TV HISTORY

• ISOLATION OF SELENIUM BY BORZELIUS IN 1817 AND DISCOVERY OF LIGHT SENSE

PROPERTIES OF SELENIUM IN 1873 LEAD TO THE CONVERTION OF LIGHT TO
ELECTRICAL SIGNALS.
• SELENIUM WAS ANALOGOUS TO CARBON GRANULES IN A MICOPHONE WHICH
CONVERT VOICE SIGNALS TO ELECTRICAL SIGNALS.
• IN 1892 ELSER AND GEITEL DEVELOPED PHOTO ELECTRIC CELL.
• IN 1884 PAUL NIPOKOV INVENTED SCANNING DISC BY SPIRALLY ARRANGED HOLES
IN A SCANNING DISC.
• ACTUAL TV WAS DEMONSTRATED BY J.L BAIRD IN 1925-27 USING MECHANICAL
SCANNING OF NIPOKOV DISC.LATER MODIFICATION OF THE DEVICE LEAD TO THE
PRESENT ANALOG TV INVENTED BY BAIRD IN 1934.
• 1923 V.K.ZWORYKIN DISCOVERED ICONOSCOPE -THE CAMERA TUBE.
• 1936 BRITAIN STARTED REGULAR TV PROGRAMME FOLLOWED BY USA IN 1939.
• IN 1952 UHF BAND TV WAS STARTED
• COLOR TV TRANSMISSION WAS STARTED IN COLOUMBIA IN 1952.
• IN INDIA TV WAS STARTED IN SEPTEMBER 1959 AT DELHI AND OTHER MAJOR
CITIES IN 1975 AS A MONOCHROME TV.
• COLOR TV WAS INTRODUCED IN INDIA BY 1982.

TELEVISION
• BY TELEVISION WE MEAN VIEWING A PICTURE (VIDEO) AT A LONG DISTANCE.
• THIS MEANS THAT THE VISION SIGNAL UNDERGOES MODULATION PROCESS OVER
AN RF CARRIER AND TRANSMITTED THROUGH AN ANTENNA AS AN ELECTRO
MAGNETIC WAVE AND DEMODULATED AT THE RECEIVING END AT A LONG
DISTANCE FROM THE TRANSMITTER.
• THEREFORE THE VISION SIGNAL HAS A BASIC BAND OF FREQUENCIES AS LIKE
THE BASIC AUDIO SIGNALS CONVERTED BY THE MICROPHONE AS A BAND OF
FREQUENCIES OF ELECTRICAL SIGNALS.
• THE AUDIO ELECTRICAL SIGNAL.

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 • OCCUPY A BAND OF FREQUENCIES FROM 20 Hz TO 20 KHz BUT WHERE AS

THE VISION ELECTRIC SIGNAL OCCUPY A FREQUENCY BAND OF 0 TO 5

MHz ,FOR A GOOD RESOLUTION MONOCHROME (BLACK AND
WHITE)VIDEO.(COLOR FRQUENCY BAND ALSO GETS INCLUDED WITHIN THIS
BAND THANKS TO THE EFFORTS OF THE SCIENTISTS)
• THE VISION SIGNAL IS NORMALLY AVAILABLE FROM A VCD, DVD PLAYER, A
CAMERA TUBE, SET TOP BOX, ETC AS AN ANALOG VIDEO.
• THIS VIDEO SIGNAL ALONG WITH THE SYNCHRONISING PULSES ASSUMES AN
AMPLITUDE OF 1V PEAK TO PEAK WITH 0 TO 0.7V FOR VIDEO SIGNAL AND -0.4V TO
0V FOR THE SYNC SIGNAL. (-0.3V IN PRESENT PAL STANDARDS) SEE FIGURE BELOW.

VIDEO CAPTURING AND REPRODUCTION.

• AN OPTO ELECTRIC CONVERTER (A CAMERA TUBE) CONVERTS THE BLACK TO
WHITE (BETWEEN VALUES ARE GREY VALUES) INFORMATION OF PICTURE CELL
(INDIVIDUAL ELEMENTS) IN TO ELECTRICAL INFORMATION. SEE FIG BELOW.

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• TELEVISION CAPTURING AND REPRODUCING PROCESS IS SIMILAR TO
READING A BOOK BY THE HUMAN EYE AND PERCEIVED BY THE MEMORY.
• WHILE READING WE FIX THE EYE ON TOP LEFT CORNER OF THE PAGE ON THE
FIRST LINE AND START READING SLOWLY FROM LEFT TO RIGHT.
• AFTER FINISHING THE FIRST LINE THE EYE QUICKLY RETURNS TO SECOND
LINE AND ADJUSTS ITSELF TO THE POSITION OF START OF THE SECOND LINE.
• THIS CONTINUES TILL THE PAGE ENDS.
• ONCE THE PAGE ENDS THE EYE MOVES FROM EXTREME BOTTOM TO THE LEFT
CORNER OF THE NEXT PAGE.
• THIS TAKES A LONGER TIME TO RETURN THAN THE RETURN OF THE BEAM
FROM ONE LINE TO OTHER.
• IN TV SCANNING THE HORIZONTAL READING IS CALLED THE HORIZONTAL
SCANNING AND THE DOWNWARD MOTION OF THE SCANNING BEAM FROM TOP
LINE TO BOTTOM MOST LINE IS CALLED VERTICAL SCANNING.
• THE PAGE IN A BOOK IN TV WILL BE A FRAME.(2 FIELDS-WE WILL SEE WHAT IS
A FIELD LATER)
• THE LINE IN THE BOOK IS THE HORIZONTAL LINE IN TV.
• MORE THE LINES BETTER THE PICTURE QUALITY.
• FIXING THE CORRECT POSITION AT EACH BEGINNING OF LINE IS CALLED
SYNCHRONISING.

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• FASTER THE MOTION OF SCANNING BETTER THE EYE PERCEIVES THE VISION
WITHOUT BREAKS.
• FROM THE FIG BELOW WE CAN SEE HOW THE BEAM CURRENT CHANGES FOR
THE DIFFERENT BRIGHTNESS OF THE PICTURE.

• FROM THE FIGURE WE SEE THAT WHITE PICTURE PRODUCE MORE CURRENT
IN THE BEAM AND MINIMUM CURRENT FOR A BLACK PICTURE AND GREY
COLOR A MEDIUM CURRENT.

NUMBER OF LINES SCANNED

• THE QUALITY OF PICTURE DEPENDS ON NUMBER OF LINES SCANNED.THE
HIGHER THE NUMBER OF LINES THE HIGHER THE PICTURE QUALITY.
(CLARITY OF PICTURE).
• BY QUALITY WE MEAN THAT THE SMALLEST DETAIL OF THE PICTURE (WIDTH
OF A HUMAN HAIR) SHOULD BE VISIBLE TO THE HUMAN EYE.HOWEVER
INCREASING THE NUMBER OF LINES TOO MUCH PUTS THE BAND WIDTH
LIMITATION FOR THE VIDEO AND DESIGN OF THE CIRCUITS AND THE
ULTIMATE RF TRANSMISSION BANDWIDTH WILL INCREASE.AS PER THE PAL

STANDARD THE VIDEO BW IS SPECIFIED AS 5 MHz BY CCIR.

ANGLE OF VIEWING
• IMAGINE THERE ARE n NUMBER OF FINITE LINES IN THE TV MONITOR
SCREEN.

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• IF WE SIT CLOSE TO THE TV THE LINES WILL BE VISIBLE AND THE
INTEGRATION OF THE PICTURE ELEMENTS TO FORM A COMPLETE PICTURE
BY THE EYE WILL BE LOST AND THE RASTER WILL BE DISTURBING.
• SO THERE IS A FACTOR CALLED ANGLE OF VIEWING THAT SHOULD BE
CONSIDERED WHILE DETERMINING THE NUMBER OF LINES.

VIEWING ANGLE AND NUMBER OF LINES

• THE OPTIMUM VIEWING DISTANCE IS FOUND TO BE 5 TIMES PICTURE
HEIGHT.(SOME DECIDE 6 TIMES THE HEIGHT)
• AT THIS DISTANCE THE SCANNING LINES STRUCTURE IS NO LONGER
VISIBLE.IN OTHER WORDS THE LIMIT OF RESOLVING POWER OF THE EYE IS
REACHED. SEE FIG BELOW

• THE ANGLE FORMED BY ONE LINE IS ά . Tan ά = (H/L)/D. (L NO. OF LINES)

• IF WE KEEP ά =1.5 MINUTE AS MAXIMUM VIEWING ANGLE PER LINE, THEN
’
tan ά = tan 1.5 = 4X 10-4

• THEN L = 2500/D/H. FOR D/H =5, THEN L = 500 LINES OR MORE.

• CCIR HAS RECOMMENDED THAT WHOLE OF THE RASTER CAN BE DIVIDED
TO 625 LINES FOR THE PAL SYSTEM (575 IN VISIBLE PICTURE AREA DUE LOSS
OF ACTIVE LINES FOR THE VERTICAL FLYBACK SYSTEM) 525 IN USA AND 475
IN JAPAN.

