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Special Relativity
(Translated from Relativités et quanta
clarifiés)
1. INTRODUCTION
Special relativity originated one century ago from unsolved problems and
various observations incompatible with the ideas of that epoch. Maxwell
predicted the existence of radiation pressure, already imagined by Newton and
observable with the Crookes radiometer. The Maxwell equations have been
criticized because they were not conserved in the Galilean transformation. With
the newtonian absolute movement, speed and time one predicted that light
should be dragged by the Earth’s movement. Michelson-Morley experiment had
to prove the existence of the Ether. The negative result of the experiment led to
light speed invariance.
Special relativity is special because it is limited to uniform translation, without
any acceleration. Its fundamental postulate is the invariance of light speed in a
change of Galilean reference frame.
The Galilean transformation had to be replaced by the Lorentz transformation in
order to take into account this experimental result, already known from the
Maxwell equations. Einstein deduced directly the Lorentz transformation
without using the Maxwell equations. From the Lorentz transformation one
deduce various transformations : time, length, speed, acceleration, mass…
Acceleration ought to be incompatible with Galilean frames but Einstein took
the precaution of saying that special relativity should be applied to the "slowly
accelerated electron". Using time as a fourth spatial dimension, one obtains the
pseudo-euclidean space of Minkowski, euclidean by using an imaginary fourth
dimension.
Completed by Newton’s laws, special relativity became the relativistic dynamics
whose principal application is the formula giving the energy contained in a mass
at rest or in movement. The diagram below shows the logical process from the
Lorentz transformation to E = mc2.
Special Relativiy 3
Relativité restreinte
Transformation de Lorentz
t = t' + vx' = 1
Directe x = x' + vt'
c2 2
1 - v2
Réciproque t' = t - vx x' = x - vt c
c2
v' x + v
vx = d v
Vitesse limite = c v v' x Accélération = dv'
1+ dt dt'
c2
Théorême de Pythagore
dans l'espace à quatre s 2 = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + ict 2
dimensions de
Minkowski
ds 2 = dr 2 + r 2 d 2 + sin 2 d + d ict 2
2
Dynamique relativiste
Loi de Newton F = d mv
relativiste dt
Masse relativiste m = m 0
Energie cinétique
E c = m - m0 c2
Energie proportionnelle
à la masse E = m c2
2. MICHELSON-MORLEY EXPERIMENT
Crossing a lake
Let us consider a swimmer crossing a lake of width L0. The time t0 of a round-
trip crossing at speed c is given by
2L 0
t0 =
c
Crossing a river
To cross a river, the swimmer has to swim obliquely upstream in order not to be
dragged downstream. The relative speed c of the swimmer has to be larger than
the driving speed v of the current. If c = v, the swimmer stays on the spot and
the duration of the crossing is infinite. If c < v his route seems oblique to an
observer staying on a boat dragged by the current and perpendicular to an
observer staying on the bank. In any case the duration of the crossing is larger
with a current than without : this is a kind of time dilation ! Nevertheless, the
time is absolute in classical mechanics and the swimmer has the same time as an
observer on the bank or on a boat. In a given time, the distance covered by the
swimmer is the vector sum of the distances covered along and across the river.
Special Relativiy 5
The same is valid for the speeds obtained by dividing by the corresponding time
increment.
The absolute speed v1 is the swimmer speed for an observer on the bank. The
absolute speed is perpendicular to the bank and given by the Pythagorean
theorem :
c 2 = v 21 + v 2
The duration of the round-trip crossing is :
2L 0 2L 0
t1 = =
v1 c2 – v2
That is to say :
t0
t1 =
2
1 – v2
c
The crossing time increases with the speed of the current and becomes infinite
when the speed of the current attains that of the swimmer in still water. Time
seems to be dilated for an observer on the bank.
t0 t0 v2
t2 – t1 = 2
– t0
1– v v2 2c 2
1–
c2 c2
This is the formula that Michelson proposed himself to transpose to light. The
swimmer velocity c is that of light (nowadays a photon). The current speed v is
the velocity of the Aether wind.
The formula derived for the swimmer remains valid for the Aether wind :
2
t = t 2 – t 1 v 2 t 0
2c
In order to minimize errors, the shift of the interference fringes, being measured
at 0° and 90°, has to be multiplied by two :
2 2
v
t 2 t 0 = 2 Lv
c c3
The variation of the optical path is then :
2Lv 2
n = c t
c2
The number n of fringes shifted by the translation at 30 km/s of the Earth around
the Sun is, for a 600 nm wavelength, with c = 300.000 km/s and with arms of
1.2 m length
2 1.2 10 -4
2 2
n 2Lv = = 0.04
c2 6 10 - 7
To their amazement, Michelson and Morley found that the velocity of light was
independent of its direction of travel through space. There was no observable
fringe shift although the expected effect was twice the experimental error.
Michelson and Morley carried out, in 1887, a new experiment ten times more
sensitive with the same null result : there is no Aether wind. The speed of light
seems to be constant, even in single trip as shown by measuring the speed of
light emitted by the -ions (or pions or pi-mesons). However, there still exist
people who believe in the Aether, like the Nobe Prize winner Maurice Allais.
