting end and a A/D converter at the receiving end. 4.2 Methods of A/D and D/A conversions: Digital to Analog (D/A ) Conversion: The process of converting a digital signal into analog is known as Digital to analog (D/A) conversion. There is two types of D/A converters 1) Weighted Register D/A converter 2) R 2 R D/A converter. Basic Principle of D/A conversion : The basic principle of operation of D/A conversion is shown in the block diagram of a D/A converter in the below figure. Voltage switches with Reference Voltage source 1s 2s 4s 8s Resistive summing network
Amplifiers
Analog output
Fig. No. 4.2 Block Diagrame of D/ A converters Let the input digital data is applied to the voltage switches. The switches are with reference voltage source (Vref ); in which each source feeds a precisely regulated voltage to the switches. When the binary signals of digital data are applied on voltage switches, then the switches provide one of two possible outputs; i.e.OV or the precision source voltage. The switches feed resistive summing network which converts each bit into its weighted current value and sums them for a total current. This total value is then fed to the amplifier and gives the proper analog voltage value for the equivalent digital data. In most of the converters, operational amplifier ( OP-AMP) is mostly used. Note that this amplifier performs two functions. These are current to voltage conversion and scaling. So that the output voltage of the D/A converter will be the proper value.
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4.3 Counter type A/D converter: The block diagram of a counter type 4 bit A/D converter is shown in the fig below. It employs a voltage comparator, an and gate a BCD counter and a D/A converter. Digital input
CLK AND BCD Counter 8s 4s 2s 1s D 3 D2 D1 D0
Ananlog input
Voltage Compar atore
D/A Coun ter Fee back Voltage
Fig. No. 4.3