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PICTURE (FRAME) REPETITION FREQUENCY
• TO DECIDE THE PICTURE (FRAME) REPETITION FREQUENCY
PHYSIOLOGICAL CHARECTERISTICS OF THE EYE HAS TO BE
CONSIDERED.
• TO REPRODUCE CONTINUOUS RAPID MOTION A MINIMUM FRAME
FREQUENCY (RUNNING OF FRAMES IN ONE SECOND) IS REQUIRED.
• 16-18 FRAMES/SEC IS USED IN AMATEUR FILMS WHICH IS A LOWER TIME
FREQUENCY.
• COMMERCIAL CINEMA USE 24 FRAMES /SECOND.
• THIS CAN BE ADOPTED FOR TV
• BUT CONSIDERING THE LINKAGE TO SUPPLY WHICH FEEDS THE
RECTIFIED DC TO THE ELECTRONICS CIRCUITS AND THAT COULD
CREATE SLIGHTEST HUM EFFECTS WHICH WILL CAUSE INTERFERENCE
IF FREQUENCY IS DIFFERENT, A REPETITION FREQUENCY OF 25 Hz (1/2 OF
50 Hz) IS CHOSEN AND 30 Hz FOR 60 Hz SUPPLY.
• BUT 25 Hz IS NOT SUFFICIENT FOR FLICKER FREE PICTURE.(AMBIENT
LIGHT WILL BE OF 50Hz)
• IN CINEMA THE PICTURE IS INTERRUPTED BY A FLICKER SHUTTER AS IF
THE FREQUENCY IS DOUBLED.
• TO CREATE SUCH EFFECT IN TV 2 GROUPS OF FRAMES (CALLED FIELDS
HERE AFTER) ARE USED AND THESE FIELDS ARE INTERLACED TO MAKE
ONE FRAME (2 FIELDS) CARRYING TOTAL INFORMATION OF ALL PICTURE
ELEMENTS OF A FRAME.

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• EACH FIELD CONTAIN L/2 LINES.

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 • EACH FIELD IS SCANNED IN A TIME INTERVAL OF Tv =20 m SEC FOR A 50Hz
SUPPLY SYSTEM.(50 FIELDS IN ONE SECOND-THEREFORE ONE FIELD TIME
IS 20 m sec)
• THE TWO FIELDS THE ODD ONE CONTAINING LINES 1,3,5…..312 ½
(625/2)LINES FOLLOWED BY EVEN ONES CONTAINING LINES 2,4,6 ……625
(REMAINING 312 ½ LINES) ARE SCANNED AND TRANSMITTED ODD,EVEN
ETC ARE TRANSMITTED COSECUTIVELY ONE AFTER OTHER IN ONE
SECOND WHICH CONTAIN 25 FIELDS OF ODD AND 25 FIELDS OF EVEN
TOTALLING 50 TOTAL FIELDS IN ONE SECOND . THEREFORE THE
SCANNING LINE FREQUENCY IS 312 ½ X50 /SEC= 15625 Hz.
• THE TIME PERIOD OF HORIZONTAL SCANNING(TIME DURATION OF ONE H

LINE) IS Th = 1/15625 = 64 μs
• 50 FIELDS OF 312 ½ LINES ARE TRANSMITTED IN ONE SECOND.

• PERIOD OF ONE VERTICAL DEFLECTION IS Tv= 1/50 =20 m sec. i.e. ONE
FIELD EITHER ODD OR EVEN WILL TAKE 20 m sec TO COMPLETE.

BAND WIDTH OF PICTURE SIGNAL

• RESOLUTION OR BW OF A PICTURE DEPENDS ON NUMBER OF LINES
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• WITH THE SAME RESOLUTION IN HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL DIRECTION
THE WIDTH OF A PICTURE ELEMENT ‘b’ IS EQUAL TO LINE SPACING ‘a’
BETWEEN LINES. SEE FIG BELOW
• THE SCANNING BEAM WHEN TRAVERSING PRODUCES THE BEAM CURRENT
FOR AN ALTERNATE B-W SIGNAL AND GETS ROUNDED OFF DUE TOFINITE
BEAM DIAMETER. (BEING ROUND NOT SQUARE) SEE FIGURE BELOW.

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• THE HORIZONTAL SCANNING TIME Th 64 μs CONTAIN FORWARD SCANNING PERIOD
WHERE THE VIDEO CONTENT OF THE PICTURE LINE IS EXTRACTED AND THE FLY

BACK TIME tth IN WHICH TIME THE LINE IS BLANKED.

• THE VERTICAL SCANNING TIME Tv 20 ms CONTAIN FORWARD SCANNING PERIOD

WHERE THE H LINES ARE MOVED DOWN FROM TOP TO BOTTOM TO ENABLE FULL
FIELD SCANNING FOR EXTRACTION OF THE VIDEO AND THE VERTICAL FLYBACK

TIME t tv IN WHICH THE LINE IS BLANKED.

• CCIR HAS SPECIFIED HORIZONTAL BLANKING PERIOD AS 0.18 Th= 0.18X64 μs=11.5 μs

AND FOR VERTICAL BLANKING t tv =0.08 Tv=0.08X 20mSec=1.6 ms

• THUS FOR TRANSMITTING PICTURE INFORMATIONONLY LINE INTERVAL 64-11.5

=52.5 μs (Th (1-0.18) =64(1-0.18) =52.5 μs) OUT OF 64 μs AND PORTION L (1-0.08) = 625(1-
0.08) = 575 LINES OF THE TV RASTER CAN BE USED. SEE FIGURE BELOW

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ASPECT RATIO
• ANOTHER FACTOR WHICH DECIDES THE PICTURE ELEMENTS IS THE ASPECT
RATIO.
• FOR OPTICAL AND AESTHETIC POINT OF VIEW THE BEST ASPECT RATIO IS 4:3 4
BEING HORIZONTAL AND 3 BEING VERTICAL SIZE. FOR A 21 INCH TV THE

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 -1
DIAGONAL SIZE IS 21 INCH AND HT IS 21 SIN OF TAN ¾ AND WIDTH IS COS TAN
-1
¾
• THEREFORE FOR THE SAME HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL RESOLUTION THE
4
NUMBER OF PICTURE ELEMENTS PER LINE IS X625 (1-0.08)=767.THE
3
4
TOTALPICTURE ELEMENTS FOR THE COMPLETE PICTURE IS X625 (1-0.08) X625(1-
3
0.08)=440833
• THIS 440833 NUMBER OF PICTURE ELEMNTS IS TRANSMITTED DURING THE
INTERVAL – 64 μs(1-0.18)X 625 (1-0.08) =30.176 ms
• THUS TIME AVAILABLE FOR SCANNING ONE PICTURE ELEMENT T PE IS
30.176ms/440833 = 0.0684 μs
• THE TIME PERIOD FOR AN ALTERNATING SIGNAL IS 2 X T PE =2X0.0684 μs=0.137
μs.THE FREQUENCY OF THE PICTURE ELEMENT IS 1/0.137 μs =7.3 MHz
• ANOTHER FACTOR TO BE CONSIDERED IS THE FINITE BEAM DIAMETER WHICH IN
PRACTICE CAN NOT BE THAT NARROW TO GIVE THIS FREQUENCY BUT HAS A
FINITE DIAMETER. THE BEAM DIAMETER IS EXPRESSED BY A FACTOR CALLED
KELL FACTOR K WHICH HAS BEEN ADOPTED AS 2/3 BY CCIR.

• THEREFORE THE RESULTANT BW WILL BE 2/3 OF 7.3 MHz = 4.8666 MHz≈ 5 MHz

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 COMPOSITE VIDEO SIGNAL
• THIS CONSIST OF SCANNED IMAGE SIGNAL(VIDEO)
• BLANKING SIGNAL(PULSES) H AND V
• SYNCHRONISING COMPONENTS ( H AND V PULSES)
• IN ORDER TO KEEP THE PICTURE TO BE IN SYNCHRONOUS AT BOTH
TRANSMITTING AND RECEIVING END THERE IS A NEED TO SYNCHRONISE THE
LINES IN PROPER ORDER BY ADDING PULSES AT THE END OF HORIZONTAL AND
VERTICAL SCANS AND IS INTRODUCED ALONG WITH THE BLANKING SIGNAL IN
OTHER WORDS THE SYNC PULSES OF A TV WAVEFORM NEED BE ABLE TO ALLOW
THE TV RECEIVER OR MONITOR TO RELIABLY PRODUCE AN ACCURATE PICTURE
IN A SPECIFIED RHYTHM.

BLANKING SIGNAL
HORIZONTAL BLANKING

• DURING HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL RETURN OF THE BEAM THE STRIKING

ELECTRON BEAM IS RETRACTED FROM THE CAMERA TUBE OR IN THE PICTURE

RECEIVER TUBE (WITHOUT STRIKING IT) DURING THE INTERVAL Tth FOR
HORIZONTAL SCANNING SAW TOOTH WAVEFORM WHICH IS

0.18 Th=0.18 X 64 μs= 11.52 SAY 12 μs .SEE FIG BELOW

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 • THE SIGNAL IS MAINTAINED AT A VOLTAGE CALLED THE BLANKING LEVEL WHICH
IS –VE VOLTAGE IN THE CVS WHICH EQUALS THE BLACK LEVEL OF VIDEO SIGNAL
OR BLACKER THAN BLACK LEVEL OR DIFFER SLIGHTLY FROM IT.