2L 1 2L 2
=
2
v2 c 1– v
c 1–
c2 c2
L0 is replaced by L1, parallel to the movement, and L2, perpendicular to the
movement. L1 and L2 are, indeed, the only adjustable parameters. In order to
verify the preceding equality, one needs to have :
2
L2 = L1 1 - v
c2
Fitzgerald had read a paper from Heavyside showing that the electric field of the
moving charge distribution undergoes a distortion, with the longitudinal
components of the field being affected by the motion but the transverse ones
not. Then, if we assume that intermolecular forces are electrical, then we have
L1 = L0 and
v2
L2 = L0 1 -
c2
which is the Fitzgerald-Lorentz contraction, a consequence of the Maxwell
equations. Then
2L 1 2L 0 t0
t1 = = =
2 2 2
c 1 – v2 c 1 – v2 1 – v2
c c c
where t0 is the round-trip time in the absence of Aether. It shows that the time
dilates. But the time is independant of the direction of movement. A clock,
laser, for example will have a period increasing with speed, but without change
under a slow rotation, even if its dimensions vary with speed. This should be
true for any type of clock, mechanical, optical or electronical. Then
t0
t1 = t2 =
2
v
1- 2
c
The period of the pendulum of a clock
A clock with one beat per second will have one beat in two seconds at a speed of
261,000 km/s for a fixed observer.
Special Relativiy 9
3. RELATIVISTIC KINEMATICS
Linearity
In special relativity t t’. The simplest linear relationship between spacetime in
the R and R’ reference frames is, with three independent coefficients, , , ,
function of the velocity v of the particle and v of the light is:
x' = x vt
t' = t + x
This is the Lorentz transformation de Lorentz that becomes the Galilean
transformation for = = 1 and = 0.
Relativity principle
According to the principle of relativity, there is no privileged reference frame.
One has to find the same relationship when passing from R to R’ or, inversely
from R’ to R. The relative speed v of the frames needs however a change of sign
for the same reason as for the Galilean transformation. The direct transformation
is
ct' = c v t
The reciprocal transformation of the abscissa is
ct = ct' + vt'
then
ct' = c v t = c v ct' + vt'
c
or
Special Relativiy 11
c= c v c+v
c
After transformation this expression gives the Lorentz factor :
1
=
v2
1 2
c
The second Lorentz relation, using x = ct and
1 + c = 1 v
c
becomes :
vt
t
t' = t + x = 1 + c t = 1 v t=1 v t= c
c c v 2
1
c2
Replacing t = x/c, we get the Lorentz transformation of the time :
vx
t' = t – 2
c
Algebraic form
The constants et being determined, one obtains the direct Lorentz la
transformation :
t xv
x vt c2
x' = t' =
v2 v 2
1 2 1 2
c c
and the reciprocal
t' + vx'
2
x' + vt' t= c
x=
2 2
1 2
v 1 v
c c2
When light speed c tends to infinity, the Lorentz factor tends towards one. The
preceding formulae become the Galilean transformation :
x' = x - vt et t' = t
or
x = x' + vt et t = t'
12 Special Relativiy
where the resultant displacement is the sum of the relative and of the transferred
displacements.
Matrix form
The Lorentz transformation
x' = x – vt
t' = t – xv
c2
may be written in matrix form :
1 –v
x' t' = v x
– 1 t
c2
Using i = 1 , y = ict and y' = ict', we obtain :
iv
1
x' y' = c x
iv y
– 1
c
Multipliantthe transformation matrix by its transpose, on obtains the unit
matrix :
2 2
1 iv 1 – iv 1 + iv – iv + iv 1– v 0
c c c c c c2 1 0
= 2 2 = 2
2 =
– iv 1 iv 1
– iv + iv – iv + 1 0 1 – v2
0 1
c c c c c c
Its transposed is also its inverse. There is conservation of the lengths in the
space x, y = ict which is then euclidian. The Lorentz transformation is then a
rotation of an imaginary angle.
In the littérature one fins a matrix presentation of the four-dimensional Lorentz
transformation représented by the capital lambda (the L of Lorentz) :
1 – 0 0
ij = – 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
where = v/c. In an arbitrary direction, sans explicit it, on may write the general
form of a linear transformation in the four-dimensional spacetime as :
Special Relativiy 13
Rotation in spacetime
By putting ict = y, ict' = y', tg (i
) = iv/c, one has
1 1 1
= = = = cos i
2 2
1 + iv 1 + tg 2 i
1 - v2
c c
The Lorentz factor is real ; indeed
exp(i 2 ) + exp(– i 2 ) exp(– ) + exp()
= cos i = = = ch
2 2
The transformation becomes, in matrix form, a rotation of an imaginary angle
i
:
iv
1
c x 1 tg i x = cos i sin i x
x' y' = = cos i
– iv 1 y – tg i 1 y – sin i cos i y
c
Using the hyperbolic functions, one eliminates the imaginary quantities by
replacing y = ct and y’ = ct' :
x = x' ch – y' sh
y = – x' sh + y' ch
These are formulae analogous to those of rotation, where the trigonometric
functions are replaced by hyperbolic functions. The terms in hyperbolic sines
are preceded each with a minus sign. In the rotation, only one sine is preceded
14 Special Relativiy
with a minus sign. The Lorentz transformation matrix is symmetrical while the
rotation matrix is antisymmetrical.
The Lorentz transformation is then a hyperbolic rotation in a pseudo-euclidean
space or in a true rotation in a euclidean space, but with an imaginary angle. In
this euclidean space, the time is an imaginary distance, ict. The Lorentz
transformation may be generalised in vectorial form for some rare practical
applications.
