Unit 28 Alternative sources of energy

Suggested answers to in-text activities

Discussion (page 140)

• Burning of fossil fuels produces a lot of air pollutants.

• The resources of fossil fuels are limited.

• Supply of petroleum may become insecure in times of political unstability in petroleum-producing

countries.

Internet Search and Presentation (page 141)

Alternative energy sources

Solar energy

The theory behind

Solar energy is the radiant heat and light energy given out by the sun.

How solar energy is used

Heating water

Solar energy can be collected by solar panels fixed on rooftops or nearby buildings and used to heat
water for homes.

In a simple solar energy device, glass covers allow heat to pass through but do not allow it to pass
back into the atmosphere. The absorber plate is made of copper or aluminium (both good absorbers of
heat) and painted black to maximize heat absorption. Water flows through copper pipes in the absorber
and takes in the heat. The water may then be used as required.
 Electricity from solar energy

There are two major ways of obtaining electricity from solar energy: through the use of photovoltaic
(PV) or solar cells and through solar thermal-electricity generation.

Photovoltaic cells can convert the sun’s energy directly into electrical energy. A photovoltaic cell is
made up of two layers of silicon. The thin, top layer contains small amounts of phosphorus and is called
the N-type layer. The bottom layer contains traces of boron and is called the P-type layer. At the P-N
junction, some of the electrons from the N-type silicon move across into the P-type silicon, creating a
negatively charged P-type layer and leaving the N-type layer with a positive charge. The separation of
charge at the junction forms an electric field which helps to provide a current when light shines on the
photovoltaic cell.

Photovoltaic cells are currently used in three major applications: to supply electricity for sale
through energy authorities, for remote area power supplies, and for use in small electrical items such as
calculators and watches.

Solar thermal plants are steam-turbine electric generating systems that use sunlight to produce steam
to run a generator.

Advantages and limitations

Advantages:

• Low air pollution

• Low water pollution

• Renewable

Limitations:

• Solar panels are expensive to build

• The energy is difficult to store

 Examples

• Electricity authorities have built large arrays of solar modules that feed their electricity into the
existing electricity network.

• Large-scale photovoltaic systems were developed in the late 1970s with the US Department of
Energy
funding nine intermediate plants from 10 to 100 kW in size.

• In recent years a number of megawatt (MW) sized projects have been installed in California.

Future trends

• Solar heating can be constrained because of the mismatch between demand and supply (which is
available when there is sun), thus requiring some form of storage. There are a variety of storage
systems available, and a new generation of storage technologies are at the demonstration stage. There
is still strong potential for cost reductions for hot water systems, which will make them even more
competitive.

• Solar cells have continued to drop in price and increase in efficiency. Homes powered with PVs,
PV-powered telephones and experimental PV cars, have all become a reality.

• A recent market assessment of the potential for using solar photovoltaic technology in Bangladesh
concluded that half a million rural households could afford solar home systems as a source of electric
power. PV could be used to provide energy services currently not available. The global potential is
high, considering that PV systems could be used in most of the 400 million households currently
without electricity.

Hydroelectric power
 The theory behind

As water flows downhill, it gains kinetic energy and releases it as heat as it brushes past rocks and the
riverbed. But where does this energy come from? The sun.

The sun evaporates water from oceans, lakes and rivers, and carries the water vapour up into the
atmosphere. The vapour cools and condenses, and falls as rain and snow, feeding mountain streams.

In this process of the ‘water cycle’, the sun effectively lifts the water from a low level to a high level.
This stores energy in the water. When the water falls to a lower level, the stored energy is released.

The amount of energy released by the water as it falls is directly related to the height through which
it falls, as well as the amount of water that is flowing.

Electricity from falling water

Countries with heavy rainfall and mountainous ground are ideal for hydroelectric power. Part of the
water is channelled down a pipe and turns a turbine at the bottom. As this turbine spins, it drives a
generator and generates electricity.

In other places where there are no natural waterfalls, people hold the water back with a dam. Some
of the water is then allowed to rush through a channel, and turns a turbine that drives a generator.
 Hydroelectric schemes can also be used to store electricity for later use. Excess electricity from other
power stations can be used to pump water back uphill to a high reservoir. The energy stored in the water
is then allowed to flow downhill again through the hydroelectric generator.