• THE HORIZONTAL PULSE WIDTH FOR THE BLANKING PULSE ,WHICH WILL BE
THE PERIOD EQUAL TO RETRACE SAWTOOTH IS 12 μs REFERRED IN DRAWING AS

tbh

HORIZONTAL SYNCHRONISING SIGNALS

• IN ORDER TO KEEP THE PICTURE TO BE IN SYNCHRONOUS AT BOTH
TRANSMITTING AND RECEIVING END THERE IS A NEED TO SYNCHROSISE THE
LINES IN PROPER ORDER BY ADDING PULSES AT THE END OF HORIZONTAL AND
VERTICAL SCANS AND IS INTRODUCED ALONG WITH THE BLANKING SIGNAL IN
OTHER WORDS THE SYNC PULSES OF A TH WAVEFORM NEED BE ABLE TO ALLOW
THE TV RECEIVER OR MONITOR TO RELIABLY PRODUCE AN ACCURATE PICTURE.
• IN A WAY THE BLANKING DURATION OF THE BLANKING PULSE IS OF 12 μs
DURATION CONSISTING OF A FRONT PORCH, BLANKING LEVEL, A SYNCHRONISING
PULSE, A BACK PORCH. SEE FIGS BELOW
• THE PICTURE INFORMATION AND SYNCHRONISING PULSES ARE NOT REQUIRED
SIMULTANEOUSLY. THEREFORE ONE FOLLOWS THE OTHER.
• THE ACTIVE VIDEO SCANNED HORIZONTALLY IS FOR A PERIOD 64-12=52 μs

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• THIS IS FOLLOWED BY THE 12 μs BLANKING PULSE.

• THE HORIZONTAL BLANKING PERIOD OF 12 (11.8 TO 12.3 μs) IS USED TO PERFORM

CERTAIN FUNCTIONS

• 1.PROVIDE BLANKING
• 2. TO CARRY SYNC PULSES BASED ON WHICH AT EVERY 64 μs PERIOD THE H
OSCILLATOR PRODUCES H SAW TOOTH WAVE FORM FOR THE H DEFLECTION OF
THE BEAM.
• THE H SYNC PULSE OCCUPY A TIME PERIOD OF 4.7 μs (4.5 TO 4.9 μs)
• THE BLANKING PULSE CONSIST OF A FRONT PORCH OF 0.025 H =1.5 μs (1.3 TO 1.8 μs)
• A SYNC PULSE OF 4.7 μs (4.5 TO 4.9 μs).THIS MAY OR MAY NOT HAVE A
PEDESTAL(SOME SYSTEM HAVE A PEDESTAL) WITH THE BLANKING LEVEL EITHER
EQUAL TO BLACK(0) LEVEL OR BLACKER THAN BLACK(-0.02 v 0F THE TOTAL 1 V P-P
VIDEO SIGNAL).THIS SYNC PULSE SHOULD HAVE A RISE TIME OF BETTER THAN
0.25 μs
• A BACK PORCH IS OF 5.8 μs DURATION.THIS BACK PORCH CARRIES THE
REFERENCE COLOR CARRIER OF 8 CYCLES MINIMUM. SEE FIGS BELOW

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 •

The Horizontal Interval, with Burst Flag

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•

• VERTICAL BLANKING
• THE VERTICAL BLANKING PULSE ASSUMES THE TIME WHEN THE FLY BACK
TRACE OF THE FIELD RETURNS FROM THE BOTTOM TO THE TOP OF PICTURE
(TUBE) AFTER TRACING THE ODD OR EVEN FIELD .DURING THE PERIOD THE
PICTURE INFORMATION IS TOTALLY SUPRESSED.

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• THIS OCCUPY A PERIOD OF SAW TOOTH RETRACE OF VERTICAL BLANKING t tv
=0.08 Tv=0.08X 20mSec=1.6 ms WHICH IS THE DURATION OF THE V BLANKING PULSE.
• THIS PERIOD OF BLANKING IS ALSO CALLED FIELD BLANKING AND OCCUPY A
DURATION OF 20 H PULSE DURATION (PRACTICAL) OF 20X64 μs =1280 μs .NOTE THE
TOTAL DURATION OF V SAW TOOTH IS 20000 μs =20 ms AND

• THEREFORE THE ACTIVE PERIOD OF VIDEO TRACE FOR THE V SAW TOOTH IS
20000-1280=18720 μs
FIELD SYNCHRONISING PULSE
• THIS IS THE PART OF V BLANKING PULSE OF 1200 TO 1600 μs.(20H=1280 μs)
• THE PULSE IS OF MUCH LONGER DURATION .IT IS NOT A SINGLE PULS EOF 160
μs DURATION BUT OF SERRATIONS OF PULSES .IT CONSIST OF 5 OF 27.3 μs
PULSES AND 5 OF 4.7 V PULSES TOTALLING A DURATION OF 160 μs WHICH
AMOUNTS TO 5/2 OF H=5/2 OF 64 μs=160 μs
• IN ORDER TO AVOID INTERRUPTION OF LINE SYNCHRONOSATION
(CONTINUANCE OF H PULSES )DURING V BLANKING INTERVAL ,THE V SYNC
PULSE IS SPLIT BY SERRATIONS OF EACH OF 4.7 μsDURATION (= TO ONE H
SYNC PULSE) OF 5 HALF LINE PULSES(1/2 OF 64-4.7=27.3 μs) OF 27.3 μs WIDE
• THE FRONT EDGES CORRESPND EXACTLY WITH THE LINE SYNC PULSES THEY
REPLACE.
• THE EXTRA HALF LINE EDGES OF THE 2.5 H PULSES IS NECESSARY TO GIVE
EFFECT TO INTERLACED SCANNING AT ½ LINE FOR ODD FIELD AT END OF 312
½TH LINE AND 1 FULL LINE AT END OF 625TH LINE
• THEREFORE THE FIELD SYNC PULSES MUST OCCUR AT MIDDLE OF 313TH LINE
IN ODD FIELD AND AT END OF 625TH LINE AT END OF EVEN FIELD.
• SEE FIGURE BELOW

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EQUALISING PULSES
• THESE PULSES OCCUR BEFORE AND AFTER THE FIELD SYNC PULSE
• THEY OCCUPY THE FRONT AND BACK OF THE V SYNC PULSE

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• THE NEED FOR THESE EQUALISING PULSES ARE THAT THEY HELP IN
SEPARATING THE V AND H SYNC PULSES IN THE RECEIVER DEFLECTION
CIRCUITS TO HELP IN GENERATING THE H AND V SAW TOOTH WAVE FORMS.
• THE SYNC CIRCUITS PROCESS TO INTEGRATE THE SERRATED PULSES TO
PRODUCE A COMPOSITE FIELD PULSE TO TRIGGER THE V OSCILLATOR.SEE
FIG 14 BELOW.
• TO ACHIEVE PERFECT INTERLACING THE PULSE PRODUCED MUST BE
EXACTLY IN SIMILAR CONDITIONS FOR BOTH ODD AND EVEN FIELDS. VIZ
HALF LINE PERIOD BEFORE ODD FIELD PULSE ANDFULL LINE PERIOD BEFORE
THE EVEN FIELD PULSE[BLANKING]
• THE INTERVAL HAS BEEN FIXED AT 5 HALF LINE PERIOD
• DURING THIS THE H TIME BASE SHOULD NOT BE DEPRIVED OF H SYNC PULSES.
• FOR THIS PURPOSE 5 NARROW 2.3 μs PULSES OCCURING AT ½ LINE RHYTHM
ARE INSERTED IN THIS 5 HALF LINE PERIOD BEFORE THE FIELD SYNC PULSES.
• THESE ARE CALLED PRE EQUALISING PULSES
• THE 1ST ,3RD,AND 5TH EQ PULSES SYNCHRONISE THE LINE OSCILLATOR DURING
ODD FILD ENDING
• THE 2ND AND FOURTH PULSES DO SO DURING THE EVEN FIELD ENDING.
POST EQUALISING PULSES.
• FOLLOWING THE LAST OF THE 5 FIELD SYNC PULSES BEFORE THE NEXT LINE
SYNC PULSE OCCUR THERE IS A ½ LINE FOR ODD AND A FULL LINE PERIOD FOR
EVEN FIELD.
• THIS NECESSITATE INTRODUCTION OF 5 EQ PULSES OF 2.3 μs AT THE END OF
FIELD SYNC PULSE OCCUPYING A TIME OF 2.5 H EACH FOR PRE AND POST EQ
PULSES.
• THUS V BLANKING PULSE CONSIST OF 2.5H PRE EQ PULSE,2.5H OF V SYNC
PULSE ,2.5 H OF POST EQ PULSE AND 12.5 OF H PULSES TOTALLING 20 H PULSES
• THEY HAVE SERRATIONS AS GIVEN IN THE FIG BELOW AND AS DESCRIBED IN
THE EARLIER PARAS.

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21
The Vertical Interval, with Equalizing Pulses

• THE EXTRA HALF LINE IS GOT BY THE INTEGRATION OF THE EQUALISING PULSE
AS SHOWN IN FIG BELOW

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• THIS WOULD NOT HAVE BEEN POSSIBLE IF EQ PULSES ARE NOT USED AS GIVEN IN
THE FIG
• THUS THE ENTIRE COMPOSITE VIDEO SIGNAL WITH THE V AND H BLANKING AND
SYNC PULSES CONTRIBUTE TO A PERFECT SYNCHRONISED TV SCANNING SYSTEM
IN HARMONY WITH THE CAMERA OR TV TRANSMITTER AND THE TV MONITOR OR
RECIEVER.