Time dilation
Let us consider a motionless observer in a reference frame R. He looks at a
clock (not a pendulum clock, depending on the Earth gravity) moving at a
velocity v. He measures a time interval t between two beats of this moving
clock.
An observer moving with the clock (x’ = 0) in R’ measures a time interval t’
between two beats of his clock.
The second equation of the Lorentz transformation is :
vx'
t' +
c2
t=
v2
1
c2
With x’ = 0, we get
t'
t= = t'
2
1 – v2
c
The time interval between two beats looks larger for a moving clock. It becomes
infinite when the speed approaches that of light. A photon is immortal. A
meson has a limited life that can be measured practically motionless in the
laboratory and at high speed in the atmosphere. A longer life was found at high
speed than at rest in accord with the preceding formula.
The twin paradox is something similar but usually misinterpreted. One compares
two twins, one staying on Earth and the other flying with a rocket near the speed
of light. The twin staying on earth will see the other aging slower. Now let us
apply the principle of relativity : there is no preferred frame. Then the twin on
the rocket will see the twin on earth also aging slower. Both of the twins will see
the other one aging the same way, with or without acceleration and when they
will meet again they will have the same age. Indeed, acceleration, being a
Special Relativiy 15
differential of space to time, is relative between the twins like time, space and
velocity. Within the scope of special relativity the acceleration is not absolute. It
is often assumed without proof that there is a stationary and a travelling twin
(relative to what absolute frame?).
Time, space and their derivatives depend on the relative velocity between the
frames. No reference frame is preferred.
Length contraction
With the same kind of reasoning, let us consider an observer in a frame R
measuring a length x of a ruler moving at a relative speed v in a reference frame
R’. The observer in the moving frame R’measures a length x’. He has to take an
instantaneous photograph, that is, t = 0. We use the first Lorentz equation
x vt
x' =
2
1 v2
c
where we put t = 0 :
x
x' =
2
1 v2
c
The length apparent to the motionless observer being x’, we have :
v2
x = x' 1
c2
which is the Lorentz-Fitzgerald contraction. A direct measure does not seem to
exist, but it is taken into account in the calculation of the synchrotron radiation,
the diameter of the accelerator being different in the frame of the high speed
electron and in the frame of the laboratory.
Like the time, the lenth of a ruler parallel to the speed depends on the relative
speeds of the ruler and the observer. A ruler contracts at high speeds while the
time dilates.
Colinear velocities
In relativistic kinematics, near the speed of light things are more complicated.
We shall limit ourselves first to a single spatial dimension, with colinear
velocities.
The Lorentz transformation is valid, in principle, only for Galilean reference
frames, that is, for constant transferred speeds. The relative speed v between two
Galilean frames R and R’ and the Lorentz factor are constants. The Lorentz
transformation may then be written in différential form :
dx = dx' + v dt'
dt = dt' + v dx'
c2
with
1
=
2
1 - v2
c
Using vx = dx/dt and v’x = dx’/dt’, we get the relativistic composition of
velocities :
dx' + v
dx' + v dt'
v x = dx = = dt'
dt 1 + v2dx'
dt' + v dx'
c2 c dt'
that is :
v' x + v
vx =
v v'
1+ 2x
c
For an infinite light speed, the denominator is equal to one. We then recover the
classical formula of speed addition where the absolute velocity vx = va is the
sum ot the transferred velocity v = vt and of the relative velocity v’x = vr :
va = vt + vr
In einsteinian relativity, velocities add as in Galilean relativity except that a
factor prevents to reach the speed of light. Let us chek it. If v’x = c, as for a
photon in a frame moving at speed v, then we have :
vx = c + v = c c + v = c
vc c+v
1+ 2
c
The velocity of a photon does not depend on the speed of the reference frame.
Special Relativiy 17
The same happens for electromagnetic waves from radars or lasers that are used
to measure speeds. Il is also observed for redshifted spectral lines emitted by
galaxies at the origin of the expanding universe and Big-Bang theories. There is
also a Doppler effect due to matter emission in supernovae. A similar effect is
the redshift due to gravitation at the surface of the stars that may be considered
as a Doppler effect only through the principle of equivalence of general
relativity.
In classical physics, the relative frequency shift, as seen by the observer is :
– s v
= r =–
s s c
where vr is the velocity of the receptor and vs the velocity of the source. v is the
relative velocity between the source and the receptor, positive when the observer
(the receptor) goes away from the source. The frequency decreases when v > 0.
This formula needs only to be multiplied by the Lorentz factor to remain valid
when v approaches the speed of light as we will show. The Lorentz
transformation of the time :
vx'
t' + 2
c
t=
2
1- v
c2
becomes, for a light ray of velocity c, with x’ = ct’,
t = t' + v c2 t' = 1 + v t'
c c
For one période, that is t = T in R and t’ = T’ in R’ :
1+ v
T = 1 + v T' =
c T'
c v
1–
c
The frequency being the inverse of the period, one has :
v
1–
c
=
'
1+ v
c
When the velocity is positive, that is when the source and the receptor move
away from each other, the frequency perceived by the observer is lower. At low
speeds, 1, we may develop the formula up to the second order :
r – s v v2 v – vs 1 vr – vs 2
– + =– r +
s c 2 c2 c 2 c
It differs from the classical formula by the second order term :
Special Relativiy 19
r – s vr – vs v 2r
– + 2
s c c
For velocities near the speed of light, with a negative velocity, v c, we
obtain the ultra-relativistic formula :
r
= 1– v 1+ c =2
s c c
The frequency increases indefinitely with the velocity. This formula is used in
the theory of the synchrotron. With a positive velocity, the frequency tends to
zero.