Black diagram of A counter type 4 - bit aid converter
Operation : Let the counter begin RESET and the output of the D/A converter is zero. Apply the analog voltage at the input. If the analog input voltage at A is grater than the voltage at the input B of the comparator, then the output of the comparator switches to a high state and enables the AND gate. The clock pulse is allowed to increase or advance the count of the BCD counter through its binary states. The counter continues to advance from one binary state to the next producing successively higher steps and the count will be displayed at the digital or binary output as D D D D. the count on the counter increases until the feed back voltage from the D/A converter increases becomes greater than the analog input voltage. Whenever the voltage at B is greater than at A, the comparator output will go low and disables the AND gate. It results the cutting off the clock pulses to stop the counter. The state of the counter at this point equals the number of steps in the reference voltage or feed back voltage at which the comparison occurs voltage. Note that for each of sample of analog voltage, the counter must count from zero up to point at which the feed back voltage reaches the analog input voltage. Thus A/D converter produces the digital output of an analog input voltage. Disadvantages : 1) Slow speed of operation is the main drawback of this method. In the worst case of maximum input, the counter must sequence through its maximum number of states before the conversion occurs. For a 4 0 bit, 8
A/D, D/A Converters
59
bit and 16 bit conversions, this means a maximum of 16, 256 and 4096 counter states are required respectively. 2) For each sample of analog voltage, the counter must count from zero up to the point at which the feed back voltage reaches the analog input voltage. 3) The conversion time varies , depending upon the analog voltage. 4.4 D/A Conversion using ladder network : To overcome the difficulties in the weighted resistors method, R 2R ladder type resistive network is commonly used in integrated D/A converters. This method eliminates the range problem, because only two resistance values are needed the tolerance problem is minimized. An integrated ladder can divide the current more accurately than a binary weighted circuit even when the number of bits increases. A 4 bit D/A converter that uses R 2 R ladder type resistance network is shown in the below fig. The function of this R 2 R ladder resistor network is the same as the at of the binary weighted resistor network. The advantage of the ladder type network is that only two values of resistors are needed; i.e one 2 time ( 2 R) the other resistor. Hence the network has the name R 2 R resistor network.
Voltage switches with Vref (MSB)
(LSB) R1 2R 2 R1 R2 2R R3 2R R4 2R R-2 Resistive Summing 2R
Amplifier
Fig. (1) R-2 R Ladder Types 4 - bit D/A Converter
Fig. No. 4.4
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A Vp
(LSB)
2R 2R A1 R
2R R C1
2R R D1
2R
(MSB)
B1
B A R R 2R R
C R
D 2R R 2R B1 B R
C R 2R
D R
2R
2R
B1
C1
C1
D1
D R
VR 23
2R D
VR 24
2R
C1
D1
D1
Fig. No. 4.5
Analog To Digital (A/.D) Conversion : Much of the information provided in a digital system exists first in analog form requiring conversion to digital. The process of converting analog signal into digital is known as Analog to digital[ A/D ]conversion there are many methods for A/D conversion with varying conversion rate with varying conversion rates, cost and susceptibility to noise. In this section we shall examine the major methods which are used in various applications these are counter method and successive approximation method.
A/D, D/A Converters
61
Operation : The operation of the circuit can be simplified by using Thevenins theorem. Let us assume that the digital input is 0001, i.e SO = 1, S1 = 0 S2 = 0 and S3 = 3. by the application of thevenins theorem to the resistive network of the figure at A A of the circuit in Fig.1 ( A) we can simplify the circuit as shown in the fig. 1(b), In the AA- section , the two 2 R resistors are in Parallel and its equivalent resistance is R. Similarly, by using this theorem at BB1, CC1 and DD1 we have the circuit as shown in figure 1(c) (d) (e) respectively. Thus, the LSB has been assumed as 1 and the equivalent voltage is VR / 24 Similarly for the digital input 0010, 0100 and 1000 the equivalent voltages the V / 23 and V /22 respectively. Note that the value of equivalent resistance in 3 R in each case. The equivalent circuit of the fig 1 is given in the fig 2 (a) From the circuit of the above figure, the output analog voltage can be determined. As per with binary progression of the switches Vo is given by
V0 V0
Rf VR Rf VR Rf VR Rf V . S3 S1 + S2 + = . R So + 4 3 2 3R 2 3R 2 3R 21 3R 2 Rf VLR 3 = 2 S 3 + 2 2 S 2 + 21 S1 + 2 0 S 0 4 3R 2
( where minus sign indicates the phase inversion ) Thus , by using the above expression; the analog output voltage is determined for various switch positions of the digital input. Short answer questions: 1) 2) 3) 4) What is A/D converter? What is D/A converter? What are the types of D/A converters? What are the types of A/D converters?
Long answer questions: 1) 2) Explain the operation of R 2R ladder D/A converters? Explain the operation of Counter type A/D converters?
Table 5.1 Intels family Processors and Their features Microprocessors features Year Data Bus With Address Bus Width Memory Size 8085 1976 8 bits 8086 1978 16 bits 80186 1980 16 bits 80286 1983 16 bits 80386 1984 32bits 32bits 80486 Pentium 1995 64 bits Pentiium II 1997 64 bits Pentium - III 1999 64bits
16bits
20 bits
20bits
24bits
32bits
32bits
32bits
36 bits
36 bits
64 KB
1 MB 5mHz
1 MB 6mHz
16 MB 12mHz
32 MB 33mHz
4GB 66mHz
4 GB 200mHz
4 GB 266mHz
4 GB 266mHz
Clock Frequency 3 mHz
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5 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS
Introduction: The computers is making an impact on every aspect of our lives. They have been in general use since 1950s. formerly, they were large, expensive and used only by government agencies, big universities and large corporations. The size and shape of the computer has changed in the past few years because of a device called Microprocessor. A computer designed using microprocessor is called a Microcomputer. This chapter introduces the basic structure of a computer, that is its basic components and interaction between them. Definition of the computer: A computer may be defined as an electronic machine which accepts data and instructions in coded forms as inputs, stores them as long as required, processes the data as per the instructions and communicates the results in some human language as the outputs. A set of instructions written for the computer to perform a task is called a program and a group of programs is called software. Computer organization (block Diagram of computer): Fig. 5.1 shows a simplified structure of a microcomputer. It includes five basic components: the input unit, the control and arithmetic ,output and unit. The physical units shown in boxes are called as hardware. The arrows between them gives an indication of signal flow. input CPU control + arithmetic output
data memory Memory Fig. No. 5.1 How the computer works can be explained briefly in the following manner. Both program and data are fed into the CPU and transferred to their respective memory locations. The CPU reads instructions from the memory and performs the task specified by the instruction on the data. This action of CPU on the data is called
program memory
Fundamentals of Computer
63
execution. After the completion of execution, the results are transferred to the output of the computer. The input and output devices are known as Peripherals. The control unit is a part of CPU and has a function to control various operations in the microcomputer. INTERACTION BETWEEN CPU, MEMORY AND I/O DEVICES The computer is programmable ; that is, it can be instructed to perform tasks within its capability. The person( here called as programmer) using a computer can select appropriate instructions and ask the computer to perform various tasks on a given set of data. Now, the equation is: where does he write those instructions and enter data?. The answer is memory. Memory: Memory is like the page of note book with space for a fixed number of binary numbers on each line. Generally each line has space for eight binary bits. The user writes the necessary instructions and data in memory. He asks the computer to perform the given task and find an answer. But, here also a quation araises. How does he can enter those instructions and data into the computers memory? The answers are input and output( I./O) devices. Input/ Output: The user can enter instructions and data into memory through input devices such as a keyboard, A/D converters and so on. The ASCII keyboard is similar to a typewriter keyboard and it is used to enter programs in an English like language. After performing the given task, the result from CPU can be taken through output devices such as printer, Cathode Ray Tube and Magnetic Tape. Now the Quation is; where the computer processes data. This is done with the group of logic circuits called Central Processing Unit( CPU) CPU: The Central Processing Unit of a computer consists of various registers to store data, the Arithmetic Logic Unit ( ALU) to perform arithmetic and logical operations. The CPU reads instructions from the memory and Performs the tasks specified. The CPU ineracts(Communicates) with input / output devices to accept or to send data. In addition to working Registers and ALU, The CPU consists instruction decoder, counters and control lines. The control Unit provides the necessary in the microcomputer. It controls the flow of data between the Micro processor and
64 peripheral including memory.
Functions of memory / CPU: The functions of various components of a microcomputer can be summarized as follows. Memory: The memory block shown in fig. 5.1 has two sections: Read Only Memory ( ROM) and Read write Memory(R/WM), popularly known as Random Access Memory ( RAM). The Monitor programs of a microcomputer are generally stored in the ROM. The Read/ write memory is also known as user memory. It is used to store user programs and data. The memory functions are, 1) 2) 3) 4) It stores binary instructions and data called as programs. It provides the instructions and data to the CPU on request It stores intermediate results and data for the CPU. The uses system bus to transfer programs and data.
C.P.U. :The Central Processing Unit(CPU) is the brain of a digital computer. It is constructed using an ALU along with a number of registers and counters. The CPU is therefore the primary centre for computation and decision making. The primary functions of CPU are, 1) 2) 3) 4) It will fetch, decode and execute program instructions in the proper order. It transfer data to and from memory; and to and from the input / output sections. It provide overall timing control signals for the entire system. It respond to external interrupts.
5.4 Functions of I/O Devices: Input / Output devices are the two basic components that can provide a link between a computer and outside world. They are normally abbreviated as I/O devices. An input device allows data and information to enter into a micro computer in a machine readable form ( binary word). An output device receives information from the micro computer and present into a form which can easily be read by people. The functions of input device are, 1) It accepts ( reads) the data from outside world 2) It converts the data in binary form that can be acceptable by the
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computer. 3) It sends data in binary form to the computer for further processing. The generally used input devices are keyboard, mouse, floppy disk, OMR Sheets, Scanner, microphone and web camera. The functions of output devices are, 1) It accepts data in binary form from computer. 2) It converts the coded data into human acceptable form 3) Sends the converted result to the outside world. The generally used output devices are Monitor, printer, speakers, floppy drives and Plotters. 5.5STATE RELAVANCE OF SPEED AND WORLD LENGTH FOR CPU PERFORMANCE. Computers (or processors) recognize and operate in binary numbers. These binary numbers are combined to form a word. A word or word length is defined as the number of bits the computer can recognize and process at a time. The word length ranges from 4 bits for small computers to 32 bit for large computers. The another name to word length is byte. A byte is defined as a group of 8 bits. For example, a 16 bit microprocessor has a word length of 2 bytes. The number of bits in a word or word length for a given computer( or) processor ) is fixed and words are formed through various combinations of these bits. If width of the registers in a processor is increased, the number of data and address pins may also be made larger so that the data transfer rate ( i.e. speed of the processor) and memory capacity are increased. That means, increase in world length will improve the CPU performance in the following manner. 1) 2) 3) 4) Increase the computational capability of the processor(or) the execution speed. Increase memory addressing capacity. Provide a powerful instruction set Facilitate programming in high level languages.
5.6 Functional Blocks of CPU: The main functioning unit of any computer system is called the Central Processing Unit. The primary functions of CPU are already discussed in section 5.3. The major functional blocks includes the various registers, the arithmetic and logic unit, the instruction decoder, the important control and timing section, along with inputs and outputs as shown in fig. 5.2
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Internal bus
Arithmetic and logi unit
Temporary register
Buffer
Buffer / lach
Accemulator Program Counter Instruction decoder Instruction register
Timing and control CPU
Fig. No. 5.2 a) Instruction Register and decoder: The instruction register holds the instruction read from ROM. The decoder sends the control signals appropriate to the decoder instruction to the decoded instruction to the ALU. b) Arithmetic logic Unit: This unit is used to Perform all the arithmetic and logic operations, such as additions, multiplication , comparison etc. c) Control Unit: This unit coordinates the activities of the all other units in the system. Its main functions are, 1) 2) To control the transfer of data and information between various units. To initiate appropriate functions by the arithmetic unit.
5.7 CURRENT FAMILY OF CPUS USED IN COMPUTERS Todays CPU market is dominated by two Vendors; Intel corporation of America(Intels) and American Micro Devices (AMD). Intels CPU offers form 8085 to Pentium line, the celron, the hig end Xeron and Ultra high end Itanium Processors. AMD gives us the Athlon, Duron and Athlon Xp product families. Intels 80186,8.0286,80386,80486 and Pentium are the first processors to have a 32 bit and 64 bits data bus. The Intel family processors with their features are given in table 5.1.
Internal bus
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5.8. TYPES OF MEMORY USED IN COMPUTERS The following are some important RAM and ROM memories recently used in computers. RAMs Memory: SIMM: Signal Inline Memory Module (SIMM) is one of the most commonly used form of memory. SIMM RAM sticks came in either 30 pin SIMM has 8bits data bus where 72 pin SIMM has 32- bit data bus. DIMM; Dual Inline Memory Module is other type of memory used in these days. It is available in 168 or 184 pin configuration. The data bus width is 64 bits wide. RIMM: Rambus Inline memory module. These are used for high end version processors and available in 184 pin package. RD RAM: RD RAM developed by Rambus uses special Channels that have data rate transfer of 800M Hz. . You can also double the channel width for faster speeds. ROM Memories: The different types of ROMs are 1) EPROM 2) EEPROM which are discussed in the chapter 4 semiconductor memories. 5.9 . IMPORTANCE OF CACHE MEMORY It is observed that semiconductor memories using high speed transistor flip flop are the fastest memories. But they are most expensive at the other end we have magnetic memories that can operate with low speed. Generally a CPU does its operations at very high speed. The main memory present in the computer( i.e. magnetic memory) is a low speed memory. Thus there is a speed mismatch between the processor and main memory. The processor is forced to wait or kept idle for getting data or instruction from memory. This speed mismatch is eliminated by using a small fast memory as an intermediate buffer between the memory and the processor as shown in fig. 5. 4. this memory