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VIDEO MODULATION AND VESTIGIAL SIDE BAND SIGNAL
• AMPLITUDE MODULATION IS USED FOR CARRYING THE TV BASE BAND VIDEO
SIGNAL.
• IN THIS TWO TYPES OF MODULATION IS POSSIBLE
• 1.POSITIVE MODULATION OF RF CARRIER
• 2.NEGATIVE MODULATION OF THE RF CARRIER
• CCIR- B SYSTEM USES NEGATIVE MODULATION
• IN THIS THE SYNC TIP WHICH NORMALLY REMAIN AT LOWER MOST POINT IN THE
VIDEO SIGNAL GETS TOTALLY INVERTED AND OCCUPY THE PEAK LEVEL OF
MODULATION AT 100%(PRACTICALLY TO 90% TO KEEP 10% OF RESIDUAL CARRIER
FOR SOUND DEMODULATION DETECTION AT RECEIVER END.)
• THE BLANKING LEVEL CORRESPOND TO 75% WHICH IS THE BLACK LEVEL
• THE WHITE LEVEL (BRIGHT POINTS) CORRESPONDS TO 10 % OF PEAK.
• THE MAIN ADVANTAGE IS WHEN EVER NOISE OCCUR IT AFFECTS THE PEAK
AMPLITUDE AND ONLY SYNC WILL HAVE NOISE AND CAN BE ELIMINATED BY
RECONSTRUCTING THE SYNC.THE VIDEO WHITE AND MODERATE VIDEO ARE
SAFELY EMBEDDED IN THE CARRIER BELOW. SEE FIG BELOW

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• VIDEO BAND WIDTH
• WE HAVE SEEN THAT THE VIDEO BANDWIDTH FOR THE PAL TV SYSTEM IS 5 MHz.
• THE MODULATION USED IN THE PAL TV IS AMPLITUDE MODULATION.THIS IS
BECAUSE THIS WILL OCCUPY A MAX OF 10 MHz BW.IF F M IS USED MUCH LARGER
BW IS REQUIRED.
• ALSO TO RESTRICT THE BW DSB BAND WIDTH IS NOT USED.
• SSB COULD HAVE BEEN USED BUT FOR THE BASIC PICTURE INFORMATION
(OUTLINE ETC ARE CONTAINED IN LOW FREQUENCY SIGNAL AND THERE FORE IT
IS A NEED TO HAVE DSB FOR ATLEAST 0.75 MHz.
• THEREFORE A MODULATION CALLED VESTIGAL SIDE BAND IS USED.THE
SPECTRUM OF THE SIGNALS OF DSB, SSB, VSB ARE SHOWN IN FIGS BELOW.
• THE LOWER SIDE BAND OF VSB TRANSMISSION IS UPTO 0.75MHz(FULLY
SUPRESSED AT 1.25 MHz AND THE UPPER SIDE BAND IS UPTO 5 MHz AND FULLY
ATTENUATED AT 5.5 MHz(THIS CONTAINS THE +0.75 MHz THE USB OF THE LOW
FREQUENCIES)
• THE CHANNEL WIDTH IS FROM –(0.75 +0.5) MHz = -1.25 GUARD BAND TO 5.5 + 0.25
MHz =5.75 MHz =7 MHz

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26
27
28
• ALSO FOR SSB TRANSMISSION THE FILTER HAS TO BE VERY SHARP AND GROUP
DELAY DISTORTIONS CANOT BE AVOIDED WITH SUCH TYPE OF FILTERS
• HOW EVER AT THE RECEIVER END IT IS NECESSARY TO ENSURE THAT SIGNAL
FREQUENCIES IN THE REGION OF VESTIGAL BAND (LOW FREQUENCIES)DO NOT
APPEAR WITH DOUBLE AMPLITUDE AFTER DEMODULATION

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 • THIS IS AVOIDED BY USING A NYQUIST TYPE FILTER WHOSE FRQUENCY RESPONSE
RISES OR FALLS NEAR THE REGION OF VISION CARRIER.
• AS PER CCIR 7 MHZ BAND IN VHF AND 8 MHz BAND IN THE UHF ARE APPROVED
FOR TV BROADCAST.
• THE IF FRQUENCIES FOR THE VISION CARRIER IS 38.9 MHz AND FOR SOUND IT IS
33.4 MHz .THE INTER CARRIER SEPARATION IS THEREFORE 5.5 MHz
• THE RESIDUAL CARRIER OF 10% (UPTO 12.5%)IS REQUIRED BECAUSE OF THE
INTER CARRIER OF SOUND WHICH REQUIRE A CERTAIN CARRIER AT RECEIVER TO
DETECT THE SOUND SIGNAL
• ANOTHER ADVANTAGE OF NEG.MODULATION IS THAT THE POWER COMES DOWN
ON MODULATION, SINCE ONLY A SMALL POWER IS REQUIRED AT THE SHARP
PEAKS OF SYNC THUS SAVING POWER IN THE TRANSMISSION.
• THE SOUND MODULATION IS MONO WITH 50 KHz DEVIATION(PICTURE TO SOUND
POWER LEVEL RATIO 5:1)
• HOW EVER ADDITIONAL SOUND CARRIERS CAN BE INTRODUCED AFTER 5.5.MHz
FOR USE IN CAPTIONS, ANOTHER LANGUAGE BROADCAST ETC.

THE FOLLOWING TABLE GIVES THE VARIOUS BROADCAT STANDARDS USE

DIN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES.

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 TELEVISION CHANNEL ALLOCATIONS CCIR-B

BAND CHANNEL FREQUENCY PICTURE SOUND CARRIER

RANGE
CARRIER MHz
MHz
MHz
I 1 41-47 --- ---
41-68MHz
2 47-54 48.25 53.75
3 54-61 55.25 60.75
4 61-68 62.25 67.75
III 5 174-181 175.25 180.75
175-223MHz
6 181-188 182.25 187.75
7 188-195 189.25 194.75
8 195-202 196.25 201.75
9 202-209 203.25 208.75
10 209-216 210.25 215.75
11 216-223 217.25 222.25
ADDL CHANNEL 12 223-230 224.25 229.25
IV 21-27 470-582 8MHzEACH BW
V 28-60(69) 582-790(860) 8MHzEACH BW
VI FOR SATELLITE 11.7-12.5GHz
SPECIAL 68-82(89) 2(3) S 7
CHANNELS 104-174 AND CHANNELS 7
FOR
CABLE TV 230-300MHz S1-S20 7
BAND II FM 88-108MHz

31
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A MONOCHROME TV TRANSMITTER

32
33
FINALLY A CHANNEL FILTER IS ADDED AT THE LAST TO FILTER
EXTRENEOUS FREQUENCIES ABOVE THE CHANNEL BW SAY 7MHZ FOR VHF
AND 8 MHz FOR UHF.

34
35
36
ADDITION OF COLOR INFORMATION
• THE CVS DISCUSSED EARLIER CARRIED THE MONOCHROME TV SIGNAL
• IN ORDER TO REPRODUCE A COLOR IMAGE IT IS NECESSARY TO TRANSMIT
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION OF COLOR CONTENT (CHROMOCITY) OF THE
PICTURE ELEMENT, TOGETHER WITH THE BRIGHTNESS (LUMINANCE)
DISTRIBUTION.
• THE PROBLEM OF COLOR TRANSMISSION IS TO
1. MAINTAIN THE MONOCHROME (B&W) TV BROADCAST.
2. ADD THE ADDL COLOR INFORMATION WITHOUT ALTERING THE FREQ BAND
OF THE CVS
3. THE ADDITION MAKES IT POSSIBLE FOR A B&W TV TO RECEIVE
MONOCHROME PICTURE WITHOUT ANY ADDITIONAL DESIGN.(
(MONOCHROME COMPATABILITY)
• THE REQUIREMENT CAN BE MET ONLY IF WE OBTAIN
1. THE LUMINANCE DISTRIBUTION INFORMATION
2. THE COLOR CONTENT INFORMATION
THE FIG BELOW SHOWS THE DETAILS OF A PICTURE ELEMNT OF B&W AND
COLOR CONTENT

37
• THE CHROMACITY HAS TWO CONTENTS 1. HUE –DETERMINED BY DOMINANT
WAVELENGTH OF COLOR (R.G, B) 2. BY SATURATION- A MEASURE OF SPECTRAL
PURITY-HOW MUCH DILUTION OF COLOR-NO DILUTION THE COLOR IS PURE-
DILUTION IS USUALLY REFERRED TO WHITE (MEAN COLORLESS) MIXING.
• CHROMINANCE SIGNAL CAN NOT BE OBTAINED FROM THE PICTURE ELEMENT
DIRECTLY.
• THE CHROMINANCE SIGNAL IS OBTAINED BY EXTRACTING COLORS OF
BLUE,GREEN AND RED, THE THREE PRIME COLORS BY USE OF 3 FILTERS R,G, AND
B
• AS PER HELMHOLTZ THE WHITE COLOR(COLORLESS) AND ANY OTHER COLOR
WHICH NORMALLY HUMAN EYE SEE CAN BE OBTAINED BY VECTORIAL ADDITION
OF R,G AND B
• THUS A SCHEME OF COMPATIBLE COLOR CAN BE GOT BY LUMINANCE SIGNAL Y
AND CHROMINANCE SIGNAL F
• THE FIG BELOW SHOW THE Y AND F SIGNAL TRANSMISSION

CHROMATICS AND CALORIMETRY

• LIGHT A EM WAVE AS PERCEIVED BY HUMAN EYE COVERS A WAVELENGTH FROM
400nm(VIOLET) TO700 nm(RED)
• SUNLIGHT CONSISTS OF ALL SPECTRAL COLORS MERGING INTO EACH OTHER.
SEE DIAGRAM BELOW

38
•
• SPECTRAL COLORS ARE SATURATED COLORS
• MIXING WITH WHITE LIGHT PRODUCES DE --SATURATED COLORS.
• COLORED LIGHT CAN BE CHARECTERISED BY SPECTRAL ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• THE RADIATION OF A WAVE OF LENGTH λ CAUSES IN THE EYE A SENSATION OF
BRIGHTNESS AND COLOR.
• THE SENSITIVITY TO BRIGHTNESS OF THE EYE AS A FUNCTION OF λ IS GIVEN BY
THE LUMINOSITY CURVE SHOWN BELOW.
•

• COLORS OF OBJECTS ARE THOSE COLORS WHICH ARE REFECTED FROM THE
LIGHT TO WHICH THE OBJECT IS EXPOSED
• THE COLOR STIMULUS CURVE SHOW THE ASSOCIATED SPECTRAL DISTRIBUTION

39
• THE OBJECT COLOR IN MOST CASES DO NOT INDICATE SPECTRAL COLORS BUT A
MIXTURE OF A NUMBER OF CLOSELY SPACED SPECTRAL COLORS

• THE MIXTURE OF COLOR IS AN ADDITIVE PROCESS.TYPICAL EXAMPLES OF

ADDITIVE COLOR MIXING IS SHOWN BELOW.