Classical kinematics
In classical rational mechanics, the term "Galilean transformation" was not in
use. One said only that kinematics differed from geometry by the introduction of
time. It seemed natural that displacements add vectorially. Velocity was simply
the vector derivative of displacement and acceleration the vector derivative of
velocity. For the sake of simplicity let us stay in only one space coordinate.
Let us consider the acceleration of an electron in a electric field. Let R be the
reference frame of the laboratory and R’ a Galilean reference frame. Let x and
x’, vx and ax, v’x and a’x, respectively, abscissas, velocities and accelerations of
the electron in frames R and R’.
According to the Galilean transformation, the velocity is the derivative of the
abscissa. For a constant velocity, we have
x = x’ + vt
By dérivation, we get
dx/dt = dx’/dt + v
or
v’x = v’x + v
This formula remains valid even if v varies. After a subsequent derivation we
obtain the acceleration :
2 2
a x = d 2x = d dx' + v = d x' + dv = a' + dv
x
dt dt dt dt 2 dt dt
If the frame R’ coincides with the electron v’x = 0 and a’x = 0. Then :
dv
ax =
dt
We don’t need Galilean reference frames to know the acceleration. Let us see
what happens when using the Lorentz transformation.
d v
=g
dt
or
d v = d gt
that integrates into v = gt. The integration constant is zero if the initial velocity
is v = 0 at t = 0. With
= 1
v 2
1
c
One may write after integration :
c
v =
2
1+ c
gt
For slow speeds, that is for c = and t = 0, the formula becomes v = gt. When t
increases indefinitely, the velocity approaches asymptotically the speed of light.
The apparent acceleration, for the observer in the R frame, decreases continually
toward zero but remains constant in the mobile reference frame R’. This
formula, used in particle accelerators, may be written :
d 1 2
gt
dx dt 2
v= =
dt 2
1 + gt
c
When t is small, the denominator is equal to one, giving the classical law of
falling bodies. When time increases, the velocity continues to increase, but at a
decreasing rate. The infinitesimal displacement
gt 2
2
d
c
dx = c
2g 2
1 + gt
c
may be integrated as
2 2
x= c 1 + gt
g c
After some algebra, one gets the equation of a hyperbola :
2
x2 c2 t 2 = c 2
g
This is the reason why the relativistic uniformly accelerated movement is called
hyperbolic.
Special Relativiy 25
vd v = d GM
r
Now, we have the identity
3
1 1 v2
2v 3 v 2 v
d = d = 1– 2 2 2 dv = d = d v
v2 2 c c 2 c c2
1–
c2
which gives
d = d GM
c2 r
and integrates in
1
= GM + constant
v 2 c2 r
1– 2
c
The gravitational potential energy of a proper mass m0 is:
GM
V = m0
r
Multiplying both sides by the proper mass m0 of the particle and by c2, we
obtain the relativistic conservation of energy:
m 0 c2 1 1 + V = constant
2
v
1–
c2
This is indeed T + V = constant.
26 Special Relativiy
dx 1
v= =c 1–
dt V 2
1+
m 0 c2
By using the lorentz transformation of the acceleration and assuming that the
acceleration derives from a potential, we have obtained the relativistic
conservation of energy. From it, we deduced the relativistic velocity of a particle
in function of the potential. This approach is not valid for a photon in a
gravitational field.
dt d t' 2 dt' 2 c
This formula may be applied to electrons accelerated in a synchrotron where the
speed is practically v c. The acceleration is centripetal and perpendicular to the
velocity, the trajectory being circular with radius r. The acceleration a’y in the
frame R’ of the electron determines the radiation :
2
2 c
a' y = a y =
2
r
where r is the bending radius of the synchrotron as seen in the frame R’ of the
electron. c is the velocity of the electron, almost equal to the speed of light,
equal in R and R’. The classical Larmor formula gives the radiation power
emitted by the electron :
1 2e 2 a 2
P =
4 0 3c 3
By replacing the acceleration in the frame of the electron we get :
2 2
q 2
2 c q 2 c 4
P = =
6 c 3 r 6 r 2
0 0
It is also important to know the frequency of the radiation. At low speeds, the
frequency is the Larmor frequency L, obtained by equating the centrifugal
force and the Lorentz force m 0 v L = evB in SI units as everywhere in this
book. The Larmor frequency is also L = v/r :
Special Relativiy 27
evB eB v
L = = =
m0 v m0 r
It is no more necessary to know the magnetic induction, replaced by the radius
of the synchrotron, much easier to grasp. At the speed of light, v = c and the
radius r is contracted according to the Lorentz factor. The frequency of the
fundamental mode is then :
c
0 =
r
There is both a relativistic Doppler and a relativistic aberration. Both multiplie
the frequency by . The so-called critical frequency of the synchrotron is then :
c
C 3
r
The spectrum produced by the synchrotron extends in a practically continuous
manner from the fundamental frequency 0 to the critical frequency c. The use
of the special relativity theory avoids the use of retarded potentials and
simplifies greatly the calculation of the Larmor formula at relativistic speeds.