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is known as a cache memory. It is fabricated using high speed semiconductor devices. Main Memory data
address
Cache Memory Address Processor Fig. No. 5.3 Generally a series of instructions are copied into cache memory from the main memory. Then the processor fetches instructions from the cache. Thus fetch time( getting the instruction ) is considerably reduced. When instructions in the cache are exhausted, the next series of instructions is copied into it from the main memory. The devices used to fabricate a cache memory are expensive. Therefore the size of the cache memory is kept small. For example, the latest memory is kept small. For example, the latest Pentium processors has a cache memory of 8 to 32 killo bytes of size. 5.10. STORAGE DEVICES USED IN COMPUTERS: The purpose of external storage is to retain data and programs for future use. The information stored on these devices is permanent and not erased when the equipment is turned off. The popular external storage media used with computers are: 1. Floppy disk. 2. Hard Disk 3. Magnetic tapes data
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Floppy Disks: The most common storage medium used on small computers in s floppy disk. It is a flexible plastic disk coated with magnetic material and looks like a phonograph record. Information can be recorded or read by inserting it into a disk drive connected to the computer. The disks are permanently erased in stiff paper jackets for protection and easy handling. An opening is provided in the jacket to facilitate reading and writing of information. Spindle hole label information Write protect notch
Read & Write Fig. No. 5.4
Index Hole
Floppy disks are available in three standard sizes. 8 inches, 5 Inches, 3 Inches. Hard Disk: Another magnetic media suitable for storing large volumes of information is the hard disk. A hard disk pack consist of two or more magnetic plates fixed to a spindle, one below the other with a set read/ write heads as shown in fig. 5. the disk pack is permanently sealed inside a casing to protect it from dust and other contaminations. Hard disks possess a number of advantages compared to floppy disks. 1. They can hold much larger volume of information. 2. They are very fast in reading and writing. 3. The not susceptible to dust and static electricity. 4. Storage capacity ranges 10 MB to 80 MB.
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Fig. No. 5.5 Magnetic Tapes: Relatively inexpensive storage media known as magnetic tapes and are used as back up media. A standard 2,400 feet tape can store about 40 million characters and can be read at a speed of 1, 60,000 characters per second. It is like a music cassette, that is a sequential device and therefore one has to read all the previous records to reach a particular one. 5.10. Generations of computer: History of computers: Computer History starts with the development of a device called the abacus by the Chinese around 3000 BC. This was used for the systematic calculation of the arithmetic operations. Although there were a number of improvements in calculating devices, no conceptual changes were made until the end of the 18th Century., during the first decade of the 19th century, Charles Babbage developed his differential and analytical engines. This device has provisions for inputting data, Storing information, performing arithmetic operations and print out results. This provides base for the modern computer. Later in the 1940s the first electronic machine known as ENIAC ( Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator) was introduced. Computers developed after ENIAC have been classified into the following four generations. Computer Generations: First Generation Second Generation Third Generation Fourth Generation 1946 1955 1956 1965 1966 1975 1976 present.
First Generation: The first generation computers are those in which vaccum tubes are used. All the first generation computers possessed the following
Fundamentals of Computer characteristics as compared to the later models. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) Large in size Slow operating speeds. Restricted computing capacity. Limited programming capabilities Short life span Complex maintenance schedules
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Second Generation : The second generation computers were marked by the use of a solid state device called the transistor in the place of vaccum tubes. All these devices were much faster and more reliable than their earlier counterparts. Further , they occupied less space, required less power and produced much less heat. Third Generation: The research in the field of electronics led to the innovation of the integrated circuits known as IC chips. The use of IC chips in the place of transistors gave birth to the third generation computers. They were still more compact, faster and less expensive, than the previous generation. Fourth generation: Continued effort towards miniaturization led to the development of large scale integration (LSI) technology. Intel corporation introduced LSI chips called microprocessors for building computers. The computer that uses LSI chips has been named the fourth generation computers. The fourth generation computers are marked with an increased user computer interaction and speed. Fifth generation : Japan and many other countries are working on systems what are known as expert systems which will considerably improve the man machine interaction. Such systems would integrate the advancements in both hardware and software technologies and would facilitate computer aided problem solving with the help of orgnised information in many specialized areas. This generation of computers is termed as fifth generation computers. Although expert systems are expensive and time consuming to build, they are likely to become more popular in the next few years.
72 Types of computers:
Based on the operating principles, computers can be classified into one of the following types. 1. Digital computer 2. Analog computer 3. Hybrid Computer Digital Computer: Digital computers operate essentially by counting. All quantities are expressed as discrete digits or number. Digits. Digital computers are useful for evaluating arithmetic expressions and manipulations of data such as preparation of bills, ledgers, solution of simultaneous equations . etc. Analog Computer: Analog computer operate by measuring rather than by counting. The analog computer functions by establishing similarities between two quantities that are usually expressed as voltages or currents. Analog computers are powerful tools so solve differential equations. Hybrid Computer: Computers which combine features of both analog and digital types, are called hybrid computers. Classification of computers: Computers are also available in different sizes and different capabilities. Broadly they may be categorized as micro computers, mini computers, mainframes and super computers. Micro computers: A micro computer is the smallest general purpose processing system. Microcomputers are self contained units and usually designed for use by one person at a time. Since microcomputers can be easily linked to large computer, they form a very important segment of the integrated information systems. Minicomputers: A minicomputer is a medium sized computer that is more costly and powerful than a micro computer. Mini computer is usually designed to serve multiple users simultaneously. A system that supports multiple users is called Multiterminal, time sharing system. Minicomputers are the popular data processing systems.
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Mainframe computers: Computers with large storage capacities and very high speed of processing ( compared to micro or minicomputers) are known as mainframe computers. They support a large number of terminals for use by a variety of users simultaneously. They are also used as the central host computer in distributed data processing systems. Super computer: These have extremely large storage capacities and computing speeds which are atleast 10 times faster than other computers. The super computer is used for large scale numerical problems in scientific and engineering disciplines. These included applications in electronics, production engineering, weather forecasting, structural analysis, chemistry, medicine and physics. Short answer questions 1. 2. 3. 4. What is a computer? What are the types of computers? What is a microprocessor? What are the functions of the following units? a) Arithmetic Logic Unit b) Control Unit c) Processing Unit d) I/O Unit What is a memory unit? Explain the term Hardware and software? Give the examples of I/O devices? Define word length. Give the example of 32 bit and 64 bit micro processors. Give the examples of currently used memories? What is a cache memory? Give the example of storage devices?
5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.
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Long answer questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Explain briefly how a computer works? Give the functions of memory Unit? Give the functions of CPU? Give the functions of I/O devices? Draw the CPU functional block and explain? Draw the functional block of a computer and explain? Explain a) floppy b) Hard disk. Distinguish between magnetic memory and semi conductor memory.
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5 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS
Introduction: The computers is making an impact on every aspect of our lives. They have been in general use since 1950s. formerly, they were large, expensive and used only by government agencies, big universities and large corporations. The size and shape of the computer has changed in the past few years because of a device called Microprocessor. A computer designed using microprocessor is called a Microcomputer. This chapter introduces the basic structure of a computer, that is its basic components and interaction between them. Definition of the computer: A computer may be defined as an electronic machine which accepts data and instructions in coded forms as inputs, stores them as long as required, processes the data as per the instructions and communicates the results in some human language as the outputs. A set of instructions written for the computer to perform a task is called a program and a group of programs is called software. Computer organization (block Diagram of computer): Fig. 5.1 shows a simplified structure of a microcomputer. It includes five basic components: the input unit, the control and arithmetic ,output and unit. The physical units shown in boxes are called as hardware. The arrows between them gives an indication of signal flow. input CPU control + arithmetic output
data memory Memory Fig. No. 5.1 How the computer works can be explained briefly in the following manner. Both program and data are fed into the CPU and transferred to their respective memory locations. The CPU reads instructions from the memory and performs the task specified by the instruction on the data. This action of CPU on the data is called
program memory
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execution. After the completion of execution, the results are transferred to the output of the computer. The input and output devices are known as Peripherals. The control unit is a part of CPU and has a function to control various operations in the microcomputer. INTERACTION BETWEEN CPU, MEMORY AND I/O DEVICES The computer is programmable ; that is, it can be instructed to perform tasks within its capability. The person( here called as programmer) using a computer can select appropriate instructions and ask the computer to perform various tasks on a given set of data. Now, the equation is: where does he write those instructions and enter data?. The answer is memory. Memory: Memory is like the page of note book with space for a fixed number of binary numbers on each line. Generally each line has space for eight binary bits. The user writes the necessary instructions and data in memory. He asks the computer to perform the given task and find an answer. But, here also a quation araises. How does he can enter those instructions and data into the computers memory? The answers are input and output( I./O) devices. Input/ Output: The user can enter instructions and data into memory through input devices such as a keyboard, A/D converters and so on. The ASCII keyboard is similar to a typewriter keyboard and it is used to enter programs in an English like language. After performing the given task, the result from CPU can be taken through output devices such as printer, Cathode Ray Tube and Magnetic Tape. Now the Quation is; where the computer processes data. This is done with the group of logic circuits called Central Processing Unit( CPU) CPU: The Central Processing Unit of a computer consists of various registers to store data, the Arithmetic Logic Unit ( ALU) to perform arithmetic and logical operations. The CPU reads instructions from the memory and Performs the tasks specified. The CPU ineracts(Communicates) with input / output devices to accept or to send data. In addition to working Registers and ALU, The CPU consists instruction decoder, counters and control lines. The control Unit provides the necessary in the microcomputer. It controls the flow of data between the Micro processor and
64 peripheral including memory.
Functions of memory / CPU: The functions of various components of a microcomputer can be summarized as follows. Memory: The memory block shown in fig. 5.1 has two sections: Read Only Memory ( ROM) and Read write Memory(R/WM), popularly known as Random Access Memory ( RAM). The Monitor programs of a microcomputer are generally stored in the ROM. The Read/ write memory is also known as user memory. It is used to store user programs and data. The memory functions are, 1) 2) 3) 4) It stores binary instructions and data called as programs. It provides the instructions and data to the CPU on request It stores intermediate results and data for the CPU. The uses system bus to transfer programs and data.
C.P.U. :The Central Processing Unit(CPU) is the brain of a digital computer. It is constructed using an ALU along with a number of registers and counters. The CPU is therefore the primary centre for computation and decision making. The primary functions of CPU are, 1) 2) 3) 4) It will fetch, decode and execute program instructions in the proper order. It transfer data to and from memory; and to and from the input / output sections. It provide overall timing control signals for the entire system. It respond to external interrupts.
5.4 Functions of I/O Devices: Input / Output devices are the two basic components that can provide a link between a computer and outside world. They are normally abbreviated as I/O devices. An input device allows data and information to enter into a micro computer in a machine readable form ( binary word). An output device receives information from the micro computer and present into a form which can easily be read by people. The functions of input device are, 1) It accepts ( reads) the data from outside world 2) It converts the data in binary form that can be acceptable by the