Advantages and limitations

Advantages:

• Low air pollution

• Renewable

• Reservoirs used for recreation purposes

Limitations:

• Building huge dams is expensive

• May mean flooding a populated valley

• May affect wildlife habitats and farming areas

• Very limited choice of suitable sites

Examples

• Many countries, such as Canada, Brazil and New Zealand gain a large proportion of their electricity
from falling water.

• Small hydroelectric power (up to 20 MW), with its multiple advantages as a decentralized, low-cost
and reliable form of energy, is in the forefront of many countries’ programs to achieve energy
self-sufficiency. Small hydro allows for rural electrification, petroleum substitution, rural
development of isolated areas and a cleaner environment. The world’s developing nations (in Africa,
Asia and South America) hold vast potential for such development.

Future trends

• While there is great potential for new projects in many developing countries, not many large
hydroelectric schemes are expected to be built in the near future in developed countries. In these
countries, many of the large, easily accessible rivers and suitable sites have already been dammed.

• Small hydroelectric schemes show great potential in developing countries.

 Geothermal energy

The theory behind

Heat energy which comes from deep within the Earth is called geothermal energy. The source of this
heat is the Earth’s molten core, where temperatures up to 6 000 oC are reached owing to the radioactive
decay of the core materials. The following diagram shows the cross section of the Earth’s layer, indicating
depths and temperature gradients.

How geothermal energy is used

Electricity generation

Most underground goethermal systems are comprised of water heated by the Earth’s magma. This
water is usually spread throughout underground rock formations in cracks or pores. Wells must be drilled
into these rock formations in order to bring the hot water to the surface. Hot water is then brought in large
pipes to a geothermal power plant for electricity generation.

In some cases, underground geothermal systems produce steam instead of hot water. This steam is
brought directly to the surface and turns turbines, generating electricity.

Electricity can also be obtained from hot dry rocks. If we pipe water down to the hot dry rocks, the
water will boil and the steam produced can be piped to the surface. Once the heated water and steam
reach the surface, they can be used to drive turbines and thus generate electricity.

Direct heating
 Hot water from geothermal resources can be circulated by pipes through a home or building in order
to provide heat. In Iceland, for example, the entire city of Reykjavik is heated by geothermal energy.

Heat pump

Geothermal heat pump is an efficient way to heat and cool buildings. Taking the advantage of the
stable temperature of the earth, it functions like two-way refrigerators, moving heat from indoors to
outdoors or vice versa, depending on the season.

Advantages and limitations

Advantages:

• Permanent supply

• Using geothermal power plants to generate electricity produces less than one-thousandth of the air
pollution of equivalent coal plants

Limitations:

• Drilling deep wells is expensive

• Wells release poisonous gases

• Water may contain toxic substances

• Moderate land use impact

• Very limited choice of suitable sites

Examples

Geothermal occurrences are prevalent in the US, Iceland, New Zealand, Italy, the Philippines,
Indonesia, Mexico, and Central and South America.

Future trends

• Electricity from hot dry rocks is expected to contribute to further geothermal development in the
coming decades.

• Asia, Central and South America have shown particularly strong growth in the development of
 geothermal electric power.

• There are identified geothermal resources in more than 80 countries. Only a small fraction of that
have been exploited.

Tidal power

The theory behind

Tides (the rise and fall of the oceans) are caused by the gravitational pull of the moon and the sun, and
the Earth’s rotation.

The gravitational pull of the moon and, to a smaller extent, the sun, attracts the Earth and its oceans.
The shape of the ocean is distorted by this gravitational pull. The water of the oceans bulges outwards
towards the moon. A balancing bulge occurs on the opposite side of the Earth.

As the Earth rotates, the ‘bulges’ of the water cause variations in the water level at each point on the
Earth, giving rise to tides. Two high tides and two low tides occur each day.

The size of the tide varies throughout each month, as it is affected by the relative positions of the
moon and the sun. When the moon and sun line up, their gravitational forces combine to cause very high
tides, known as ‘spring tides’.

When the moon is at the side of the Earth relative to the sun, the bulges caused by the moon and the
sun tend to be smoothed out. This usually produces small tides, known as ‘leap tides’.