f f v f f
df = – dx + – v dt
x' t' c 2 t' x'
By equaling both expressions of df, we have :
f f f f v f f
dx + dt = – dx + – v dt
x t x' t' c 2 t' x'
Identifying the dx and dt terms and suppressing the f we obtain the partial
derivative operators :
= – v2
x x' c t'
= –v
t t' x'
It is to be pointed out that the minus signs are here on the side of the primed
variables. They are on the unprimed side in the original Lorentz transformation
above. We have also the reciprocal expressions:
= + v
x' x c 2 t
= +v
t' t x
These formulas will be used to show the invariance of the electromagnetic wave
equation in the Lorentz transformation. When c = , = 1, one obtains the
Galilean transformation of the operators. The particle being motionless in its
proper reference frame R' with velocity v relative to R, we have dx’/dt’ = 0. The
derivative of f with respect to t’ is then:
df f dx' f f
= + =
dt' t' dt' x' t'
Using the preceding expression of /t’ one obtains:
df = f + v f = df
dt' t x dt
Putting = 1, on gets the formula of the material derivative of newtonian fluid
mechanics. Using the proper time
= t', we may write the total derivative
operator:
d = d
d dt
The partial derivatives are different in both classical and relativistic kinematics.
The total derivatives are equal in classical kinematics but different in relativistic
kinematics. Anyway, putting = 1 gives always the classical formula to which
one may refer in case of doubt about signs. In case of doubt about the position of
, it suffices to remind that the classical formulas are valid in the proper frame.
Special Relativiy 29
These formulas will be used to check the conservation of the wave equations in
the Galilean and Lorentz transformations.
d’Alembert equation
From the Maxwell equations one may obtain the d'Alembert equation where the
celerity is that of light:
2 2 2 1 2
+ + – =0
2 2 2 2 2
x y z c t
where is the function representing the amplitude of the wave in the frame R.
We shall show that this equation is conserved in a Lorentz transformation. The
d’Alembertian operator
2 2 2 1 2 2
+ + =+
2 2 2 2 2 2
x y z c t ict
may be written, for the sake of simplification, in a two dimensional spacetime R,
x for space and t for time:
2 1 2
– = + –
x 2 c 2 t 2 x c t x c t
We have seen that, in the Lorentz transformation, the differential operators
transform as:
= – v2
x x' c t'
= –v
t t' x'
where v is the velocity of R’ relative to R and
1
=
2
1 – v2
c
is the Lorentz factor. Replacing these operators by their expression in the wave
equation, one obtains:
+ = 1 –- v +
x c t c x' c t'
and also, by changing c in – c :
30 Special Relativiy
v
– = 1+ –
x c t c x' c t'
which gives the wave equation:
1– v + 1+ v – =0
c x' c t' c x' c t'
or
2
2 1 – v + – =0
c 2 x' c t' x' c t'
which is the original equation since
v2
2 1 – 2 = 1
c
The wave equation is the same in R and R'. The variables are primed in R' and
unprimed in R. The wave function and its celerity c are unchanged. The
electromagnetic wave equation is invariant in a Lorentz transformation but the
celerity has to be that of light in the vacuum. A sound wave equation has the
same form in the absence of entrainment but is not invariant under a Lorentz
transformation.
Hertz equation
The so-called Hertz equation is the equation of mechanical waves, valid with
entrainment, for example in a wind of velocity v:
2
2 1 d
– =0
2 2 2
x c dt
is the wave function that may be the density, pressure, stress, strain, volume,
displacement… The main difference with the d’Alembert equation is the
presence of straight d's for a total derivative operator instead of round 's for a
partial derivative operator in the time derivative. The celerity is not the celerity
of light but that of mechanical waves. One may often find this equation with
round 's in the literature but it is correct only in the absence of entrainment. We
shall check that it is invariant in the Galilean transformation. We will write
explicitely the convective term:
2 1 2
+v =0
x 2
c 2 t x
where v is the entrainment velocity. In a Galilean transformation with velocity u
the "absolute" velocity in frame R becomes v = v’ + u where v' is the velocity in
Special Relativiy 31
the moving frame R' and u the velocity of R' relative to R. The derivation
operators may be obtained by putting c = , = 1 in the Lorentz transformation:
=
x x'
= u
t t' x'
Using v = v’ + u and these expressions, the total derivative operator becomes:
+v = –u +v = + v–u = + v'
t x t' x x t' x' t' x'
The velocity u of R' is eliminated. The total derivative operator is the same in
the R' frame except for the primes. The Hertz equation of waves, also called
non-linear, is therefore conserved in the Galilean transformation:
2 1 2
– 2 + v' =0
x' c t' x'
It may also be deduced, without calculation that it is also conserved in the
Lorentz transformation. This is true only if the velocity of light is used in the
Lorentz transformation and the celerity of the mechanical waves in the Hertz
equation. The mechanical wave equation is not conserved in a pseudo-Lorentz
transformation where the same c is used in both the wave equation and the
Lorentz transformation. A d'Alembert equation will not work in the wind.
Minkowski metric
The Pythagorean theorem is conserved in a rotation since lengths are conserved.