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computer. 3) It sends data in binary form to the computer for further processing. The generally used input devices are keyboard, mouse, floppy disk, OMR Sheets, Scanner, microphone and web camera. The functions of output devices are, 1) It accepts data in binary form from computer. 2) It converts the coded data into human acceptable form 3) Sends the converted result to the outside world. The generally used output devices are Monitor, printer, speakers, floppy drives and Plotters. 5.5STATE RELAVANCE OF SPEED AND WORLD LENGTH FOR CPU PERFORMANCE. Computers (or processors) recognize and operate in binary numbers. These binary numbers are combined to form a word. A word or word length is defined as the number of bits the computer can recognize and process at a time. The word length ranges from 4 bits for small computers to 32 bit for large computers. The another name to word length is byte. A byte is defined as a group of 8 bits. For example, a 16 bit microprocessor has a word length of 2 bytes. The number of bits in a word or word length for a given computer( or) processor ) is fixed and words are formed through various combinations of these bits. If width of the registers in a processor is increased, the number of data and address pins may also be made larger so that the data transfer rate ( i.e. speed of the processor) and memory capacity are increased. That means, increase in world length will improve the CPU performance in the following manner. 1) 2) 3) 4) Increase the computational capability of the processor(or) the execution speed. Increase memory addressing capacity. Provide a powerful instruction set Facilitate programming in high level languages.
5.6 Functional Blocks of CPU: The main functioning unit of any computer system is called the Central Processing Unit. The primary functions of CPU are already discussed in section 5.3. The major functional blocks includes the various registers, the arithmetic and logic unit, the instruction decoder, the important control and timing section, along with inputs and outputs as shown in fig. 5.2
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Internal bus
Arithmetic and logi unit
Temporary register
Buffer
Buffer / lach
Accemulator Program Counter Instruction decoder Instruction register
Timing and control CPU
Fig. No. 5.2 a) Instruction Register and decoder: The instruction register holds the instruction read from ROM. The decoder sends the control signals appropriate to the decoder instruction to the decoded instruction to the ALU. b) Arithmetic logic Unit: This unit is used to Perform all the arithmetic and logic operations, such as additions, multiplication , comparison etc. c) Control Unit: This unit coordinates the activities of the all other units in the system. Its main functions are, 1) 2) To control the transfer of data and information between various units. To initiate appropriate functions by the arithmetic unit.
5.7 CURRENT FAMILY OF CPUS USED IN COMPUTERS Todays CPU market is dominated by two Vendors; Intel corporation of America(Intels) and American Micro Devices (AMD). Intels CPU offers form 8085 to Pentium line, the celron, the hig end Xeron and Ultra high end Itanium Processors. AMD gives us the Athlon, Duron and Athlon Xp product families. Intels 80186,8.0286,80386,80486 and Pentium are the first processors to have a 32 bit and 64 bits data bus. The Intel family processors with their features are given in table 5.1.
Internal bus
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5.8. TYPES OF MEMORY USED IN COMPUTERS The following are some important RAM and ROM memories recently used in computers. RAMs Memory: SIMM: Signal Inline Memory Module (SIMM) is one of the most commonly used form of memory. SIMM RAM sticks came in either 30 pin SIMM has 8bits data bus where 72 pin SIMM has 32- bit data bus. DIMM; Dual Inline Memory Module is other type of memory used in these days. It is available in 168 or 184 pin configuration. The data bus width is 64 bits wide. RIMM: Rambus Inline memory module. These are used for high end version processors and available in 184 pin package. RD RAM: RD RAM developed by Rambus uses special Channels that have data rate transfer of 800M Hz. . You can also double the channel width for faster speeds. ROM Memories: The different types of ROMs are 1) EPROM 2) EEPROM which are discussed in the chapter 4 semiconductor memories. 5.9 . IMPORTANCE OF CACHE MEMORY It is observed that semiconductor memories using high speed transistor flip flop are the fastest memories. But they are most expensive at the other end we have magnetic memories that can operate with low speed. Generally a CPU does its operations at very high speed. The main memory present in the computer( i.e. magnetic memory) is a low speed memory. Thus there is a speed mismatch between the processor and main memory. The processor is forced to wait or kept idle for getting data or instruction from memory. This speed mismatch is eliminated by using a small fast memory as an intermediate buffer between the memory and the processor as shown in fig. 5. 4. this memory
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is known as a cache memory. It is fabricated using high speed semiconductor devices. Main Memory data
address
Cache Memory Address Processor Fig. No. 5.3 Generally a series of instructions are copied into cache memory from the main memory. Then the processor fetches instructions from the cache. Thus fetch time( getting the instruction ) is considerably reduced. When instructions in the cache are exhausted, the next series of instructions is copied into it from the main memory. The devices used to fabricate a cache memory are expensive. Therefore the size of the cache memory is kept small. For example, the latest memory is kept small. For example, the latest Pentium processors has a cache memory of 8 to 32 killo bytes of size. 5.10. STORAGE DEVICES USED IN COMPUTERS: The purpose of external storage is to retain data and programs for future use. The information stored on these devices is permanent and not erased when the equipment is turned off. The popular external storage media used with computers are: 1. Floppy disk. 2. Hard Disk 3. Magnetic tapes data
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Floppy Disks: The most common storage medium used on small computers in s floppy disk. It is a flexible plastic disk coated with magnetic material and looks like a phonograph record. Information can be recorded or read by inserting it into a disk drive connected to the computer. The disks are permanently erased in stiff paper jackets for protection and easy handling. An opening is provided in the jacket to facilitate reading and writing of information. Spindle hole label information Write protect notch
Read & Write Fig. No. 5.4
Index Hole
Floppy disks are available in three standard sizes. 8 inches, 5 Inches, 3 Inches. Hard Disk: Another magnetic media suitable for storing large volumes of information is the hard disk. A hard disk pack consist of two or more magnetic plates fixed to a spindle, one below the other with a set read/ write heads as shown in fig. 5. the disk pack is permanently sealed inside a casing to protect it from dust and other contaminations. Hard disks possess a number of advantages compared to floppy disks. 1. They can hold much larger volume of information. 2. They are very fast in reading and writing. 3. The not susceptible to dust and static electricity. 4. Storage capacity ranges 10 MB to 80 MB.
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Fig. No. 5.5 Magnetic Tapes: Relatively inexpensive storage media known as magnetic tapes and are used as back up media. A standard 2,400 feet tape can store about 40 million characters and can be read at a speed of 1, 60,000 characters per second. It is like a music cassette, that is a sequential device and therefore one has to read all the previous records to reach a particular one. 5.10. Generations of computer: History of computers: Computer History starts with the development of a device called the abacus by the Chinese around 3000 BC. This was used for the systematic calculation of the arithmetic operations. Although there were a number of improvements in calculating devices, no conceptual changes were made until the end of the 18th Century., during the first decade of the 19th century, Charles Babbage developed his differential and analytical engines. This device has provisions for inputting data, Storing information, performing arithmetic operations and print out results. This provides base for the modern computer. Later in the 1940s the first electronic machine known as ENIAC ( Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator) was introduced. Computers developed after ENIAC have been classified into the following four generations. Computer Generations: First Generation Second Generation Third Generation Fourth Generation 1946 1955 1956 1965 1966 1975 1976 present.
First Generation: The first generation computers are those in which vaccum tubes are used. All the first generation computers possessed the following
Fundamentals of Computer characteristics as compared to the later models. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) Large in size Slow operating speeds. Restricted computing capacity. Limited programming capabilities Short life span Complex maintenance schedules
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Second Generation : The second generation computers were marked by the use of a solid state device called the transistor in the place of vaccum tubes. All these devices were much faster and more reliable than their earlier counterparts. Further , they occupied less space, required less power and produced much less heat. Third Generation: The research in the field of electronics led to the innovation of the integrated circuits known as IC chips. The use of IC chips in the place of transistors gave birth to the third generation computers. They were still more compact, faster and less expensive, than the previous generation. Fourth generation: Continued effort towards miniaturization led to the development of large scale integration (LSI) technology. Intel corporation introduced LSI chips called microprocessors for building computers. The computer that uses LSI chips has been named the fourth generation computers. The fourth generation computers are marked with an increased user computer interaction and speed. Fifth generation : Japan and many other countries are working on systems what are known as expert systems which will considerably improve the man machine interaction. Such systems would integrate the advancements in both hardware and software technologies and would facilitate computer aided problem solving with the help of orgnised information in many specialized areas. This generation of computers is termed as fifth generation computers. Although expert systems are expensive and time consuming to build, they are likely to become more popular in the next few years.
72 Types of computers:
Based on the operating principles, computers can be classified into one of the following types. 1. Digital computer 2. Analog computer 3. Hybrid Computer Digital Computer: Digital computers operate essentially by counting. All quantities are expressed as discrete digits or number. Digits. Digital computers are useful for evaluating arithmetic expressions and manipulations of data such as preparation of bills, ledgers, solution of simultaneous equations . etc. Analog Computer: Analog computer operate by measuring rather than by counting. The analog computer functions by establishing similarities between two quantities that are usually expressed as voltages or currents. Analog computers are powerful tools so solve differential equations. Hybrid Computer: Computers which combine features of both analog and digital types, are called hybrid computers. Classification of computers: Computers are also available in different sizes and different capabilities. Broadly they may be categorized as micro computers, mini computers, mainframes and super computers. Micro computers: A micro computer is the smallest general purpose processing system. Microcomputers are self contained units and usually designed for use by one person at a time. Since microcomputers can be easily linked to large computer, they form a very important segment of the integrated information systems. Minicomputers: A minicomputer is a medium sized computer that is more costly and powerful than a micro computer. Mini computer is usually designed to serve multiple users simultaneously. A system that supports multiple users is called Multiterminal, time sharing system. Minicomputers are the popular data processing systems.
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Mainframe computers: Computers with large storage capacities and very high speed of processing ( compared to micro or minicomputers) are known as mainframe computers. They support a large number of terminals for use by a variety of users simultaneously. They are also used as the central host computer in distributed data processing systems. Super computer: These have extremely large storage capacities and computing speeds which are atleast 10 times faster than other computers. The super computer is used for large scale numerical problems in scientific and engineering disciplines. These included applications in electronics, production engineering, weather forecasting, structural analysis, chemistry, medicine and physics. Short answer questions 1. 2. 3. 4. What is a computer? What are the types of computers? What is a microprocessor? What are the functions of the following units? a) Arithmetic Logic Unit b) Control Unit c) Processing Unit d) I/O Unit What is a memory unit? Explain the term Hardware and software? Give the examples of I/O devices? Define word length. Give the example of 32 bit and 64 bit micro processors. Give the examples of currently used memories? What is a cache memory? Give the example of storage devices?
5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.
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Long answer questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Explain briefly how a computer works? Give the functions of memory Unit? Give the functions of CPU? Give the functions of I/O devices? Draw the CPU functional block and explain? Draw the functional block of a computer and explain? Explain a) floppy b) Hard disk. Distinguish between magnetic memory and semi conductor memory.
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Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals 6. WINDOWS OPERATING SYSTEM
6.0. Introduction: computers need clear cut instructions to tell them what to do, how to do and when to do. A set of instructions to carry out these functions is called a program. A group of such programs that are put into a computer to operate and control its activity is called the software. These programs must be in the internal storage ( memory) to execute their instructions. Software is an essential requirement of computer system. Without software a computer cannot work. There are four such major kinds of software. Operating system is one among them. Operating System: Definition: An operating System is a program that acts as an interface between the user and the computer hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of programs. user 1 Text editor user2 compiler application programs Operating System Hardware Fig. No. 6.1 6.1.1 abstract view of components of A computer system. GOAL OF AN OPERATING SYSTEM. Primary Goal: To create an efficient environment and make computer system convenient to use. Secondary Goal: To use computer system in an efficient way ( i.e. efficient utilization of resources of computer. user 3 assembler
Windows Operating System
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Need: The hardware consists of central processing unit, input and output devices and memory. These parts of computer hardware cannot produce any results if there is no interaction between them. Like any other machine, the computer system also requires a force or an intermediate operating that can interact between hardware and user. The force behind it is an operating system. The user The input device keyboard The Control Unit / The ALU
M E The Operating System M O R Y
The output device printer / Monitor
The floppy The hard disk disk disk The storage device
Fig. No. 6.2
6.1.2. Operating System working. 6.1.Function of an Operating system: The Operating System performs following functions. Resources management ( shares hardware among users) Data management ( allows to share data also) Job management Input Output management Maintaining security ( Preventing the uses from others) conflict resolution. Implementing the user interface. Recovery from errors ( to identify and correct errors) Organising data for secure and rapid access handling network communications It loads the user program in memory
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Interprets the program instructions one at a time. Give the instructions to display result on screen.
6.2. Types of Operating Systems.