•
• INVESTIGATION OF COLOR STIMULUS SENSITIVITY OF HUMAN EYE SHOW THAT
A COLOR SENSATION IN THE EYE CAN BE PRODUCED BY MIXING PART OF THE
SENSATIONS CAUSED BY R, G, B AND ANY COLOR APPEARING IN NATURE CAN BE
OBTAINED BY COMBINING CERTAIN PORTIONS OF THESE PRIMARY COLORS R, G, B
• GRASS MANN(1854) FOUND THE FOLLOWING LAW.F=R(R)+G(G)=B(B)
• THIS MEANS THAT A COLOR F IS DERIVED FROM R UNITS OF SPECTRAL COLOR R
,G UNITS OF SPECTRAL COLOR G AND B UNITS OF SPECTRAL COLOR B
• THE FOLLOWING FIG SHOWS THE COLOR MIXTURE CURVES.

40
• FROM THE CURVE WE CAN SEE THAT THE PRIME COLORS STAND SEPARATE AT B
435.8, G 546.1 AND R 700 nm WAVELENGTHS.
• THE PRIMARY COLORS ARE THOSE WHICH CANNOT BE DERIVED BY MIXING THE
OTHER COLORS.
• AS CAN BE SEEN THE THREE PRIME COLORS YIELD A SPACE VECTOR.
• THE DIRECTION OF THE VECTOR REPRESENTS CHROMOCITY.ITS LENGTH THE
BRIGHTNESS.
• THE BRIGHTNESS AND CHROMOSITY ARE INDEPENDENT OF EACH OTHER AND
THEREFORE THE TRISTIMULUS VALUES CAN BE NORMALISED TO THE
LUMINANCE COMPONENT

41
 F R( R) G (G ) B( B)
• = + + =1
R+G+ B R+G+ B R+G+ B R+G+ B
• THIS IS INDICATED AS r+g+b=1
• THESE REDUCED VALUES INDICATE ONLY CHROMOCITY AND NO LUMINOSITY.
• THE SUM IS ALWAYS UNITY AND THEREFORE CAN BE REPRESENTED IN 2
DIMENTION INSTEAD OF 3.
• THE LOCUS OF SPECTRAL COLORS IS PLOTTED IN THE COLOR SURFACE r-g
DIAGRAM AS SHOWN BELOW
•

• CO-ORDINATE CHANGE TO A NON FICTIVE x,y,z WHERE AGAIN x+y+z = 1 YIELD

ANOTHER GRAPH OF COLOR SURFACE IN x-y DIAGRAM

42
•
• NOTE THE 3 VECTORS R G B IN 120 DEGREES APART(R TO B 117DEG,B TO G 106 DEG
AND G TO R 137 DEG)
• THIS IS CALLED THE STANDARD COLOR DIAGRAM
• CLOSER THE COLOR POINT TO WHITE THE WEAKER THE COLOR(DESATURATED
COLOR)
• IF POINT LIE WITHIN THE TRIANGLE 3 COLORS ARE INVOLVED IF LOCATED
ALONG THE LOCUS ONLY ONE OR TWO COLORS ARE INVOLVED.
• MORE PRACTICAL COLOR (OBJECT COLOR) CURVE ORIENT WITHIN THE
TRIANGLE AND MORE PRACTICALLY WITHIN THE DOTTED LINE (SEE FIG BELOW).
•

FIGURE 30

43
• COLOR DIFFERENCE SIGNALS-LUMINANCE –CHROMINANCE SIGNALS.
• FOR COMPATABILITY A COLOR CAMERA HAS TO DELIVER A B-W SIGNAL (LUM
SIGNAL) FROM A COLOR PICTURE
• IT SHOULD BE NOTED THAT A SPECTRAL SENSITIVITY OF THE B-W SIGNAL
CORRESPOND TO THE BRIGHTNESS SENSITIVITY OF HUMAN EYE.
• THE B-W SIGNAL PRODUCED FROM A COLOR PICTURE CORRESPOND TO THE GREY
LEVELS OF THE LUM SIGNAL,i.e THE BRIGHTNESS LEVEL OF THE COLOR
CORRESPOND TO THE GREY VALUES.
• AN ADDITION OF HUE AND SATURATION TO THIS LUMINOUS SIGNAL GIVES THE
TOTAL COLOR INFORMATION.
• THE FIG 32 GIVES THE BRIGHTNESS SENSITIVITY OF HUMAN EYE TO RECEIVER
PRIMARIES

•
• THE COLOR CAMERA DELIVERS 3 SIGNALS WITH SPECTRAL FUNCTIONS
MATCHING THE COLOR MIXTURE CURVES rrλ ,gr λ ,br λ FIG 31 REFERRED TO
RECEIVER PRIMARIES R,G,B(THE INNER TRIANGLE OF FIG 30 WHICH REFER TO
OBJECT COLORS)
•
• THE COLOR VALUES REPRESENTED BY RR λ, gr λ, br λ ARE MULTIPLIED BY THEIR
RESPECTIVE BRIGHTNESS VALUES (LUM VALUES) hr, hg, and hb AND THEN ADDED
UP YIELDS FULL COLOR PICTURE VALUES.
• H(λ)=k[hr X rr λ+hg X gr λ + hb X br λ

44
• THE RELATIVE VALUES OF LUMINOSITY COEFFIENTS ARE OBTAINED FROM THE
CORRESPONDING VALUE OF h(Rr).h (Gr), h(Br) FROM THE CURVE OF FIG 32
• FROM CURVE h(Rr)=0.47.h (Gr)=0.92, h(Br )=0.17 AND Σh=1.56
• THE RELATIVE COEFFICIENTS ARE hr= h(Rr)/ Σh =0.47/1.56=0.3
• hg=.h (Gr)/ Σh =0.92/1.56=0.54
• hb= h(Br )/ Σh =0.17 /1.56=0.11
• DUE TO NORMALISATION hr+hg+hb=1
• THEREFORE h λ =k[0.3 X rr (λ)+0.59 X gr( λ) + 0.11 X br (λ)
• THEREFORE h λ =Y=0.3R+0.59G+0.11B.THIS IS AN IMPORTANT RELATION OF COLOR
TV.IN PRACTICE THIS IS ACHIEVED BY A MATRIX OF 3 RESISTANCES OF VALUES
CORRESPONDING TO 0.3,0.59,0.11 AS IN FIG 33

•
45
 • R-G-B IS REQUIRED FOR PRODUCING A COLOR PICTURE
• FOR COMPATABILITY SIGNAL Y AND F ARE USED.
• F CANNOT BE GOT DIRECTLY FROM TRISTIMULUS VALUES
• ONLY WAY TO GET IT IS BY COLOR DIFFERENCE SIGNALS R-Y,G-Y, AND B-Y(PURITY
COLORS R,G,B ARE DIFFICULT TO HANDLE BY CIRCUITS)
• TO OBTAIN CHROMINANCE SIGNALS R,G,B- THE TWO SIGNALS R-Y AND B-Y ARE
ENOUGH
• VY=0.3VR+0.59VG+0.11VB.VR-VY YIELD 0.7VR-0.59VG-0.11VB,VB-VY YIELDS
• VB-VY= -0.3VR-0.59VG+0.89VB
• WE SEE THAT THESE TWO EQNS CONTAIN R,G,B AND ALSO VR=VG=VB=0 FOR A
MONOCHROME SIGNAL(PURE B AND W)
• THE REASON WHY THE COLOR DIFFERENCE SIGNALS R-Y AND B-Y ARE CHOSEN
LEAVING G-Y IS BECAUSE OF THE FOLLOWING EXPLANATION
• Y=0.3R+0.59G+0.11B.NOW Y=0.3(R-Y)+0.59(G-Y)+0.11(B-Y)=0.IF R-Y AND B-Y ARE

0.3(R - Y) 0.11(B - Y)
TRANSMITTED THEN G-Y= − -= − =-0.51(R-Y)-0.186(B-Y)
0.59 0.59
• THE UNSUITABILITY OF CHOOSING G-Y AND B-Y SIGNAL LEAVING R-Y RESULTS IN
R-Y=-1.97(G-Y) – 2.7 (B-Y) AND CHOOSING G-Y AND R-Y LEAVING B-Y SIGNAL YIELD
B-Y=-5.4 (G-Y) – 2.7(R-Y).THIS SHOWS THAT THE AMPLITUDES ARE MORE THAN 1 IN
BOTH THE ABOVE CASES AND THEY CANNOT BE MIXED BY A SIMPLE RESISTANCE
MATRIX BUT REQUIRE ADDITIONAL AMPLIFIERS.SO THE BEST IS R-Y AND B-Y ARE
CHOSEN.
• AMPLITUDE OF COLOR DIFFERENCE SIGNAL SHOW DEPARTURE FROM HUE FROM
COLORLESS(WHITE)-A MEASURE OF SATURATION
• GRAPH FIG 34 B-Y,R-Y IN POLAR COORDINATES YIELD VECTOR LENGTH A=

2 2
( B −Y ) + ( R −Y ) , α= tan-1(R-Y/B-Y)
ANGLE SHOW HUE OF THE COLOR

46
• IT IS PRACTICALLY KNOWN THAT THE RESOLUTION OF THE EYE IS LOWER FOR
COLOR THAN B-W. FOR Y SIGNAL THE EYE IS SENSITIVE UPTOTO 5 MHz BW AND
FOR COLOR A BW OF 1.5 MHz IS FOUND TO BE ENOUGH.∴ THE COLOR DIFF
SIGNALS ARE PASSED THROUGH LP FILTERS
• THE CODER FIG 35 SHOW HOW A LUMINOUS AND COLOR DIFF SIGNALS ARE
PRODUCED.