We have seen that the Lorentz transformation is equivalent to a rotation of an
imaginary angle i
such that tg (i
) = iv/c :
cos i sin i x
x' y' =
– sin i cos i y
The length s of a segment has to be conserved in a rotation,in vertue of the
Pythagorean theorem :
s 2 = x' 2 + y' 2 = x 2 + y 2
which gives, when y et y’ are replaced by ict and ict’ :
s 2 = x' 2 + ict' 2 = x 2 + ict 2 = x' 2 - c 2 t' 2 = x 2 - c 2 t 2
A minus sign, due to the square of i appears. The euclidean planar space is
transformed in a flat pseudo-euclidean space called Minkowski space-time. It
32 Special Relativiy
may directly checked, by replacing t' and x' by their expressions issued from the
Lorentz transformation:
x' = x – vt
t' = t – vx2
c
that the métric
2
t vx2
c x vt 2
s' 2 = c 2 t' 2 + x' 2 = c 2 +
2 2
v v
1 2 1 2
c c
is conserved after developing and simplifying:
2
s' 2 = 1 x2 1 v + v2 c2 t 2 = c 2 t 2 + x 2 = s2
v2 c2
1
c2
The Minkowski metric is conserved by a Lorentz transformation and is easier to
use than the Lorentz transformation. In general relativity, there is no practical
transformation.
Cartesian coordinates
The three-dimensional physical space is no more absolute since Einstein.
Minkowski has shown that the phenomena discovered by Lorentz and clarified
by Einstein could be described with a four-dimensional space. If the fourth
dimension is defined as the distance travelled during the time t multiplied by i
where i the square root of – 1 one obtains a four-dimensional euclidean space:
s2 = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + w 2
where
w = c 2 t 2 = ct 1 = ict
Without i, it is the Minkowski pseudo-euclidean space. The proper distance is
then given by the metric:
s2 = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 c 2 t 2
It is recognized by the minus sign before the t2 term. Some authors put c = 1.
The Minkowski space-time is a euclidean space deformed by the combination of
uniform dilatation and shear. It is therefore without curvature and hence a "flat"
space with constant coefficients of the metric. It is not euclidean since the
coefficients are not equal to one. In the ordinary euclidean space, lengths are
conserved by translation or rotation. In the Minkowski space-time, the rotation
is replaced by the Lorentz transformation.
Special Relativiy 33
We shall now define more precisely the notion of metric. In euclidean three-
dimensional analytic geometry, the spatial distance dl between two near points
is:
2
dl 2 = dx + dy 2
+ dz 2 = dx i dx i = dx i dx i
i
where w = ict. The gij are called coefficients ou components of the metric. A
four-dimensional metric tensor may be represented by a matrix:
g ww g wx g wy g wz g00 g01 g02 g03
g wx g x x g x y g xz g g g g
ou 0 1 1 1 1 2 1 3
g wy g x y g y y g yz g02 g12 g22 g23
g wz g xz g yz g zz g03 g13 g23 g33
Generally the indexes w, 4 or 0 correspond to the time. The matrix is symmetric,
in the diagonal terms like gxy dx dy, dx and dy may be commuted without
changing the value of ds2. Therefore gxy = gyx. Practically, for the sake of
simplicity, we shall use almost always diagonal matrices, without gxy, gxt… as in
the Minkowski metric:
ds 2 = c 2 dt 2 + dx 2 + dy 2 + dz 2 = d ict 2 + dx 2 + dy 2 + dz 2
that may be written, as in a Riemannian space:
ds 2 = g t t d ict 2 + g x x dx 2 + g y y dy 2 + g zz dz 2
where gtt = gxx = gyy = gzz = 1. gtt, gxx, gyy and gzz are the only non-zero
components of the metric Minkowski tensor. They are all equal to one, the
minus sign appearing only when the square of i is carried out. The signs of the
coefficients may vary according the conventions used. The sign of gtt is usually
opposed to the others but it seems preferable to use (ict)2 instead of c2t2 or
even ± t2 with c = 1 which forbiddens any checking with dimensional analysis.
The Minkowski metric is represented by a 4 4 diagonal matrix :
-1 0 0 0
g i j = 0 1 0 0 = i j
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
or
1 0 0 0
0 -1 0 0
0 0 -1 0
0 0 0 -1
if the metric of type ds2 or d
2 (d
2 is sometimes called ds2, in a so-called West-
Coast or Lorentz metric). The ij désignate the gij of the Minkowski metric. All
the diagonal ij are equal to ± 1, using a physical or geometrical unit system.
The determinant is g = 1 or g = 1 if the fourth dimension is ict. In this latter
case, the diagonal terms are all equal to one.
In general relativity, the coefficients of the metric are function of the coordinates
trough the gravitational potential and the Minkowski space becomes tangent to
the curved pseudo-Riemannian space-time. We shall consider the space-time of
general relativity as a four-dimensional Riemannian (not pseudo-Riemannian)
Special Relativiy 35
space with w = ict (Einstein uses x0 = ct) in order to avoid the minus sign
problem.
Spherical coordinates
Spherical coordinates are defined as the position vector r, the colatitude
and
the longitude :
Let us consider the small spherical rectangle on the sphere. Its width is
r sin
d and its height is r d
. The Pythagorean theorem may be applied to
this rectangle to obtain its diagonal:
r d = r d 2 + sin d 2
A last step gives the length element in a four-dimensional euclidean space with
the fourth dimension w = ict:
ds = d ict 2 + dl 2 = d ict 2
+ dr 2 + r 2 d 2
Replacing d we obtain the full metric:
ds 2 = d ict 2 + dr 2 + r 2 d 2 + sin 2 d 2
which is the pseudo-euclidean Minkowski metric:
ds 2 = – c 2 dt 2 + dr 2 + r 2 d 2 + sin 2 d
2
Variational calculus
The calculus of variations is issued from the principles expressed by Heron of
Alexandria, Huygens, Fermat, Hamilton, d’Alembert, Maupertuis and also from
the works of Lagrange, Euler and others. The Lagrange equations may be
obtained either from variational principles or Newton's laws. These ideas may
be resumed by the principles of the shortest way (geometric aspect) or of the
least effort (mechanical aspect).