The vertical difference between high and low tide at any given point is known as the tidal range. In
the open ocean, the average tidal range is about one metre.
 Electricity from tides

If a barrier is placed across the entrance to a bay, the incoming tide will rise to a higher level than that
of the water in the bay. This difference in water level creates pressure, which can drive turbines installed
in the barrier to produce electricity. As the tide recedes, the water level in the bay becomes higher than the
level in open water, so water can be forced outwards through turbines.

Advantages and limitations

Advantages:

• Low air pollution

• Renewable

Limitations:

• Building dams, turbines and generators are expensive

• Only generate electricity twice a day

• May affect the ecology of the area

• Limited choice of suitable sites

Examples

The largest tidal power station, built in 1966, is on the La Rance River estuary in France. The station
at La Rance has twenty-four 10 MW turbines with reversible blades. These are installed in a barrier across
the entrance to the estuary, in which the daily tidal range averages 8.5 metres with spring tides of 13.5
metres.

Future trends

• Many sites around the world have suitable tidal ranges. However, many of these sites are far from
the
cities where demand for electricity is highest, so electricity transmission costs can be high.

• Few schemes are currently commercial. Tidal energy systems offer the promise of low cost reliable
electricity principally to coastal regions. They have shown themselves to be technically viable, but
 have not yet proven their economic competitiveness. Still at the beginning of the commercialization
process, tidal energy systems require demonstration and a protected entry market in order to thrive.

Wind energy

The theory behind

Wind is a form of solar energy. It occurs as a result of three factors:

• the uneven heating of the Earth’s surface. As air is heated, it rises and cool air moves in to replace
it.
This air movement from cool to warmer areas produces winds;

• the rotation of the Earth, which creates the characteristic large scale circular patterns of wind
movement;

• the more localized effects of the topography of land masses which interfere with the simpler
large-scale patterns.

Winds are also produced between the land and the sea because these two areas heat up at different
rates. During the day, the land heats up faster. The warm air above it rises, and is replaced by cooler sea
breezes.

At night, the land cools faster than the sea. The sea is then a warmer surface and off-shore land
breezes are formed.

Electricity from wind energy

Blowing wind spins the blades on a wind turbine. The blades are attached to a hub that is mounted on
a turning shaft. The shaft goes through a gear transmission box where the turning speed is increased. The
transmission is attached to a high speed shaft which turns a generator that makes electricity.

If the wind gets too high, the turbine has a brake that will keep the blades from turning and being
damaged.
 Advantages and limitations

Advantages:

• Low air pollution

• Low water pollution

• Renewable

Limitations:

• Unreliable

• Windmills may be damaged if the wind blows too hard

• Moderate land use impact

• Limited choice of suitable sites

Examples

• Over recent years there has been dramatic growth in wind energy technologies. Especially in
Germany, India, Spain, Holland and China, government support has encouraged investment in wind
power.

• Many people living in remote areas away from the regular electricity grid are using wind generators
to
provide electricity.

• Large wind generators have been developed in many countries, including the US, Sweden,
 Denmark,
West Germany, Netherlands and Canada. These generators supplement existing electricity supplies.

Future trends

• Global wind resources are ample and are theoretically capable of supplying a large percentage of
energy needs. However, the practical potential is limited by a number of factors, including cost,
variability and intermittency, and siting.

• Many future wind generator sites may be located off-shore where their integration with wave
energy
machines is possible.

• The wind power market appears likely to continue to be strong. Wind turbines are proving very
popular in developing countries such as India, China and Latin America.

Energy from waste

The theory behind

The term ‘biomass’, refers to organic matter which can be converted to energy. Some of the most
common biomass fuels are wood, agricultural residues and crops grown specifically for energy. In
addition, it is possible to convert municipal waste, manure or agricultural products into valuable fuels for
transportation, industry and even residential use.

How biomass is used

Traditionally, wood, crop residues and animal waste have been used for heating or cooking, but today
biomass is also used in many other ways.

How biomass is used Descriptions

Combustion of municipal • To produce heat or electricity, or both in cogeneration systems.