• DRIVING COLOR PICTURE TUBE WITH RGB VOLTAGES.

47
•
• THE TWO CASES 1. CATHODE AT 0 VOLTAGE 2.CATHODE FED BY NEGATIVE
LUMINOUS SIGNAL
• TRANSMISSION OF COLOR SIGNAL WITH COLOR SUB CARRIER.
• TO TRANSMIT THE Y AND CHROMINANCE SIGNALS R-Y AND B-Y A TRIPLE
TRANSMISSION CHANNEL IS REQUIRED WHICH WILL MAKE THE SYSTEM MORE
COMPLICATED BOTH AT TRANMITTER END AND RECEIVER END.
• HENCE WE HAVE TO FIND A METHOD TO SEND THEE INFORMATION OF COLOR
WITHIN THE EXISTING 5 MHz BAND AND RETAINING THE B-W COMPATABILITY.
• THE SPECTRUM OF CVS (B-W ONLY) INDICATES ONLY CERTAIN FRQUENCY
COMPONENTS WHICH ARE MAINLY MULTIPLES OF LINE FRQUENCY (15625 Hz)
DUE TO PERIODIC SCANNING OF LINES.
o AN AM MODULATED SIGNAL PRODUCING SIDEBANDS IS SPACED AT
MULTIPLES OF FIELD FREQUENCIES FROM SPECTRUM COMPONENTS OF
LINE PULSES fh,f2h,f3h,….f312h ALONG WITH THE FREQUENCY fv/2. FIG 39
o WE CAN SEE THAT THERE ARE ENERGY GAPS BETWEEN THESE REPETITIVE
SPECTRUM
o SINCE COLOR INFORMATION IS ALSO LINE REPETITIVE AND THE SPECTRUM
OF CHROMINANCE SIGNAL CONSISTS ONLY OF MULTIPLES OF LINE FREQ
SIGNALS ,IT IS POSSIBLE TO INSERT THE ADDITIONAL COLOR
INGFORMATIONIN THE GAPS OF THE CVS SEE FIG 40

48
o THE PROCESS OF INSERTION IS DONE BY CHOOSING A COLOR SUB CARRIER
WITHIN THE 5 MHz BAND AND THE MODULATION PROCESS SIDE BANDS
ALSO LOCATING WITHIN THE TV SPECTRUM OF 5 MHz
o DETERMINING THE COLOR SUB CARRIER FREQUENCY
o IN ORDER TO INTERLEAVE THE COLOR CARRIER FREQ WITHIN THE TV
BAND OF 5 MHz THE FREQ fsc SHOULD BE AN ODD MULTIPLE OF HALF LINE
FREQUENCY fh SOTHAT THE SIGNAL AND ITS SIDE BANDS CAN BE INSERTED
IN THE GAPS OF CVS

49
o

o fc=(2n+1)fh/2.BY THIS WAY THE HALF LINE OFF SET IS ACHIEVED AND THE
COLOR SIGNAL OCCUPY IN BETWEEN THE ENERGY GAP OF CVS.

50
o
o IF COLOR S C FREQ IS NOT OFF SET THEN INTERFERENCE PATTERNS OF
LINES EQUAL TO n OF BRIGHT AND DARK DOTS WILL APPEAR.BUT BECAUSE
OF ODD NO. OF LINES BRIGHT AND DARK SPOTS COINCIDE AFTER 2 FIELDS
BECAUSE THE INTERFERENCE PATTERNS ARE SINUSOIDAL IN NATURE AND
ARE OUT OF PHASE(180) AT EVERY ALTERNATE FIELD BECAUSE OF ½ LINE
OFFSET AND THEY CANCEL BECAUSE OF THE FRQUENCY OF COLOR
CARRIER IS ODD MULTIPLE OF fh.
o BECAUSE OF ½ LINE OFF SET THE PHASE OF COLOR SC ALTERNATES BY 180
DEG FROM LINE TO A FIELD.THIS PRODUCES INTERFERENCE PATTERN. THE
INTERFERENCE PATTERN OCCUR AT A RHYTHM OF fv/4=50/4=12.5 Hz
o THIS IS COMPENSATED OVER 4 FIELDS BY ADDING 25 Hz TO COLOR CARRIER
FREQ AND BY INTRODUCING ¼ LINE OFF SET IN ADDITION TO 25 Hz
o A VALUE (2n+1)fh/2=567fh/2=283.5fh IS USED AS COLOR CARRIER FREQUENCY
AND APPROVED BY CCIR FOR NTSC. FOR PAL IT IS (283.75X15625)+25 Hz
=4.43361875 MHz.(4433618.75Hz) FOR NTSC IT IS 4.4296875
o THE RELATION FOR FREQ OF HORIZONTAL FREQUENCY IS fh=(FSC-
25)/(283.5+1/4) =15625 Hz

51
o FIG 44 SHOW COUPLING COLOR FREQ AND LINE FRQ.FIG 43 SHOW
COMPATABILITY OF COLOR TV TRANSMISSION WITH Y AND CHROMA
SIGNALS

52
53
o MODULATION OF COLOR SUB CARRIER
o THERE ARE 2 COLOR SIGNALS R-Y AND B-Y BUT ONLY ONE CARRIER fsc
o THE MODULATION METHOD SHOULD BE SUCH THAT THEY ARE MODULATED
SEPARATELY AND EXTRACTED SEPARATELY ON THE SAME CARRIER.
o DOUBLE AMP MODULATION IS USED IN NTSC AND PAL.THE 00 COMPONENT OF SUB
CARRIER IS MODULATED BY B-Y SIGNAL.THE CARRIER IS PHASE SHIFTED AT
EVERY ALTERNATE LINE AND THE RESULTANT 900 CARRIER IS MODULATED BY R-
Y SIGNAL.THE SUB CARRIER IS ULTIMATELY SUPRESSED IN THE TV BAND OF

54
o 5 MHz.THE FIG 46 INDICATE THE VECTOR REPRESENTATION OF R-Y AND B-Y
SIGNAL
o WHEN TRANSMITTING Y SIGNAL ALONE THE AMPLITUDE OF COLOR DIFF SIGNAL
AND COLOR CARRIER WILL BE ZERO.NO COLOR CARRIER-NO INTERFERENCE
o TO DE- MODULATE THE COLOR SIGNALS A COLOR CARRIER OF PERFECT FREQ AS
TRANSMITTED IS REQD.THIS IS ACHIEVED BY TRANSMITTING 8 TO 10 CYCLES OF
COLOR CARRIER(00 IN ONE LINE AND 900 IN THE ALTERNATE LINE) AS A
REFERENCE CARRIER FOR DEMODULATION AT RECEIVER END IN THE BACK
PORCH OF THE BLANKING SIGNAL OF AMPLITUDE EQUAL TO 0.3 V(EQUAL TO SYNC
AMPLITUDE) P-P OF THE 1 V P-P OF THE COMPOSITE VIDEO SIGNAL FIG 47
o

o
o TWO SYNCHRONOUS DETECTORS ONE OF 900 COMPONENT DETECTS R-Y SIGNAL
AND THE 00 COMPONENTS DETECTS THE B-Y SIGNAL
o COMPOSITE COLOR VIDEO SIGNAL
o THE CHROMINANCE SIGNAL IS COMBINED WITH CVS TO FORM THE CCVS
o THE NEW BASE BAND CONTAINING THE COLOR SIGNALS ALONG WITH Y AND H
AND V SYNC AND COLOR BURST IS VSB AMPLITUDE MODULATED ON A RF
CARRIER
o SINCE FULLY SATURATED COLORS HARDLY EVER OCCUR AND IN ORDER TO AVOID
OVER MODULATION OF RF CARRIER A FACTOR OF 0.88 FOR R-Y SIGNAL AND 0.49
FOR B-Y SIGNAL ARE USEDTO REDUCE THE MODULATION LEVELS
o THE REVISED SIGNALS ARE CALLED U=0.49(B-Y) AND V=0.88(R-Y)=0.61R-0.52G-
0.1B(ROUNDED OFF)

55
o FOR RED SIGNAL B-Y=-0.3(0-0.3) AND R-Y= 0.7(1-0.3) .SO THE CHROMA AMPLITUDE IS|

2 2
C|= +/-0.76|||LY FOR GREEN IT IS |C| +/-0.83 AND BLUE IT IS |C|
(−0.3) + (0.7) =
=+/-0.89.IF WE KEEP FOR RED |C|= +/- 0.63 AND |C| FOR BLUE AS +/-0.44 THEN
2 2
o THE WIGHTING FACTOR WILL BE C= =+/- 0.63 WHERE a IS
(−0.3a ) + (0.7b)
THE WEIGHTING FACTOR FOR B-Y SIGNAL
2 2
o C= = +/-0.44 AND b IS WEIGHTING FACTOR FOR R-Y
(0.89a ) + (−0.11b)
SIGNAL. SOLVING THE ABOVE EQUATIONS WE GET a=0.493 AND b =0.877
o TABLE 5 GIVES MODULATION OF COLOR CARRIER WITH REDUCED COLOR
SIGNALS
o FIG 48 SHOW SYNCHRONOUS DETECTION OFCOLOR DIFFERENCE SIGNALS.
o FIG 49 SHOW AMPLITUDE MODULATION OF COLOR CARRIER WITHOUT REDUCING
THE AMP OF COLOS DIFF SIGNALS.FIG 50 SHOW THE REDUCED COLOR DIFF
SIGNALS WITH 100% SATURATED COLOR SEQUENCE.FIG 51 SHOW THE STANDARD
EBU TEST SIGNAL WITH 75% SATURATION.FIG 52 SHOW THE VECTROSCOPE
DISPLAY OF THE VARIOUS COLOR SIGNALS AND THE COLOR

o SC.