An operating System may be classified into following types. 1) 2) 3) Single user operating System Multi user operating System Multi tasking operating system
Single user operating System: A single user OS allows a single user and all the resources are available to this user at all times. Multi user operating System: A multi user OS is one that support several users at a time. Most OSs for mini computers and mainframe computers are multi user OS. Most tasking operating system: A multi tasking OS is the one that supports several tasks at a time, but only a single user. Eg: windows and OS/2 are of multitasking OSs From an operating system point of View, computer systems have improved in various phases. They are as follows. a) Multi programming: Multiprogramming is the name given to the interleaved execution of two or more different and independent programs by same computer. This concept is carried by placing two or more users programs in main memory and executing them concurrently. CPU switches from one program to another almost instantaneously. The main advantage with this is CPU would not be idle. b) Multi processing : Multi processing is the simultaneous execution of two or more processes by a computer system having more than one CPU. It improves the performance of computer system by allowing parallel processing. It needs a very sophisticated operating system.
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c) Time sharing : In time sharing the CPU time is divided among all the users on a scheduled basis. The basic ideal behind time sharing system is to allow all user programs to have a brief share of the CPU time in turn. Each user program, beginning from first program and proceding through the last, is allocated a very short period of CPU time one by one. This short period of time during which a user gets the attention of the cpu is known as time slice, time slot or time quantum and id typically of the order of 10 to 20 milliseconds. Time sharing reduces CPU idle time and provider advantages of quick response. MICROSOFT DISK OPERARTING SYSTEM ( MS- DOS) MS DOS is one of the most common personal computer operating system MS- DOS is a single user operating system. MS- DOS works mostly on micro computers. The DOS software is divided and stored in three different files on a disk the disk that contain all the three files is called a bootable disk or startup or system disk. These three files are IO.SYS, MSDOS. SYS and command.com. File: A file is a collection of related information all files in computer identified by its filename. A file name is divided into two parts. 1. 2. Primary Name Extension or secondary name
Rules for assigning a filename in DOS: 1) 2) 3) 4) All filenames must start with an alphabet. Primary name Can contain up to 8 characters long. Extension can contain up to 3 characters long. Special characters or blanks spaces are not allowed in filename except underscore characters. Invalid Filename 2004 data one4 two
Example: Valid filename Student. dat Inter_st
80 DOS Commands:
Command is an instruction written in a computer acceptable language that user types an the DOS Prompt. It will execute and do appropriate action. If user types any other instructions which is not a DOS command, then it will display the error message Bad command or Filename There are mainly two types of DOS commands as: 1. 2. Internal Commands External Commands
6.3 Internal Commands: The Internal commands are those commands that are automatically loaded in memory when the operating system DOS is loaded into the memory.. they are loaded during the booting process. These commands can be used without the need of nay DOS file or diskette. These commands are used for common tasks like creating of a file and erasing a file etc. The various internal commands are as follows. 1) Copy con:
This command is used to create a new file the general syntax of a copy con command is. C:\> copy con < filename> Eg: c:\> Copy con MPC The above example will creates a file named Mpc. Then type the contents of the file using keyboard and then press F6 button or ctrl + Z (^Z) (for saving) 1 file (s) is created. If you want to exit from command without saving press ctrl + c
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2) Type : This command is used to display the content or information of a given file if file exist. Syntax : C:\> type <filename> C:\> type mpc It will display contents or information present in the file mpc. 3) Copy: This command is used to copy information from an existing file to new file. Syntax : Eg: c:\> copy < source file> < destination file> c:\> copy mpc mec
Now both files will contain same information mec is a duplicate file of mpc file 4) Rename or Ren: This command is used to change name of an existing file. Syntax : c:\> Ren <old filename > < New filename > C:\> Ren ravni raju
5) Del: This command is used to delete ( remove) a file from the memory. Syntax : c:\> del <filename> C:\> del mpc
The same can be done by using eraise also Syntax C:\> ERAISE < filename> To ask configuration message add /p parameter with combination of delete command. Eg: C:\> Del mpc/p Mpc delete (y/n) ? 6) DIR: This command is used to display all files list the resides in the disk. Syntax : C:/> DIR
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The DIR command displays complete information about files, filenames, extensions, size ( no. of bytes) and created or modified date and time. It also displays summary information i.e total number of files in the disk, number of directories and total memory used and disk free space. This command is having a number of parameters. C:\> DIR [/P] [/W] [/ON] [/OS] [/OE] a) DIR / P : It is used to display the files list and directories page wise. Syntax : C:\ > Dir / p
b) DIR / W : - It is used to display files list in widelist format. This command displays only filename with extension,. Syntax : C:/ > DIR / W C) DIR / On : This command displays all the files in the alphabetical order. Syntax : C:\ > DIR / ON
d) DIR / OS: This command displays all files, size wise in ascending order. Syntax : C:\ > DIR / OS e) DIR / OE: This command displays files list extension wise in ascending order. Syntax : C:\ > DIR / OE
f) DIR / OD This command display the files list date wise in ascending order. Syntax: C:\> DIR / OD
g) DIR / S: This command displays all files list in specified directory and all its sub directories Syntax: C:\> DIR / S
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h) DIR / B : It displays files list in bare format it means it is not displays any headings and summary information. Syntax: C:\> DIR / B i) DIR / L: It displays the first files and directories list in lowercase letters. Syntax: C:\> DIR / L
j) DIR / 4 It displays the files list year in the created date) with 4 digit format. Syntax: C:\> DIR / 4
k) DIR / AD : This command is used to display only directories list. Syntax: C:\> DIR / AD Directory: A group of related files and sub directories is called a directory. All directories in disk are identified by directory names. Directories are used to organize the files in the disk. MD: Making a new directory. The MD or MKDIR command is used to create a new directory in DOS. Syntax: Eg CD: Change Directory This CD or CHDIR command is used to change directory. Syntax: Eg: C : \ > CD < Directory Name> D : \ > CD MECS C :\ > MD < Directory Name> C :\ > MD MECS
The result of above command is as follows C :\ MECS >
84 CD .. :
This command is used to change to the parent directory. Eg : C : \ MECS > CD .. The result of above command is C : \ > RD : Removing Directory. The RD or RMDIR command is used to remove a directory in DOS. The specified directory is removed only if that directory is empty. Syntax : Eg: C :\ > RD < Directory Name > C : \ > RD MECS
PATH: It gives information about the drive and where the data is stored in the that drive. Syntax: C : \ > C Drive/ Filename
DATE: This command is used to display the current date of system it also allows to modify the current date. It displays the date in American format ( MM: DD: YYYY ) Syntax : C: \> DATE
Current date is sut, 09 10 2005 Enter New date : TIME: it is used to display the present time and also provides facility to change or modify the present time. Syntax : C :\ > TIME Present time is 10 : 30 : 50 Enter New time :
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6.4. EXTERNAL COMMANDS These command are not permanent part of the memory. To execute or run these commands files used for the execution of external commands are .exe, .com. .bat . External commands are used for relatively complex Jobs such as copying an entire diskette into another diskette to sort the disk , etc. FORMAT: This command is used to format a disk for use with DOS. It means it is used to make a disk usable for operating system by dividing the disk into magnetic tracks and sectors. The number of sectors and tracks depends on capacity of disk and the version of the DOS. Format command erases all the data exam the disk. Checks bad area on disk and can delete all data on disc. Syntax : Eg. C : \ > FORMAT < Drive > C : \ > FORMAT A :
CHKDSK: This command is used to check a disk and displays a status report. It returns information about the volume serial number, total disk space, space in hidden files, space in directories and space in user files, space available on disk total memory and free memory. Syntax : Eg. C : \ > CHKDSK < Drive name> C : \ > CHKDSK A
XCOPY : It copies all files and directory trees.
Syntax:
C : \ > XCOPY < Source > < Destination > [/S] [/E] [/P]
Parameters /S /E /P : It copies directories and sub directories except empty ones. : It copies all directories even in empty. : It prompts you before creating each destination file.
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Eg: 1. 2. 3. 4. C: \ > XCOPY C : \ > XCOPY C: \ > XCOPY C: \ > XCOPY C: \ MPCS \ *.* C: \ MECS C : \ MPCS \ * .* C: MECS \ S C : \ MPCS \ *. *C : MSCS \ E C : \ MPCS \ *.* C : MSCS \ P
PRINT: This command is used to print files. The files that are to be printed must be standard text file and containing data compatible to the printer is printing the files user can do other tasks. User can also give multiple filenames with the print command. Syntax : Eg: C: \ > PRINT < File name > C : \ > PRINT file1
To print multiple files C : \ > PRINT FILE1 FILE2 DISK COPY : This command is used to more duplicate copy of the disk. It first formats the large disk. It first formats the target disk and then copies the file by collecting files from source disk and copies to target disk. It makes the perfect coy of source disk. C : \> DISKCOPY A: Insert source disk in drive A: Press any key to continue. Insert target disk in drive A : Press any key to continue. Copy to another disk ( Y / N ) A:
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SCANDISK : It checks current drive for disk errors. Syntax : C: \ > SCANDISK < Drive name > C : \ > SCANDISK C ATTRIB : This command displays or change file attributes. This command displays sets or removes the read only, arctive, system and hidden attributes assigned to files. Syntax : +R -R +H -H +S -S C: \> attrib [ +R( i ) R ] [ + H (i) H ] [ + S i S ] file name It sets read only file attrib It clears the read only file attrib It sets file as hidden files It clears the hidden files attrib. It sets file as system file. It clears system file attribute C: \ > attrib + R < Filename> C: \ > attrib - R < filename> Tree: This command graphically display structure of a directory. C:\ user \ empc \ > tree C : - parent directory User 1 subdirectory Mpc subdirectory Delete: This command is used to delete a specified directory including subdirectories and files. Syntax : C : \ > Deltree < directory name >
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6.5 METHOD OF STARTING A PROGRAM USING START BUTTON The following is procedure to start a window program using start button through windows 2000 operating system. It is a new operating system, which provides the features of graphical user interface. The steps involved in invoking a program are as follows. 1. Point the mouse pointer on start button shown in the fig. 6.2.1
2.
Click once on the start button. A popup menu will appear as shown in fig. 6.2.2.
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3.
Point the mouse pointer on the required option ( say programs) of the start menu. The screen will appear as follows.
4. 5.
Point the mouse pointer on the option ( group icon ) accessories Another popup menu will appear in that click on the icon notepad. The screen will appear as shown in the fig. 6.2.4 click start button - Program - Accessories - Notepad
Fig. 6.23 Notepad screen This is how you start the application called notepad through the start button. This program called notepad allows you to type text. We will close it now. Later in the session we will use it again to create a file
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6.
To close the notepad click on exit [X ] button as shown in fig. 6. 2.4 This will close notepad application
Likewise you can open any application through the start button and the programs group icon. 6.6 STATE MEANIG OF A FILE, FOLDER. FILE. File: If the data is small then we can use terminals i.e. keyboard and screen for managing input and output. But if data is large then it becomes difficult in handling large volumes of data through terminals, also data is lost when either program is terminated or computer is switched off. This problem can be solved by storing data on disks and reading data whenever necessary without destroying data. This can be achieved by concept of file to store data. A file is a place on a disk where a group of related data is stored. A group of related data stored at a particular memory location is called as a file. In any software a file will not be ready available. The user whenever want to store any data he has to create a new file and save it. The space on world where data or text can be stored is called a document. Hence any file in the MS- WORD is called as a document. In PowerPoint same is termed as a presentation where as in excel it is called as a worksheet. Various operations can be performed on these files. The basic operations are as follows. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Naming a file. Opening a file. reading data from file writing data into file Closing a file.
Windows Operating System For any file inorder to save it a name is needed it is called naming a file.
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Inorder to read or write or modify any data in a file the file should be opened A file should be closed as soon as all operations on it have completed which prevents accidental misuse of a file. Folder: Folder is a rectangular box, containing all the information about one object. Folders will be available on the desktop or while clicking on the start button they will be appeared in subprograms A folder can be created as a collection of files. The folders will be follows in colour and will reside on desktop. These folders are stored on c drive or d drive. This is a folder Which contains information about windows 95 or 98 Creating a folder: from the tree pane, select the directory under which you want to create a sub directory. Choose file created. new folder. On the right pan of the screen a new folder is
Type in the name of the new directory and press enter. You can notice the change in the tree structure immediately. 6.7 METHOD OF FINDING A FILE USING FIND OPTION Windows explorer is used for viewing all the files on disk and suitable for locating a particular file. You can use the find tool to search the entire hard disk for a specified file. For Eg: find for the file leave letter Following steps are to be followed
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Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals Click on the start button. The screen will appear as shown below.
2. 3.
Click on find option. A submenu will appears Point on the files or folders and then click on it. The following dialog box will appear.
4. 5. 6.
Type in the name of the file to be searched for use * and ? if desired. In Looking dialog box, type the name of the directory you want the file to be searched in. If you want to search down all the subordinate branches from the current directory to the end of branch, click the Include subfolder check box
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7. 8.
Click on Find now window will conduct the search on the current disk and displays the list of files. To display required file on the screen, click on the scroll down in fig. This will close the find dialog box. 6.8. CARRY OUT MAXIMISE, RESIZE AND CLOSE OPERATIONS ON A WINDOW
The upper band of every window is known termed as a title bar where window name is displayed. You can move the window around yours desktop, incase it is not maximized.Title bar is highlighted, when window is active.Window is a rectangular box that contain application or program. Every group under a GUI operating has a number of icons. These are enclosed in a frame called window. Every group has its own window. Since windows has a multitasking feature, you can have a number of applications ( window) open at a time but can work with just on application at a time i.e. there can be only one active window at a given time. You can make the window active by clicking any where within its border. Minimize : If you click on minimize button the program window is minimized as an icon and that is placed on the button of screen. To Minimize : Activate the window, by clicking any where in it. Position the mouse pointer on minimize button click once. Maximize: Clicking on the maximize button, enlarges the window to fill the entire screen. When application window is maximized, it covers the entire desktop. To Maximize : Activate the window, by clicking anywhere in it position the mouse pointer on the maximize button.
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Click once. After the window has been maximized, the maximize button changes to restore button.
Title Bar
Control Box
Menu Bar Close Maximise Minimise Window Vertical scroll bar
Restore: Opening a window takes up a portion of the Desktop, the size in determined by how you manually size the window To Resize : Activate the window, by clicking any where on it. Position the mouse pointer on the restore button. Click once. Close Once you click on exit button your program is closed.
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Short answer questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. What is an operating system? What are the goals of an OS ? What are the functions of an OS ? Give the types of OS? What is multiprogramming and multi tasking OS ? What are the types of DOS command ? What is a file, folder ? How will you create a folder? What is a directory ? What is DIR command?
Long Answer Sheets: 1. 2. 3. 4. Explain the need of an OS ? List out various internal DOS commands and explain ? List out various external DOS commands and explain ? Explain maximize, minimizing of a window ?|
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7.0 :Introduction MS-OFFICE Microsoft Office is a collection of software applications. All applications share some common programs and looks such as menu bars, Tool bars, Spell-checking, Auto Correct, Help, and Office Assistant etc. Once you have to learn how to use one of the office applications then it is easy to learn all other applications. Microsoft Office contain the following applications MS Word Word is a word processing program. It is used generating any type of printed document including letters, reports, memos, tables, web pages, newsletters, thesis, manuals and electronic mails. MS Excel Excel is a spreadsheet application that enables you to do mathematical calculations. It is used to prepare budgets and price costs, compare costs, MS Word MS Excel MS PowerPoint MS Access MS Outlook MS FrontPage MS Photo Draw MS Publisher