The effective trajectory is the one corresponding to the extremal way or time.
The derivative of the way has to be zero all along the way.
or, using L:
d L = 0
dx y
Carrying the partial derivative relative to y', the Lagrange equation becomes:
d 2y x
=0
dx 2 1 + y x 2
It integrates in
y x
= constant
2
1+ y x
or y’ = dy/dx = constant. The trajectory y(x) is a straight line.
Special Relativiy 39
4. RELATIVISTIC DYNAMICS
4.1. INTRODUCTION
The Lorentz transformation, like the Galilean transformation is supposed to be
valid only between Galilean reference frames. We have seen above that the
observed acceleration is a function of the proper acceleration through the
Lorentz formula of the accelerated electron. Accelerated motion is therefore not
out of the scope of special relativity.
Relativistic dynamics is the special relativity with addition of Newton' laws.
Mass dilatation results simply from the application of the Lorentz
transformation to the acceleration as we shall see. If the acceleration is defined
as the derivative of the velocity, Newton's second law must be written with the
variable mass included in the derivand:
d mv
F=
dt
Energy being the product of the force and the displacement, as in classical
mechanics, one obtains an expression that reduces to the newtonian formula at
low speeds. When the effort F acts on a body and make it move of an increment
dx, the work done by F is transformed into kinetic energy dT = F dx. By
integration of this equation, one obtains the kinetic energy mv2 in newtonian
mechanics where the mass is constant. In relativistic dynamics, we have to take
account of the variable mass, function of the velocity. We will show that the
kinetic energy depends only on the mass via the velocity and a universal
constant proportionality factor.
d m 0 v d m0 v
=
dt d
The relativistic (or inertial or apparent) mass m, depending on the reference
frame, is defined by the relation
m0
m = m0 =
2
1– v
c2
If one does not want to use the relativistic mass, one has to use the relativistic
acceleration as defined earlier or to always replace the mass by m0. We will use
here this French et Feynman notation, except, eventually, at low speeds where
they are equal. According to this formula, the relativistic mass dilates with the
same law as the time and increases indefinitely when the velocity tends to the
speed of light.
The Young’s double slits experiment with single photons shows the double
nature, undulatory and corpuscular, of light. It is often asserted that the photon
has no mass. This is of course true but only for the rest mass since, for v = c, the
denominator of the above formula being zero, the numerator has also to be zero.
The relativistic mass of the photon may be determined only from the
equivalence of mass and energy and the quanta hypothesis.
The variable mass is useful to allow a generalization of Newton' laws in the
domain of relativistic velocities, near the speed of light.
4.5. E = MC2
The conversion of mass in energy had already being considered by Newton.
Formulas like Einstein's had been proposed by Thomson, Heaviside et Poincaré.
Lise Meitner used Einstein's theory to show that the mass lost during the fission
of uranium was changed changed to energy.
We shall derive, using the expression of the kinetic energy, T = (m – m0) c2, the
most famous formula of modern physics. c and m0 being constant, the increase
of the kinetic energy is due only to the increase of the relativistic mass m. In
classical mechanics, the energy E is undetermined to an arbitrary additive
constant E0. We may choose it such that E = T + E0 = m c2. The total energy in
motion is then E = m0c2. At rest, v = 0, then = 1 and E0 = m0c2. The rest
energy is a constant for a particle at rest.
Rather than choosing arbitrarily E0, one may call a evident principle. Indeed, the
proportionality between mass and energy is well known in practice, for example
by the car drivers. The energy contained in a given mass of fuel is proportional
to it according to a coefficient K depending on its heat content. There should
exist a maximum value of K corresponding to the maximum energy available
when all the matter is transformed into pure energy. K should be a universal
constant independent of the reference frame and from the velocity if mass and
energy are equivalent. For a given object, the total energy will be:
E=Km
in the frame of the observer and
44 Special Relativiy
E0 = K m0
in the prper frame of the object. The difference in these two energies is due only
to the velocity: it is the kinetic energy:
T = E E 0 = K m – m0
K being a universal constant by assumption, only the mass depends on the
speed. Now, the application of the second law of Newton combined with the
definition of energy had shown that the kinetic energy was:
T = m m0 c2
Identifying these two las expressions, one finds K = c2 and, therefore, the total
energy in motion or at rest is:
E = m c2
The Lorentz factor
2
= m = m c2 = E
m0 m0 c E0
represents the ratio of the total energy in motion to the total energy at rest as
well as the ratio of the corresponding masses. The available energy in a particle
depends on the observer e.g. if the particle is in motion or not relatively to the
observer. This is not only true for relativistic velocities but also in classical
mechanics. A car driver is often only aware of the damage he can cause at the
time of a shock. The kinetic energy, even newtonian, is relative since it exists
only relatively to an obstacle, that is, depends on the reference frame.
All the derivations leading to E = mc2, need additive hypothesis
In a few words we shall resume the reasoning conducting to this formula. Its
origin is in the velocity of any material object limited to that of light. If a
constant force is applied to the object to accelerate it, the velocity being limited
and the force constant, it is necessary that the mass increases to avoid
overcoming the velocity of light. The simplest formula giving an infinite mass
for v = c is the dilatation of mass given by relativity:
m0
m=
v2
1– 2
c
From this formula one gets the newtonian kinetic energy as a function of mass,
approximated at low velocity but also valid for relativistic velocities:
T = m – m0 c2
By assuming proportionality between mas and energy, one finds that the
proportionality constant is c2.