56
o

57
 o
The following table shows you the relationship between color and phase:
Color Phase Burst 0 degrees, Yellow 15 degrees, Red 75 degrees, Magenta 135 degrees
Blue 195 degrees, Cyan 255 degrees, Green 315 degrees

• NTSC AND PAL ARE THE TWO MAIN STANDARDS .THE NTSC DIFFER FROM PAL
BYTHE TYPE OF MODULATION OF COLOR SC.NTSC INSTEAD OF THE REDUCED U
AND V SIGNALS TRANSMITS I AND Q SIGNALS WHICH ARE NOTHING BUT A 33 DEG
COUNTER CLOCKWISE SHIFT OF THE U AND V SIGNALS.FIG 53
• I=V COS 33-V SIN 33,Q=V SIN 33=U COS 33OR
• I=0.6 R-0.28G-0.22B,Q=0.21R-0.52G+0.31B SEE FIG 54
• REST OF MODULATION AND DEMODULATION ARE THE SAME
58
• SEE FIG 55 FOR NTSC CODER

59
• THE REASON WHY THE COLOR DIFFERENCE SIGNALS R-Y AND B-Y ARE CHOSEN
LEAVING G-Y IS BECAUSE OF THE FOLLOWING EXPLANATION
• Y=0.3R+0.59G+0.11B.NOW Y=0.3(R-Y)+0.59(G-Y)+0.11(B-Y)=0.IF R-Y AND B-Y ARE

0.3(R - Y) 0.11(B - Y)
TRANSMITTED THEN G-Y= − -= − =-0.51(R-Y)-0.186(B-Y)
0.59 0.59
• THE UNSUITABILITY OF CHOOSING G-Y AND B-Y SIGNAL LEAVING R-Y RESULTS IN
R-Y=-1.97(G-Y) – 2.7 (B-Y) AND CHOOSING G-Y AND R-Y LEAVING B-Y SIGNAL YIELD
B-Y=-5.4 (G-Y) – 2.7(R-Y).THIS SHOWS THAT THE AMPLITUDES ARE MORE THAN 1 IN
BOTH THE ABOVE CASES AND THEY CANNOT BE MIXED BY A SIMPLE RESISTANCE
MATRIX BUT REQUIRE ADDITIONAL AMPLIFIERS.SO THE BEST IS R-Y AND B-Y ARE
CHOSEN.
• SINCE FULLY SATURATED COLORS HARDLY EVER OCCUR AND IN ORDER TO AVOID
OVER MODULATION OF RF CARRIER A FACTOR OF 0.88 FOR R-Y SIGNAL AND 0.49
FOR B-Y SIGNAL ARE USEDTO REDUCE THE MODULATION LEVELS
• THE REVISED SIGNALS ARE CALLED U=0.49(B-Y) AND V=0.88(R-Y)=0.61R-0.52G-
0.1B(ROUNDED OFF)
• FOR RED SIGNAL B-Y=-0.3 AND R-Y= 0.7 .SO THE CHROMA AMPLITUDE IS|C|=

2 2
+/-0.76|||LY FOR GREEN IT IS |C| +/-0.83 AND BLUE IT IS |C|
(−0.3) + (0.7) =
=+/-0.89.IF WE KEEP FOR RED |C|= +/- 0.63 AND |C| FOR BLUE AS +/-0.44 THEN

60
 2 2
• THE WIGHTING FACTOR WILL BE C= =+/- 0.63 WHERE a IS
(−0.3a ) + (0.7b)
THE WEIGHTING FACTOR FOR B-Y SIGNAL
2 2
• C= = +/-0.44 AND b IS WEIGHTING FACTOR FOR R-Y
(0.89a ) + (−0.11b)
SIGNAL. SOLVING THE ABOVE EQUATIONS WE GET a=0.493 AND b =0.877
• TABLE 5 GIVES MODULATION OF COLOR CARRIER WITH REDUCED COLOR
SIGNALS
•
•

How Plasma Displays Work

For the past 75 years, the vast majority of televisions have been built around the
same technology: the cathode ray tube (CRT). In a CRT television, a gun fires a
beam of electrons (negatively-charged particles) inside a large glass tube. The
Electrons excite phosphor atoms along the wide end of the tube (the screen), which
causes the phosphor atoms to light up.
The television image is produced by lighting up different areas of the phosphor
coating with different colors at different intensities.

Plasma display from Sony

Cathode ray tubes produce crisp, vibrant images, but they do have a serious
drawback:
They are bulky. In order to increase the screen width in a CRT set, you also have to

61
Increase the length of the tube (to give the scanning electron gun room to reach all
parts of the screen). Consequently, any big-screen CRT television is going to weigh a
ton and take up a sizable chunk of a room.
Recently, a new alternative has popped up on store shelves: the plasma flat panel
Display. These televisions have wide screens, comparable to the largest CRT sets,
but they are only about 6 inches thick.
What is Plasma?
If you've read How Televisions Work, then you understand the basic idea of a
standard television or monitor. Based on the information in a video signal, the
television lights up thousands of tiny dots (called pixels) with a high-energy beam of
electrons. In most systems, there are three pixel colors -- red, green and blue -- which
are evenly distributed on the screen. By combining these colors in different
proportions, the television can produce the entire color spectrum.
The basic idea of a plasma display is to illuminate tiny colored fluorescent lights to
form an image. Each pixel is made up of three fluorescent lights -- a red light, a green
light and a blue light. Just like a CRT television, the plasma display varies the
intensities of the different lights to produce a full range of colors.

Tuning In
Most plasma displays aren't technically televisions, because they don't have a
television tuner. The television tuner is the device that takes a television signal (the
One coming from a cable wire, for example) and interprets it to create a video image.
Like LCD monitors, plasma displays are just monitors that display a standard video
signal. To watch television on a plasma display, you have to hook it up to a separate
unit that has its own television tuner, such as a VCR.
.
The central element in a fluorescent light is plasma, a gas made up of free-flowing
ions (electrically charged atoms) and electrons (negatively charged particles). Under
normal conditions, a gas is mainly made up of uncharged particles. That is, the
individual gas atoms include equal numbers of protons (positively charged particles in
the atom's nucleus) and electrons. The negatively charged electrons perfectly balance
the positively charged protons, so the atom has a net charge of zero.
If you introduce many free electrons into the gas by establishing an electrical voltage
across it, the situation changes very quickly. The free electrons collide with the atoms,
knocking loose other electrons. With a missing electron, an atom loses its balance. It
has a net positive charge, making it an ion.
In plasma with an electrical current running through it, negatively charged particles are
rushing toward the positively charged area of the plasma, and positively charged
particles are rushing toward the negatively charged area.

62
In this mad rush, particles are constantly bumping into each other. These collisions
excite the gas atoms in the plasma, causing them to release photons of energy. (For
details on this process, see How Fluorescent Lamps Work.)
Xenon and neon atoms, the atoms used in plasma screens, release light photons
when they are excited. Mostly, these atoms release ultraviolet light photons, which
are invisible to the human eye. But ultraviolet photons can be used to excite
Visible light photons, as we'll see in the next section.
Inside the Display
The xenon and neon gas in a plasma television is contained in hundreds of thousands
of tiny cells positioned between two plates of glass. Long electrodes are also
sandwiched between the glass plates, on both sides of the cells. The address
Electrodes sit behind the cells, along the rear glass plate. The transparent display
electrodes, which are surrounded by an insulating dielectric material and covered
by a magnesium oxide protective layer, are mounted above the cell, along the
Front glass plate.

63
Both sets of electrodes extend across the entire screen. The display electrodes are
arranged in horizontal rows along the screen and the address electrodes are arranged
in vertical columns. As you can see in the diagram below, the vertical and
Horizontal electrodes form a basic grid.

