Z Transform Primer

Basic Concepts
Consider a sequence of values: {x
k
: k = 0,1,2,... }
These may be samples of a function x(t), sampled at
instants t = kT; thus x
k
= x(kT).
The Z transform is simply a polynomial in z having the x
k

as coefficients:
{ }

= =
0
) (
k
k
k k
z x x Z z X
Fundamental Functions
Define the impulse function: {o
k
} = {1, 0, 0, 0,....}
{ } 1 ) ( = = A
k
Z z o
Define the unit step function: {u
k
} = {1, 1, 1, 1,....}
( ) { }
1 1
1
1
0

=

= = =

z
z
z
z u Z z U
k
k
k
(Convergent for |z| < 1)
Delay/Shift Property
Let y(t) = x(t-T) (delayed by T and truncated at t = T)

y
k
= y(kT) = x(kT-T) = x((k-1)T) = x
k-1
; y
0
= 0




{ }


=

= = =
1
1
1
) (
k
k
k
k
k
k k
z x z y y Z z Y
Let j = k-1 ; k = j + 1




( )
) ( ) (
1
0
1
0
1
z X z z x z z x z Y
j
j
j
j
j
j

=
+
= = =

The values in the sequence, the coefficients of the polynomial,
slide one position to the right, shifting in a zero.




The Laplace Connection
Consider the Laplace Transforms of x(t) and y(t):
( ) ( ) { } ( ) { } ( ) s X e T t x L t y L s Y
Ts
= = =
Equate the transform domain delay operators:
Ts
e z

=
1
Ts
e z =
Examine s-plane to z-plane mapping . . .
S-Plane to Z-Plane Mapping
Ts
e z =
Anything in the Alias/Overlay region in the S-Plane will be overlaid on the Z-Plane
along with the contents of the strip between +/- jt/T. In order to avoid aliasing, there
must be nothing in this region, i.e. there must be no signals present with radian
frequencies higher than e = t/T, or cyclic frequencies higher than f = 1/2T. Stated
another way, the sampling frequency must be at least twice the highest frequency
present (Nyquist rate).
Mapping Poles and Zeros
A point in the Z-plane re
ju
will map to a point in the S-
plane according to:

{ }
( )
T
r
s
ln
Re =
{ }
T
s
u
= Im
Conjugate roots will generate a real valued
polynomial in s of the form:
2 2
2
n n
s s e ,e + +
( )
2
ln
1
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
u
u
e
r
T
n
( )
T
r
n
e
,
ln
=
Example 1: Running Average Algorithm
Block Diagram Transfer Function
( ) ( ) ( )
4
2 3 3 2 1
4
1
4
1
z
z z z
z X
z z z
z X z Y
+ + +
=
+ + +
=

( )
4
2 3
4
1
z
z z z
z
X
Y + + +
=
4
3 2 1
+ + +
=
k k k k
k
x x x x
y
Note: Each [Z
-1
] block can be thought of as a
memory cell, storing the previously applied value.
(Non-Recursive)
Z Transform
Example 2: Trapezoidal Integrator
| |
2
1 1
T
x x y y
k k k k
+ + =
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) | |
2
1 1
T
z X z z X z Y z z Y

+ + =
( ) ( ) ( )
2 1
1
2 1
1
1
1
T
z
z
z X
T
z
z
z X z Y
(

+
=
(

+
=

(Recursive)
Z Transform
Block Diagram
( )
( )
(

+
=
1
1
2 z
z T
z X
z Y
Transfer Function
Ex. 2 (cont) Block Diagram Manipulation
Intuitive Structure
Equivalent Structure
Explicit representation of
x
k-1
and y
k-1
has been lost,
but memory element
usage has been reduced
from two to one.
Ex. 2 (cont) More Block Diagram
Manipulation
( )
( )
(

+
=
1
1
2 z
z T
z X
z Y
Note that the final form is equivalent to a rectangular
integrator with an additive forward path. In a PI
compensator, this path can be absorbed by the
proportional term, so there is no advantage to be gained
by implementing a trapezoidal integrator.