All the demonstrations using the transformation of matter into light or collisions
need one or two supplementary assumptions. The hypothesis of proportionality
Special Relativiy 45
of energy and matter with a universal constant seems better. The kinetic energy
is thus proportional to the mass variation. Using the relativistic formula for the
kinetic energy one obtains the value of the coefficient K = c2.
v2
L = m0 c2 1 V(x)
c2
and in Newtonian limit of general relativity:
2
d
L= = dt 1 – v2 + 2V 2 = 1
d d c m0 c
both differing from the first one. This problem seems to be the clue of the
incompatibility between special and general relativity.
Energy
The total mechanical energy, sum of kinetic T and potential energy V, is an
arbitrary constant in the absence of dematerialization. In relativistic dynamics
the kinetic energy being T = (m - m0) c2, the conservation of energy writes:
m 0 c2 m 0 c2
2
– m0 c + V = m 0 c 2 + V0
2 2
1 v 1 20
v
2
c c
where V and v, V0 and v0, are respectively the potential and velocity at two
different places in the physical space. We may write v0 = 0:
m 0 c2
m 0 c 2 = V0 V = V
v2
1 2
c
or
1
v =c 1
V 2
1+
m 0 c2
V must be positive in order to have a real value of the velocity v. Therefore,
the formula is not applicable to gravitation nor to an attractive electrostatic
Coulomb force. The velocity tends asymptotically to the speed of light c when
the potential difference increases indefinitely as is observed in particle
accelerators.
To check experimentally the formula, the velocity of the particle is measured as
a function of the applied potential. The first measures were made in 1915 by
Guye and Lavanchy measured in 1915 the ratio e/m in function of the velocity.
Bertozzi, in 1964, measured the speeds of electrons with kinetic energies in the
Special Relativiy 47
Time
Electrically charged particles are accelerated by an electrostatic field. We use
here the word acceleration in the sense of increase of velocity, while it is
increase in energy for accelerator specialists. It may be understood since a
particle reaches the speed of light for relatively low energies, of the order of one
MeV for an electron and one Gev for a proton.
Let us apply the relativistic second Newton's law to an electron with a constant
eletrostatic acceleration:
d v = dV = F = eE = g
dt v2 dx me me
1 2
c
where e is the electric charge, E the electric field, me the mass of the electron
and g the constant proper acceleration. The calculation, already seen, gives
48 Special Relativiy
c
v=
2
mec
1+
eEt
The velocity of the electron tends asymptotically to the speed of light c.
c
The preceding equation becomes the Lagrange equation :
L L
– d =0
x dt v
Special Relativiy 49
4.9. ANTIMATTER
The total energy E = mc2 may be writen :
2 2 4 m 20 c 4 m 20 c 2 v 2 m 20 c 2 v 2 m 20 c 4 v 2
E =m c = - + = 1 - 2 + mc 2 v 2
2 2 2 2
1 - v2 1 - v2 1 - v2 1 - v2 c
c c c c
By replacing mv by the linear momentum p one obtains a useful relation, called
dispersion relation between energy E and relativistic momentum p
E 2 = m 20 c 4 + p 2 c 2
This formula works for a zero proper mass particle like a photon. The mass
being squared, by taking its square root, there are two solutions with positive
and negative masses :
50 Special Relativiy
E = ± m 20 c 4 + p 2 c 2
According to quantum mechanics also, there should exist negative masses called
antimatter but the existence of negative masses has never been proved. When
one speaks of antiparticles, it is about particles of the same mass but of opposite
electrical charges. A photon and an antiphoton cannot be distinguished. The
antineutron has been discovered in 1956 through its annihilation, but has not
been observed directly.
Special Relativiy 51
The unsolvable problems encoutered at the end of the 19th centuryhave been
clarified by Einstein with his special relativity. He has rederived the Lorentz
transformation with a different basis. He modified the classical mechanics by
taking again the Galilean principle of relativity abused by Newton with his
absolute time and space. The Galilean transformation is replaced by that of
Lorentz, so that speed and acceleration are not any more simple derivatives of
space with respect to time.
The speed of electromagnetic waves is that of light and depends only of electric
and magnetic properties of matter measured in the laboratory. The
electromagnetic wave equation does not depend on any absolute reference
frame, contrarily to mechanical waves. The light wave is insensitive to the wind
even of Aether.
The Michelson experiment did not give the result predicted by the Newtonian
mechanics, even with the use of extra-terrestrial light. Lorentz and Fitzgerald
invented time dilatation and length contraction. Stellar aberration, pi-ion
experiment, double star Algol, none of them contradicts the constancy of light
speed, at least in the absence of gravitation. Superluminal velocities of so-called
tachyons would have been observed but have been explained by a perspective
effect. The measure of mesons lifetimes, the Fizeau experiment and the Doppler
effect are quantitatives verifications of the Lorentz factor and of the slowing
down of the time.
The relativistic dynamics, useful in practice, is a generalization of the newtonian
dynamics. Adding the hypothesis of proportionality between energy and mass
leads to the well known formula E = mc2. The relativistic lagrangian "à la
Landau" is equivalent to the relativistic Newton's second law, useful in the
particle accelerators, but ineffective for gravitation.
Therefore, the theory is incomplete, as compared to rational mechanics valid in
electrostatics and gravitation although not at speeds near that of light.