Features of Word Processing Package format figures and create graphs and charts. MS PowerPoint
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PowerPoint is a presentation application that produces colorful professional presentation slides. It is used to create presentation slides, overhead transparencies, handouts and speaker notes. It enables us to include charts and graph, produce organization chart, present tables and display a presentation as a fully animated screen show. MS Access Access is a relational database application that stores, retrieves and organizes data. MS Outlook Outlook is a desktop information management application. It is used to schedule, organize, and communicate out plans. MS FrontPage Front Page is a web application that is used to create, view, publish, maintain and interact web sites and web pages. MS Photo Draw Photo Draw is a powerful application for manipulating graphics images. MS Publisher
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Publisher is a complete desktop publishing application that is used to create beautiful professional looking layouts that you can publish anywhere from your desktop printer to on the World Wide Web. It gives an excellent appearance for print or online. Microsoft Word Every piece of writing is written to be read. A text that is attractive, neat and organized will attract the attention of a reader. Typewriters were widely used for typing in order to have a neat and organized text. All of you must have seen a text being typed on a typewriter. The text is directly typed on the paper. For correcting any typing errors, the entire text has to be retyped. Hence a lot of paper is wasted in the process. However, with the advent of computers, the scene has changed. Now we have computer software called word processor, which allows you to type text, make corrections without retyping the entire matter and make the text look attractive with lots of pictures in-between. You must be wondering how this is possible. Word Processor The word process means a method consisting of a set of instructions that transforms raw facts into organized information. Thus process essentially means Changing. Word processing involves the transformation of written text into a form that gives it a formal, systematic look which facilitates easy reading. The application program that enables the processing of words is called as the Word processing program. Word processing can be defined as changing the appearance or look of words or to be more precise changing the appearance of the characters that form the word.
Features of Word Processing Package
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The word appearance or look refers to, 1. The size of the character 2. The style of the character 3. The way it is highlighted Examples of different Word Processors1. MS Word 2. Word Star 3. Perfect Writer 4. Word Perfect 5. Professional Write 6. MultiMate Microsoft Word Word is a word processing program that is used to compose, edit, save and print out text documents. It replaces the job of typewriters in smooth and fast manner in addition to having more features. Basically, Word makes possible what a typewriter does, but in an efficient and economical way. The main advantage is, the matter can be changed as many times as we like and in any format without retyping the text or wasting the stationary. Word came out with word 6.0 version when it was released for Windows 3.1. Subsequent versions of Word are word 7.0 (Word95), Word 8.0 (word97) and Word 9.0 (word 2000). Microsoft Word 2000 Microsoft word 2000 is a software program (package) designed by
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Microsoft Corporation, USA for Word processing application. It is one of most popular word processors in the world for the WINDOWS platform on IBM and compatible PC. It helps you to type, edit store, check spellings and print documents. Word 2000 is used to prepare letters, mailing lists, memos, producing reports etc. The features of Word processing applications are 1) You can change whatever you want in the text without retyping the entire text again. 2) Formatting and printing selected text in boldface, italics or underlined. 3) Changing the font and the size of letters of the selected text. 4) Moving or copying selected text to another location within the document or to another document. 5) Printing selected text in subscript or superscript style. 6) Adding animations to selected text. 7) Searching for a particular word or phrase and replacing it with something else. 8) Aligning (left, centered, right and justify) selected text. 9) Adjustable line and character spacing. 10) Adjustable page size and margins. 11) Facility to create multiple column text. 12) Spelling and Grammar Checking facility. 13) Facility to define headers and footers. 14) Facility to create footnotes and end notes. 15) Facility to insert images in your document. 16) Tables can be created and included in documents. 17) Multiple documents/files can be merged. 18) Toolbars contains buttons that makes easier to perform some common tasks by clicking buttons like Saving, Printing or formatting text 19) Text boxes are used to keep text and graphics together.
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20) Mail-merge facility allows you to print the same letter with different names and addresses that are saved in another file. Word Components Word 2000 window contains a menu bar and several toolbars. Most of the buttons on these toolbars act as shortcuts to the commands in the menus. The standard window has the following components. Title Bar: This is the bar at the top of the window containing minimize, restore or maximize and close buttons. This shows the name of the document and type of the program. Menu Bar: This is usually below the title bar that provides access to the word menus. Toolbars: Toolbars give quick access to some common commands. Word has several different toolbars, By default, Word displays the standard and formatting toolbars. Ruler: The ruler shows tab, margin and indent settings. There are two rulers horizontal and vertical ruler. These are located above and then to the left of the working area. Working area or Document area: This is space on word where data or text can be entered or typed. Insertion Point or Cursor: Insertion Point is the blinking vertical line on the working area. This is the point where you can start typing text. Scrollbars: The horizontal and vertical scrollbars let you bring different parts of
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a document into view. Scrolling is a technique to see top, bottom, left and right unseen text of the document. Status bar: Status bar located at the bottom of the window. The status bar tells you about the current status of the insertion point (cursor) or other items. View Buttons: View buttons provide quick access to see documents in different views. These buttons from left are: Normal View, Web Layout View, Print Layout View and Outline View. Starting Word 2000 1. Click the Start button at left end of the taskbar 2. Point to Programs in the Start menu 3. In the Programs menu, click Microsoft Word. Creating a Document When you start Word, a new document window opens. If Word already opened follow the steps below to open a new blank document. 1. Click on File menu on the menu bar 2. Click on New option, select Blank document and click on OK button Or 3. Click on the Blank document button on the standard toolbar This is blank screen and is similar to a blank page in your note book. This screen is the first page of your document. This is where you start typing. After the first page gets over, Word automatically goes to the next page. Your document can run into as many pages as required.
Features of Word Processing Package Basics of Entering Text
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The characters you type are inserted in front of a blinking vertical bar called insertion point. To move the insertion point, you move the mouse pointer and click at the desired place where you want to insert the text. While typing when a word doesnt fit it automatically flows to the beginning of next line. This feature is called word-wrap. To start a new Paragraph position the insertion point at the last line of the first paragraph and then press Enter key. 7.4. Saving a Document The document you type exists only in computer memory, a temporary storage area i.e. in the RAM. It is essential that our document should be stored in a permanent storage device such as hard disk or floppy disk for future retrieval. This is referred to as Saving a Document. The text typed using word is kept in files called documents. Word provides two commands in the File menu to save a document namely Save and Save As. Save As: We can use this option to Save a document for the first time Save a previously saved document with a new name Save it in a different location Save: This option allows saving a document with its existing name. The location and file format not changed. Procedure for first time saving 1. Click File menu on the menu bar 2. Select Save or Save As or click Save button on standard toolbar or press Ctrl + S, then Save As dialog box appears.
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Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals 3. Select the folder under which it is saved if required. 4. Type file name in the filename text box. 5. Click Save button.
Subsequent saving 1. Click File menu on the menu bar 2. Select Save or click on Save button on the standard toolbar or press Ctrl + S Opening an existing Document: To open an existing document 1. Choose Open from the File menu. The Open dialog box will be displayed 2. Select the desired Drive and Directory in the list box. 3. Choose the desired file. 4. Click on OK or simply double click the desired file. Editing a Text The process of changing the appearance of the text, deleting a portion of the text, duplicating or moving a part of the text, is called Editing. To make these changes you must first select the portion of text, which needs the change. 7.2. Selecting Text In Word, it is very important to know how to select (highlight) text because you can do so many operations on the selected text. Mouse selection Shortcuts
Features of Word Processing Package To select this A single word A sentence A line of text Multiple lines Do this Double click the word
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Press Ctrl key and click anywhere in the sentence Click in the selection bar area before the line Click and drag in the selection bar
A paragraph Double click in the selection bar to the left of the paragraph. Any amount of text Click at the beginning of the text you want to select, and then shift click at the end of the text. Whole document Triple-click or Ctrl + click any where in the selection bar or Edit Select All command.
Moving Text 1. Select the text to be moved 2. Select Edit Cut option or Click on Cut button on toolbar or press Ctrl + X 3. Click in a new place, where the selected text should appear 4. Select Edit Paste or Click on Paste button on the toolbar or press Ctrl + V 7.1. Copying Text 5. Select the text to be copied 6. Select Edit Copy option or Click on Copy button on toolbar or press Ctrl + C 7. Click in a new place, where the selected text should copied 8. Select Edit Paste or Click on Paste button on the toolbar or press
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Word 2000 remembers all your actions. At any stage, you can undo not only the latest action but also the number of earlier actions related to editing and formatting document. Undo cancel (undoes) the last action that you have just performed. Redo redoes the last action that you have just undone it. Repeat repeats the last action that you have just done it. 1. To undo the previous work select, Edit Undo or press Ctrl +Z 2. To redo the previous action select, Edit Redo or press Ctrl + Y or press F4. VIEWS: Documents in word window can be seen in different ways to make things easier to visualize and faster to work with. There are several ways to visualize documents. These are called Views. Microsoft word has seven ways. 1) Normal View 2) Web Layout View 3) Print Layout View 4) Outline View 5) Full Screen View 6) Zoom 7) Print Preview View There is a View option on the menu bar that has all above options except Print Preview. Print Preview in on File menu. There are four view buttons in the lower left corner of Words status area that are useful to switch views quickly. 1) Normal View: This view responds faster to typing, editing, and scrolling. In this view page headers, footers and margins are hidden so that you can concentrate on text. Automatic page breaks are shown as horizontal dotted lines. Normal view displays only the horizontal ruler not the vertical ruler. To see document in Normal view a) Select Normal view option from the View menu b) Clicking Normal View button above left-corner of the status
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bar. c) Press Alt + V and N from keyboard. 2) Web Layout View: This view displays documents, as it will look on the web. When a document is open in Web Layout View, Word enlarges the size of text and wraps lines of text so everything is on the screen without having to scroll horizontally. To see document in Web Layout view a) Select Web Layout view option from the View menu b) Clicking Web Layout View button above left-corner of the status bar. c) Press Alt + V and W from keyboard. 3) Print Layout View: This view shows how text, graphics, and other elements are positioned on the printed page. This is helpful in editing headers and footers, adjusting margins, and with columns and drawings objects. To see document in Print Layout view a) Select Print Layout view option from the View menu b) Clicking Print Layout View button above left-corner of the status bar. c) Press Alt + V and P from keyboard. 4) Outline View: This view shows the document in hierarchical form, headings, subheadings and text under the headings. This view is more helpful than any other in rearranging the documents in specified levels. To see document in Outline view a) Select Outline view option from the View menu b) Clicking Outline View button above left-corner of the status bar. c) Press Alt + V and O from keyboard.
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5) Full Screen View: This view removes all the menus and toolbars as well as takes up all available space in the Word window. To see a document in Full Screen, click View menu and select Full Screen option. When you are in full screen, click Close full screen option or press Esc. Key on the keyboard to return to the previous view. Keyboard shortcut: Alt + V + U 6) Zoom: This view enlarges or reduces the view of your document as a percentage of its normal size. To return your document to normal size, click 100%. To zoom a document click View on the menu bar, select Zoom, in the zoom dialog box select zoom settings that you want and then click OK button. Keyboard shortcut: Alt + V + Z. 7) Print Preview View: This view shows exactly how it will look when it is printed on. When this view is selected Word resizes the document so it fits inside the document window. To see a document in this mode select Print Preview from file menu bar or click Print Preview button on Standard Toolbar. Keyboard shortcut is: Alt + F + V. 7.10. CARRY OUT SPELL CHECK Word offers tools that easier to examine and automate your writing tasks. Spelling and Grammar is a tool used to check the active document for possible spelling, grammar, and writing style errors, and displays suggestions for correcting them. v Automatically check spelling and grammar as you type: As soon as you type misspelled words or ungrammatical sentences, word recognizes them to be misspelled and ungrammatical and then underlines them immediately in red and green wavy lines. The red underlines indicate possible spelling errors and the green underlines indicate possible grammatical errors. To fix one of these marked errors, right click on it, you get a shortcut menu that has a set of replacement words, along with a few other options. If you think any one of them is suitable click on it to replace otherwise click Ignore
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All to tell it is not suitable word and need not be replaced. Check spelling and grammar all at once: This method is useful if you want to postpone spell check of a document till the edit is finish. If you want to check a portion of the document, select it. To open spelling and grammar check dialog box. 1. Click Tools menu and select Spelling and Grammar option. 2. Click the Spelling and Grammar button on the standard toolbar 3. Press F7 on keyboard.
Spelling and Grammar dialog box options 7.3.Symbols and Special characters Symbols and special characters that are not available on the keyboard can be inserted using Symbol feature or Keyboard shortcuts. To display the symbol dialog box select Symbol from Insert menu or press Alt + I and then S. Insert a Symbol 1. Click where you want to insert a symbol 2. On the Insert menu click Symbol. 3. In the Symbol dialog box select the symbol and click Insert button or double click on the symbol. Insert a Special Character 1. Click where you want to insert a special character 2. On the Insert menu click Symbol and then click the special characters tab. 3. Select the character and click Insert button or double click on the character.
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7.6. Formatting Paragraph Formatting is a process to change the appearance of the text documents to be attractive, easier to read. Formatting is a separate stage often takes place after the document has been entered. We cam broadly classify the text formatting into three categories. 1. Font formatting or Character Formatting 2. Paragraph Formatting 3. Page formatting Character Formatting: Character formatting changes the appearance of individual characters. Character formatting includes changing the character type, style and size, adding color to text and making text Bold, Italic and Underline etc. Font: Font is a set of characters that make up one member or style of a particular typeface. A font consists of three elements Type Face, Type Size and Type Style Type Face: Type face refers to design of the letters. Times New Roman is the default type face. Type Size: Letters can be made larger or smaller as you prefer. Type size measured in points. Type Style: A type style is a way to enhance text (Eg. Bold, Italic, Underline etc. ) Changing Font Type or Font Face 1. Select the text and select the required font type from font type drop down list box in the Formatting tool bar. Or 2. Click on the Format menu and select the option Font. In the Font dialog box choose the required Font type and then click on OK.