Anaerobic digestion of
wastes
Landfill gas from wastes
• Offer a tremendous potential to local authorities that must deal with growing
waste concerns.
• A well proven and cost effective technology.
• Municipal solid waste or industrial waste is used to produce biogas that,
in turn, can produce heat, electricity or fuel gas.
• An emerging technology that is moving closer to full commercialization.
• The energy can be converted to heat, electricity or engine fuel.
• A mature technology that is being utilized in more than 500 schemes in 20
 countries.
Energy forestry and • These technologies range from traditional stoves and heaters through to
energy crops modern, innovative systems.
• In many regions of the world this is the most common form of energy use
for heating and cooking.
• Modern applications range from individual use for heat or cooking through
to district heating and cogeneration systems. Biomass can also be used for
larger commercial or multi-family dwellings.
Biofuels • There has recently been growing interest in producing liquid fuels from
grain and dedicated energy crops (often sugar crops). This is the only
renewable source of liquid transportation fuels, which can be in the form of
ethanol or biodiesel.
• Biodiesel is extracted from seed crops such as rape and soy. Market
penetration is relatively small but interest is great. The cost of biodiesel
production is relatively high. Biodiesel is often blended with automotive
diesel in concentrations of 10 – 15 %.

Advantages and limitations

Advantages:

• Low air pollution

• Low water pollution

Limitations:

• Reduce the amount of manure and crop residues which can be used as fertilizers

• Reduce the amount of valuable products for recycling

Examples

• The bulb of biomass is produced and consumed mainly in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. The
developing countries in these regions use biomass for residential cooking and heating. Africa, which
consumed about 5.1% of world Total Primary Energy Supply in 2001, produced 23.9% of the world’s
solid biomass supply.
 • China is a world leader in the development and application of anaerobic technologies for the
production of biogas and waste treatment. Household biogas digesters are widely adopted in rural
China, mainly located in Sichuan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangxi and Jiangsu Provinces. Bioenergy plays an
important role in the rural energy system which directly concerns the livelihood of more than 70% of
China’s inhabitants.

Future trends

• There is a great potential in the use of municipal waste, because anaerobic digestion of wastes
provides a strong alternative to landfill and yet deals effectively with much of the local waste
concerns.

• Regarding electricity generation using biomass, many developing countries present interesting
markets. China and India are expected to have strong electricity demand growth. Off-grid modular
systems are of particularly interest in these countries.

Nuclear energy

The theory behind

When a nucleus breaks up, energy is emitted in a process called nuclear fission. This energy may be
used to produce electricity.

When a neutron collides with a uranium-235 nucleus, it causes the nucleus to split into two smaller
nuclei. During the splitting, heat energy and more neutrons are released. These neutrons collide with other
uranium nuclei and start a chain reaction.

Electricity from nuclear energy

A nuclear power station consists of two segments: a nuclear reactor and a non-nuclear portion. The
latter contains the turbine and the electrical generator. The nuclear reactor is the hot heart of the power
plant. It is housed in a special steel vessel within a separate reinforced concrete dome-shaped containment
building.

The heat energy from nuclear fission is used to heat water and produce steam, which turns turbines
and thus generates electricity.

Advantages and limitations

Advantages:

• Fairly large supply of uranium ore

 • Low air pollution

Limitations:

• Risks on safety of citizen in case of a nuclear accident

• Radioactive waste disposal problem

Examples

Future trends

Nuclear fusion occurs when two light nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus. Fusion reactions
release huge quantities of energy, without the formation of radioactive by-products. Controlled nuclear
fusion provides great hope as a future energy source.

World nuclear power capacity is projected to increase slightly, from 350 gigawatts in 2000 to 359
gigawatts in 2020. Most of the growth is expected in developing Asia, particularly China, where 17 new
power plants are expected to be operational in the period. In the industrialized nations, with few
additional nuclear plants being built and a significant number of plant retirements expected, nuclear
power capacity is projected to fall considerably.

Discussion (page 148)

 1 Methane

2 It burns completely and produces no soot.

3 Electricity, town gas and LPG are not available in every part of China. Methane produced in
digestors can be used as an alternative energy source. China is an agricultural country and plenty of
agricultural residues are available for use as energy sources.

Your Decision Making (page 149)

For and against building a new coal power station

For Against
• Coal is readily available at a relatively cheap • Coal is a non-renewable energy sources.
price.
• Using coal for electricity generation provides a • Burning of coal causes serious air pollution

large amount of energy per unit mass problems.

• Thermal-generating power stations are often
large and unattractive to look at.