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Applying Font Style (Bold, Italic and Underline) 1. Select the text. 2. Click on the option Bold, Italic or Underline on the standard tool bar. Or 3. Click on the Format menu and select the option Font. In the Font dialog box choose the required Font Style and then click on OK Applying Font Color 1. Select the Text 2. Click down arrow of the font color button on the formatting toolbar and then select the color from available colors. 3. Click on the Format menu and select the option Font. In the Font dialog box choose the required Color from the Font Color list box and then click on OK button. Applying Animations: Text animation is a technique used to add visual movements such as blinking, marching, moving, shimmering, sparkling etc. 1. Select the text you want to animate. 2. On the Format menu click Font, and then click the Text effects tab. 3. In the Animations box, select the effects you want and click on OK button. Special Effects: You can decorate your text, as you want using Font dialog box. There are different formatting options in the form of check boxes named under effects. These are 1. Strikethrough: Draws a line through the selected text. 2. Double Strikethrough: Draws a double line through the selected text. 3. Superscript: Raises the selected text above the baseline and changes it to a smaller size.
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4. Subscript: Lowers the selected text below the baseline and changes it to a smaller size. 5. Shadow: Adds a shadow behind the selected text, beneath and to the right of the text. 6. Outline: Displays the inner and outer borders of each character. 7. Emboss: Makes selected text appear as if it is raised off the page in relief. 8. Engrave: Makes selected text appear to be imprinted or pressed into the page. 9. Small caps: Formats selected text as capital letters and reduces their size. 10. All Caps: Formats selected text as capital letters. 11. Hidden: Prevents selected text from being displayed or printed. Change Case Change Case Changes the capitalization of selected text. It is used to change text from uppercase to lowercase and vice versa. Procedure: 1. Selected text to be changed. 2. Choose Change Case option from format menu to displays the Change Case dialog box. There are five options. a. Sentence Case: Capitalizes the first letter of the first word in the selected sentences. b. Lowercase: Changes all selected text to lowercase letters. c. Uppercase: Changes all selected to capital letters. d. Title Case: Capitalizes the first letter of each word in the selected text. e. Toggle Case: Changes all uppercase letters to lowercase in the selection and vice versa. 3. Select the option you want and click OK.
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Paragraph Formatting In general paragraph is a collection sentences. In Word 2000, a paragraph is nothing more than a collection of words that ends when you press Enter key. When you press the Enter key, you are marking the end of a paragraph. Paragraph formatting affects individual paragraphs. Alignment Alignment means an arrangement of text into suitable order in the paragraph. It shapes whether your text is lined up on the left, right, in the center, or on both left and right so that it leads to smartening the paragraph. There are four buttons on the formatting toolbar namely Align Left, Align Right, Center and Justify. 1. Align Left: Aligns the selected text to the left with uneven right edges. 2. Center: Centers the selected text. 3. Align Right: Aligns the selected text to the right with uneven left edges. 4. Justify: Aligns the selected text to both the left and right margins or indents. To change alignment using paragraph 1. Place the insertion point anywhere in the paragraph. 2. Click the alignment (Left, Center, Right, Justify) button on the standard tool bar. Keyboard Shortcuts 1. Align Left : Ctrl + L 2. Align Right : Ctrl + R 3. Center : Ctrl + E 4. Justify : Ctrl + J Indentation Indentation is a process used to leave certain number of blank spaces before
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the first line, as well as form the right and left margins of paragraph. Indentation can be classified into four categories Left, Right, First Line and Hanging. 1. Left Indentation: Left Indentation leaves certain number of blank spaces after the left margin. 2. Right Indentation: Right Indentation leaves certain number of blank spaces before the right margin. 3. First Line Indentation: First Line Indentation leaves certain number of blank spaces before the first line of the paragraph. 4. Hanging Indentation: Hanging Indentation leaves certain number of blank spaces for all lines but the first from the left margin of a paragraph. Indentation using Indent Markers 1. Select the paragraph(s) you want to indent. 2. Point to the indent marker that you want to use. 3. Drag the desired Indent marker to the right spot on the ruler, and release the mouse button. Keyboard Shortcuts 1. Ctrl + M Left Indent 2. Ctrl + Shift + M Remove Left Indent 3. Ctrl + T Hanging Indent 4. Ctrl + Shift + T Reduce Hanging Indent 5. Ctrl + Q Remove Paragraph Formatting Line Spacing Line spacing determines an amount of vertical spaces among lines in a paragraph. It allows us to expand or condense the vertical spaces among lines of paragraph. Line spacing can be set using either the Line spacing box in the paragraph dialog box or keyboard shortcut or buttons in the formatting toolbar. There are different line spacing options. 1. Single Line Spacing: This is Words default spacing. It accommodates the largest font in that line, plus a small amount of extra space.
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2. Line-and-a-half Spacing (1.5 lines spacing): This applies one-anda-half times that of single line spacing. 3. Double Line Spacing: This allows twice that of single line spacing. 4. At least Spacing: This allows minimum line spacing that Microsoft Word can adjust to accommodate larger font sizes or graphics. 5. Exactly Spacing: This allows fixed line spacing that word does not adjust. This option spaces all lines uniformly. 6. Multiple Spacing: This allows increasing or decreasing line spacing by a percentage that you specify. Applying lines spacing Place the insertion point in the paragraph or select multiple paragraphs Choose the option required line spacing option from the line spacing drop down list of the paragraph dialog box. Click on OK button. Keyboard Shortcuts 1. Single Line Spacing 2. 1.5 Line Spacing 3. Double Line Spacing Bullets and Numbering Bullet is an item used to highlight sections of text into an unordered list, in order to bring attention to them. It is used make lists of information stand out from the rest of your document text. Numbering is to organize your information into a series that is easy to understand. Make sure each item in the list or each point is on a separate line. To insert a Bullet or Numbering at the start of a line, just click the Bullets button or Numbering button on the Formatting toolbar.
: Ctrl + 1 : Ctrl + 5 : Ctrl + 2
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If you want to put bullets or numbering for created information do the following. 1. Select the items you want to add bullets or numbering to. 2. Click Bullets button to add bullets, click Numbering button to add numbering. To create a bulleted or numbered list automatically as you type, type 1 or * (asterisk), press SPACEBAR or TAB, and then type any text you want. When you press ENTER to add the next list item, word automatically inserts the next number or bullet. To finish the list press ENTER twice. To change the default bullet symbols or number styles 1. Click Format on the menu bar. 2. Select Bullet and Numbering. 3. Click the Bullet tab and Numbering tab. 4. Select 1 of 7 types of bullets or numberings. To change the layout and style click the Customize command button to get the dialog box. In the dialog box you can select a different symbol from any of the fonts available to you. TABS Tab helps you line up columns of information or indent text within a line or paragraph. You can add, remove or move tabs as you desire. Each tab position set on the horizontal ruler is called tab or tab stop. When the tab key on the keyboard is pressed the insertion point jumps from one tab stop to the next. Microsoft Word has five kinds of tab stops given below. 1. Left ( L ) : Text extends to the right from the tab stops. 2. Center ( ^ ) : Text is centered at the tab stop. 3. Right ( +) : Text extends to the left from the tab stop. 4. Decimal ( ^ ) : Text before the decimal point extends to the Left, and text after the decimal point extends to the right. 5. Bar ( I ) : Inserts a vertical line at the tab stop.
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The tab selector button at the left end of the horizontal ruler is used to select different tab stops. Click it to cycle through left tab, center tab, right tab, decimal tab and bar tab. The quickest way to set tabs for the current paragraph or paragraphs is to use the horizontal ruler. Procedure for settings tabs with the Horizontal ruler 1. Click any where in the paragraph or select multiple paragraphs. 2. Click the tab selector button at the left of the horizontal ruler until the tab type you want is come up. 3. Click in the horizontal ruler where you want the tab stop to be. Procedure for setting tabs with the tabs dialog box 1. Click any where in the paragraph or select multiple paragraphs. 2. Click the Format menu and select Tabs . 3. Click in Tab stop position box and enter a measurement that tells how far the tab stop positioned from the left margin. 4. Select the alignment option for the tab and click the Set button. 5. You can select as many tabs you want, and then click OK or press ENTER key. Borders and Shading Border means a line drawn in the box shape around the text or page. Borders can be applied any or all sides of each page in a document. You can also put borders around graphics. You can add page borders in many lines styles and colors, as well as a variety of graphical borders. Shading means filling the background of the text with a color in order to draw people attention to the text. Shading can be added to paragraphs or with or without borders. Borders and Shading can be added using the Table and Borders toolbar, or the Borders and Shading dialog box.
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Procedure for applying Borders 1. Select the text to be applied. 2. Click the Format menu and select Borders and Shading option. 3. Click the Borders or Page Border tab (for page Border). 4. Select the required Line Style and Line Weight and Line color from the provided list boxes. 5. Select the borders style (None, Box, Shadow etc.). 6. Click on OK button. Procedure for applying Shading 7. Select the text to be applied. 8. Click the Format menu and select Borders and Shading option. 9. Click the Shading tab and select the shading color and style. 10. Click on OK button. Page Setup Page setting means setting the size of a page, margins (left, right, top, bottom etc.), orientation (portrait or landscape) etc. The Page Setup dialog box helps you to control page layout to a great extent in Word 2000. 7.5. Setting of Margins and Indents: Page margins are the blank spaces around the edges of the pages. All four margins namely top, bottom, left, right are adjustable. We can use words default page margins or specify our own margins. Changing margins using Page Setup dialog box 1. Click on File menu and select the option Page Setup 2. Click the Margins tab if it is not already in front. 3. Click on the up or down arrows (spinner arrows) to the right of the margins boxes to increase or decrease the margins. Or click on the box and type the new value.
Features of Word Processing Package 4. Click OK button.
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Setting the Page Size: Word 2000 will enable you to change the paper size to anything you want. When you create a new document, Word picks up a paper size which is usually the Letter size 8.5 inches wide and 11 inches long or A4 size. 1. Click on File menu and select Page Setup option. 2. Click Paper Size tab to bring it to the front. 3. Click the Paper Size drop down arrow and select the required paper size. 4. Select the page orientation either Portrait or Landscape. 5. Click Ok button. Inserting Page Breaks: Page break is the point at which one page ends and another page begins. Page breaks are used to begin a new page of text before the previous page is filled. Page breaks can be inserted automatically or manually. When the current page is full, word 2000 automatically starts a new page. These page breaks are called automatic page breaks. The page breaks inserted manually are called manual page breaks. Inserting Page Breaks manually 1. Click the spot where you want to insert the break. 2. Click Insert menu and select the option Break to display the break dialog box. 3. If necessary, click the Page break radio button. 4. Click OK button. Keyboard shortcut: Ctrl + ENTER Removing Page Breaks 1. Click on the page break line and press the Delete key or if the insertion point is just after the break, strike the backspace key.
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Inserting Page Numbers: Microsoft Word provides facility add page numbers to the top or bottom of document. Follow these steps to add page numbers 1. Click Insert menu and select the option Page Numbers 2. Choose the position (bottom or top) from the position list box. 3. Choose the alignment (left, right, center etc.) from the Alignment list box. 4. Click on OK. 7.11. Including Headers and Footers Header is an area used to place repetitive information across the top of each page in a document. Footer is an area used to put repetitive information across bottom of each page in a document. We can use the same header and footer throughout a document or change the header and footer for part of the document. Applying Header or Footer 1. Click the View menu and select Header and Footer option. It displays the Header and Footer toolbar and shows the header and footer area of the document. 2. Select the Header and Footer button and enter the text. Use the tool buttons (Insert Page number, no. of pages, Format page numbers, Insert date, Insert Time etc.) 3. Click on Close button on the toolbar. 7.7. Multiple Columns Word allows arranging the text into several columns like newspapers columns. When one column is full the text flows into the next columns. To prepare a columnar text: 1. Select the text. 2. On the Standard toolbar, Click Columns button or Select Columns from the Format menu to display the Columns dialog box.
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3. Drag to select the number of columns on the columns button of the Standard toolbar. Or select the number of columns from the Columns dialog box. 7.8. TABLES A table is a collection of rows and columns. Each row and column inside a table is made up of units called cells. A cell is the intersection of rows and columns. A current cell is where you type a table entry. Tables are often used to organize and arrange information. Creating a Table: Word provides three ways for create a table. 1. Using the Insert Table tool on the standard toolbar. 2. Using the Insert Table dialog box 3. Using the Tables and Borders toolbar 1. Creating a Table with Insert Table tool a. Place the insertion point where you want to Insert the table b. Click the Insert Table button on the Standard toolbar. c. Drag the mouse pointer down and to the right over the grids and release the mouse pointer. 2. Creating a Table Using the Insert Table dialog box a. Click where you want to insert a table b. Click on Table menu, select Insert option and click on Table option. c. Type or select the number of rows and columns from the appropriate boxes. d. Click OK button. Adding Cells, Columns and Rows to a Table 1. Place the insertion point where cells, columns or rows are required. 2. Click the Table menu and select Insert you will see a list of options
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select the required option. 3. To quickly add a row at the end of a table, click the last cell of the table last row and then press the TAB key. Delete cells, rows, or columns from a Table 1. Select the cells, rows, or columns to be deleted. 2. On the Table menu, point to Delete, and then click Columns, Rows, or Cells. 3. While deleting cells, click the option to be deleted. Clear the Contents of a Table 1. Select the content to be cleared. 2. Press Delete key. Table and its contents 1. Click in the table to be deleted. 2. On the Table menu, point to Delete, and then click Table. Mail Merge Mail merge is an ability to create a letter in Word, and then print multiple copies of that letter, each with a different name and address on it. Mail Merge in Word may also be used to fill envelopes and labels with data as well. Mail Merge is the process of taking document and mixing it with another to create an almost identical bunch of new documents. 7.12 Mail Merges feature of Word Main Document: This is the actual document that you are producing. It can be a form letter, label or envelope. The main document contains normal text that stays the same for each copy of the letter. Data Source: This is the file that stores information to be brought into the main document. This file contains a collection of names and addresses from which
Features of Word Processing Package the program gets what you want to include in the document. Performing a Mail Merge involves three basic steps 1. Creating the main document (such as form-letter) 2. Creating the data source (such as address list) 3. Merging the main document with data source.
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Creating a Main Document 1. Click Tools menu and select the option Mail Merge 2. Click the Create button located below Main Document in step 1. (Word displays a list box that contains the various types of Mail Merge documents you can create. 3. Click Form Letters in the drop down list. 4. Word displays a message box, asking you whether you want to use the active document as your main document or start a new Document. Click Active Document if active document contain form letters. Creating a Data Source 1. Click the Get Data button. Word displays four options in a list box. (create Data Source, Open Data Source etc.) a. If you want to create a fresh list of addresses then you should click on Create Data Source. b. If you want to open a list of addresses you have created already then you should click on Open Data Source option. 2. In the create data source dialog box, choose the field names and add new fields if required, delete unnecessary fields and click OK button. 3. Then Save Data Source dialog box appears. Save the data source file. 4. Then Word displays a message box with the options Edit Data Source and Edit Main Document 5. Click Edit Data Source button. 6. In the Edit Data Source dialog box add records (addresses).
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Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals 7. Click OK button. 8. The main document appears with the new mail merge toolbar.
Inserting Merge fields in the Main Document 1. Insert the merge fields in the main document in required places using the Insert Merge Fields button from the Mail Merge toolbar. 2. To view the data records click on View Data Records button ( <<ABC>>) on the mail merge toolbar. 3. To merge the Data Source and Main Document click on merge button on the mail merge toolbar. 4. Click on Merge button in the Merge dialog box. 7.9. Printing a document: Printing means getting a hard copy of the information from a printer on the paper. When a new document is going to be created you must consider the type of printer, paper size and document design used. When the document is ready to be printed see the Print Preview. To print active file or selected part, just click the printer button on the standard toolbar. To print document click File menu and select the option Print. In the print dialog box specify the page range and number of copies and click on OK button.

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Number Systems and Digital Circuits 1- NUMBER SYSTEMS AND DIGITAL CIRCUITS

Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

Number Systems and Digital Circuits

Example 1.2 : Convert binary number 1 1 0 1 2 into decimal number. 1) 2) 3) 4) 1 2 8

Example 1.3 :Convert 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 64 1 32 1 16 0 8 1 4

into decimal number 1 1 117

Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

Solution: (101101. 10101) =

= 8 + 0 + 0 + 1 + 0 = 0.25 + 0 + 0.625 = (9.3125)10

13 = 1 1 0 1 10 2 equalent to binary number.

Read down to up of remainders which is

Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals Thus, ( 25) 10 = ( 11001)2

Number Systems and Digital Circuits

Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

Number Systems and Digital Circuits

6 x8 3 + 3 x8 2 + 2 x81 + 7 x8 0 + 4 x8 1 + 0 x8 2 + 5 x8 3 + 1x8 4 4 5 1 3072 + 192 + 16 + 7 + + 0 + + 8 512 4096 (3287. 5100098)10

Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

c) convert 3287.5100098 into octal 10 Solution

Now read the number from down to up as 6327 = 3287

Number Systems and Digital Circuits

0.1250176 X8 1.0001408 Therefore 3287.5100098 = 6327. 4051

Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

Number Systems and Digital Circuits

Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

0.5 x16 8.0 8 thus 0.5

Number Systems and Digital Circuits

0.000111101011012 = 0.0001 1110 1011 0100 1 3{ { { 2

Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

Table The ASCII code. X X X X

Number Systems and Digital Circuits

Low High High Low V

Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

Table 1.6 two input OR gate: A 0 0 1 1 B 0 1 0 1 Y 0 1 1 1

Number Systems and Digital Circuits Diode and gate

A B C Fig No. 1.5

AND gates Logic Symbol

Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

Fig No. 1.6 NOR gates logic Symbol

Number Systems and Digital Circuits

Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

Number Systems and Digital Circuits

Fig. No. 1.9 Block Diagram of 7400 IC

Number Systems and Digital Circuits

Fig. No. 1.10

Fig. No. 1.11

Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

Table 1.14 Truth table of a half - substractor A 0 0 1 1 B 0 1 0 1 Difference 0 1 1 0 Borrow 0 1 0 0

Number Systems and Digital Circuits

Flip-Flops, Registors, Counters 2- FLIP FLOPS , REGISTERS AND COUNTERS 2.0.Introduction :

Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

Latched state (a)

Latched state (a)

Flip-Flops, Registors, Counters

Table 7.1 Transistor Latch R 0 0 1 1 S 0 1 0 1 Q NC 1 0 * COMMENTS No Changes Set Reset Race

Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

Comments Race Set Reset No Changes

2.3 NAND gate latch and truth table.

Flip-Flops, Registors, Counters Clocked RS flip flop

Fig. No. 2.6 CLK 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 R 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 S 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 Q NC NC NC NC NC 1 0 * ( Race)

Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

Fig2.7 JK flip flop symbol and its truth table.

Flip-Flops, Registors, Counters

Digital Electronics and Computer Fundamentals

Fig No. 2.8

De&CF Theory 1

De&CF Theory 1