For and against building a new nuclear power station

For Against
• There is fairly large supply of uranium ore. • Nuclear reactors produce powerful radiation which

can kill in large doses. Even though nuclear power

• Nuclear power stations cause low air pollution
plants are designed to contain radiation, accidents
still have occurred.
• Nuclear reactors produce lots of radioactive waste.
There is no perfect way to dispose these waste
since they remain dangerous for thousands of
Years.

Problem Solving (page 150)

It is very important for students to justify their answers with sensible reasons in this type of
exercises.
 1 Wood would be a sensible choice as there are thick forests on the island.

2 There is no model answer for this question but the possible factors include:

• away from strong winds;

• near to the rivers;

• near to an area where energy is readily available;

• near to the coast.

3 Geothermal energy from the hot springs would probably be a sensible choice.

4 Solar energy / geothermal energy

5 Wind energy

6 Wind energy / hydroelectric power / geothermal energy / solar energy / burning wood

Suggested answers to exercise

1 Wood is a non-renewable energy source because they are used up at a rate faster than the rate at
which they can be produced on Earth.

2
Energy source Advantage Limitation
Solar energy • Low air pollution • Solar panels are expensive to build Any

• Low water pollution Any • Difficult to store one

• Renewable one
Hydroelectric • Low air pollution • Building huge dams is expensive
power • Renewable Any • May mean flooding a populated valley Any
• Reservoirs used for one • May affect wildlife habitats and farming areas one
recreation purposes • Very limited choice of suitable sites
Geothermal • Permanent supply • Drilling deep wells is expensive
energy • Wells release poisonous gases Any
• Water may obtain toxic substances one
• Moderate land use impact
• Very limited choice of suitable sites
Tidal energy • Low air pollution Any • Building dams, turbines and generators
 • Renewable one are expensive Any
• Only generate electricity twice a day one
• May affect the ecology of the area
• Limited choice of suitable sites
Wind energy • Low air pollution • Unreliable
• Low water pollution Any • Windmills may be damaged if the wind blows Any
• Renewable one too hard one
• Moderate land use impact
• Limited choice of suitable sites
Energy from • Low air pollution Any • Reduce the amount of manure and crop
waste • Low water pollution one residues which can be used as fertilizers Any
• Reduce the amount of valuable products one
for recycling
Nuclear energy • Fairly large supply Any • Risks on safety of citizens in case of a Any
of uranium ore one nuclear accident one
• Low air pollution • Radioactive waste disposal problem

3 D

4 B

5 A (2) Using solar energy has low air pollution.

(3) Using solar energy has low water pollution.

6 A (2) Geothermal wells release hydrogen sulphide and sulphur dioxide gases, which are
poisonous.
(3) Using geothermal energy has moderate land use impact.

7 D

8 C

9 ?
10 a) i) • Low air pollution
• Low water pollution
• Renewable

ii) • Unreliable
 • Windmills may be damaged if the wind blows too hard Any
three
• Moderate land use impact
• Limited choice of suitable sites

b) • Burning coal causes more air pollution.

• There is an oil field near to Town C.

c) Students should be able to justify their answers with sensible reasons. Students
may choose
Town A as it is a large town and the demand of energy should be very great. Also, burning coal
leads to serious air pollution in the town and nearby places (because of the direction of the
prevailing wind).

Students may choose Town C for similar reasons. Students may choose Town B
as it has a
small population, environmental impact of the nuclear power station on the people is probably
less serious as compared to Town A and Town C.

11 Using nuclear energy to generate electricity has several advantages. Firstly, fossil fuels
will be used
up in the near future. However, the proven reserves of uranium are sufficient for hundreds of years.
Secondly, a great amount of money has been invested in the research, development and construction
of nuclear power stations. The latest designs are very safe. Lastly, the amount of waste produced by a
nuclear power station is much less than that produced by a coal-fired plant for the same amount of
electricity generated.

Using nuclear energy to generate electricity also has disadvantages. Although the proven
reserves of uranium are fairly large, nuclear energy is non-renewable. Therefore, countries should
make more effort to develop renewable energy sources. However good a system is, there is always a
risk that an accident will occur. The nuclear reactor may be melted down and dangerous radiation
can escape. The radiation can spread and cause cancer. Also, the nuclear waste is radioactive. There
is no perfect way to dispose nuclear wastes since they remain dangerous for thousands of years.