To ionize the gas in a particular cell, the plasma display's computer charges the
electrodes that intersect at that cell. It does this thousands of times in a small fraction
of a second, charging each cell in turn.
When the intersecting electrodes are charged (with a voltage difference between
them), electric current flows through the gas in the cell. As we saw in the last section,
the current creates a rapid flow of charged particles, which stimulates the gas
Atoms to release ultraviolet photons.
The released ultraviolet photons interact with phosphor material coated on the inside
wall of the cell. Phosphors are substances that give off light when they are exposed to
other light. When an ultraviolet photon hits a phosphor atom in the cell, one of the
phosphor's electrons jumps to a higher energy level and the atom heats up. When the

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electron falls back to its normal level, it releases energy in the form of a visible light
photon. The phosphors in a plasma display give off colored light when they are
excited. Every pixel is made up of three separate sub pixel cells, each with different
colored phosphors. One sub pixel has a red light phosphor, one sub pixel has a green
light phosphor and one sub pixel has a blue light phosphor. These colors blend
together to create the overall color of the pixel. By varying the pulses of current
flowing through the different cells, the control system can increase or decrease the
intensity of each sub pixel color to create hundreds of different combinations of red,
green and blue. In this way, the control system can produce colors across the entire
spectrum. The main advantage of plasma display technology is that you can produce
a very wide screen using extremely thin materials. And because each pixel is lit
individually, the image is very bright and looks good from almost every angle. The
Image quality isn't quite up to the standards of the best cathode ray tube sets, but it
certainly meets most people's expectations.
The biggest drawback of this technology has to be the price. With prices starting at
$4,000 and going all the way up past $20,000, these sets aren't exactly flying off the
shelves. But as prices fall and technology advances, they may start to edge
Out the old CRT sets. In the near future, setting up a new TV might be as easy as
hanging a picture!
•

• VISION PICKUP DEVICES (CAMERAS)

Image Orthicon

SCHEMATIC OF IMAGE ORTHICON TUBE.

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The IMAGE ORTHICON TUBE (often abbreviated as IO) was common until the 1960s. A
combination of Farnsworth's image dissector and RCA's orthicon technologies, it replaced the
iconoscope/orthicon, which required a great deal of light to work adequately. While the
iconoscope and the intermediate orthicon used capacitance between a multitude of small but
discrete light sensitive collectors and an isolated signal plate for reading video information, the
IO employed direct charge readings off of a continuous electronically charged collector. The
resultant signal was immune to most extraneous signal "crosstalk" from other parts of the
target, and could yield extremely detailed images. For instance, IO cameras were used for
capturing Apollo/Saturn rockets nearing orbit long after the networks had phased them out, as
only they could provide sufficient detail.

A properly constructed image orthicon could take television pictures by candlelight owing to
the more ordered light-sensitive area and the presence of an electron multiplier at the base of
the tube, which operated as a high-efficiency amplifier. It also had a logarithmic light
sensitivity curve similar to the human eye, so the picture looked more natural. Its defect was
that it tended to flare if a shiny object in the studio caught a reflection of a light, generating a
dark halo around the object on the picture. Image orthicons were used extensively in the early
color television cameras, where their increased sensitivity was essential to overcome their very
inefficient optical system.

Summary of IO Operation: An IO consists of three parts: an image store ("target"), a scanner

that reads this image (an electron gun), and a multiplicative amplifier. In the image store, light
falls upon a photosensitive plate, and is converted into an electron image (borrowed from
Farnsworth's image dissector). These electrons ("rain") are then accelerated towards the target,
causing a "splash" of electrons to be discharged (secondary electrons). Each image electron
ejects, on average, more than one "splash" electron, and these excess electrons are soaked up
by a positively-charged mesh very near and parallel to the target (the image electrons also pass
through this mesh, whose positive charge also helps to accelerate the image electrons). The
result is an image painted in positive charge, with the brightest portions having the largest
positive charge.

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A sharply focused beam of electrons (a cathode ray) is then scanned over the back side of the
target. The electrons are slowed down just before reaching the target so that they are absorbed
without ejecting more electrons. This adds negative charge to the positive charge until the
region being scanned reaches some threshold negative charge, at which point the scanning
electrons are reflected rather than absorbed. These reflected electrons return down the cathode
ray tube toward an electron detector (multiplicative amplifier) surrounding the electron gun.
The number of reflected electrons is a measure of the target's original positive charge, which,
in turn, is a measure of brightness. In analogy with the image dissector, this beam of electrons
is scanned around the target so that the image is read one small portion at a time.

Multiplicative amplification is also performed via the splashing of electrons: a stack of

charged pinwheel-like disks surround the electron gun. As the returning electron beam hits the
first pinwheel, it ejects electrons exactly like the target. These loose electrons are then drawn
toward the next pinwheel back, where the splashing continues for a number of steps. Consider
a single, highly-energized electron hitting the first stage of the amplifier, causing 2 electrons to
be emitted and drawn towards the next pinwheel. Each of these might then cause two each to
be emitted. Thus, by the start of the third stage, you would have four electrons to the original
one.

What causes the dark halo? The mysterious "dark halo" around bright objects in an IO-
captured image is based in the very fact that the IO relies on the splashing caused by highly
energized electrons. When a very bright point of light (and therefore very strong electron
stream emitted by the photosensitive plate) is captured, a great preponderance of electrons is
ejected from the image target. So many are ejected that the corresponding point on the
collection mesh can no longer soak them up, and thus they fall back to nearby spots on the
target much as splashing water when a rock is thrown in forms a ring. Since the resultant
splashed electrons do not contain sufficient energy to eject enough electrons where they land,
they will instead neutralize any positive charge in that region. Since darker images result in
less positive charge on the target, the excess electrons deposited by the splash will be read as a
dark region by the scanning electron beam.

This effect was actually "cultivated" by tube manufacturers to a certain extent, as a small,
carefully-controlled amount of the dark halo has the effect of "crispening" the viewed image.
(That is, giving the illusion of being more sharply-focused that it actually is). The later Vidicon
tube and its descendants (see below) do not exhibit this effect, and so could not be used for
broadcast purposes until special "detail correction" circuitry could be developed.

Vidicon

A vidicon tube (sometimes called a hivicon tube) is a video camera tube in which the target
material is made of antimony trisulfide (Sb2S3).

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The terms vidicon tube and vidicon camera are often used indiscriminately to refer to video
cameras of any type. The principle of operation of the vidicon camera is typical of other types
of video camera tubes.

SCHEMATIC OF VIDICON TUBE.

The vidicon is a storage-type camera tube in which a charge-density pattern is formed by the
imaged scene radiation on a photoconductive surface which is then scanned by a beam of low-
velocity electrons. The fluctuating voltage coupled out to a video amplifier can be used to
reproduce the scene being imaged. The electrical charge produced by an image will remain in
the face plate until it is scanned or until the charge dissipates.

Pyroelectric photocathodes can be used to produce a vidicon sensitive over a broad portion of
the infrared spectrum.

Vidicon tubes are notable for a particular type of interference they suffered from, known as
vidicon microphony. Since the sensing surface is quite thin, it is possible to bend it with loud
noises. The artifact is characterized by a series of many horizontal bars evident in any footage
(mostly pre 1990) in an environment where loud noise was present at the time of recording or
broadcast. A studio where a loud rock band was performing or even gunshots or explosions
would create this artifact.

Plumbicon
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Plumbicon is a registered trademark of Philips. It was mostly used in broadcast camera
applications. These tubes have low output, but a high signal-to-noise ratio. They had excellent
resolution compared to Image Orthicons, but lacked the artificially sharp edges of IO tubes,
which caused some of the viewing audience to perceive them as softer. CBS Labs invented the
first outboard edge enhancement circuits to sharpen the edges of Plumbicon generated images.

Compared to Saticons, Plumbicons had much higher resistance to burn in, and coma and
trailing artifacts from bright lights in the shot. Saticons though, usually had slightly higher
resolution. After 1980, and the introduction of the diode gun plumbicon tube, the resolution of
both types was so high, compared to the maximum limits of the broadcasting standard, that the
Saticon's resolution advantage became moot.

While broadcast cameras migrated to solid state Charged Coupled Devices, plumbicon tubes
remain a staple imaging device in the medical field.

Narragansett Imaging is the only company now making Plumbicons, and it does so from the
factories Philips built for that purpose in Rhode Island, USA. While still a part of the Philips
empire, the company purchased EEV's (English Electric Valve) lead oxide camera tube
business, and gained a monopoly in lead oxide tube production.

The company says, "In comparison to other image tube technologies, Plumbicon tubes offer
high resolution, low lag and superior image quality."

Television camera tube

An electron tube having a light-sensitive receptor that converts an optical image into an
electrical television video signal. The tube is used in a television camera to generate a train of
electrical pulses representing the light intensities present in an optical image focused on the
tube. Each point of this image is interrogated in its proper turn by the tube, and an electrical
impulse corresponding to the amount of light at that point of the optical image is generated by

69
the tube. This signal represents the video or picture portion of a television signal. See also
Television camera.

Image orthicon

The image orthicon made broadcast television practical. It was used for more than 20 years as
the primary studio and field camera tube for black and white and color television programming
because of its high sensitivity and its ability to handle a wide range of scene contrast and to
operate at very low light levels. It is one of the most complicated camera tubes. The image
orthicon is divided into an image section, a scanning section, and a multiplier section, within a
single vacuum envelope. The image isocon is a further development of the image orthicon.

Photoconductive tubes

These types have a photoconductor as the light-sensitive portion. The name vidicon was
applied to the first photoconductive camera tube developed by RCA. It is loosely applied to all
photoconductive camera tubes, although some manufacturers adopt their own brand names.
The vidicon tube is a small tube that was first developed as a closed-circuit or industrial
surveillance television camera tube. The development of new photoconductors has improved
its performance to the point where it is now utilized in one form or another in most television
cameras. Its small size and simplicity of operation make it well suited for use in systems to be
operated by relatively unskilled people.

The vidicon is a simply constructed storage type of camera tube (see illustration). The signal
output is developed directly from the target of the tube and is generated by a low-velocity
scanning beam from an electron gun. The target generally consists of a transparent signal
electrode deposited on the faceplate of the tube and a thin layer of photoconductive material,
which is deposited over the electrode. The photoconductive layer serves two purposes. It is the
light-sensitive element, and it forms the storage surface for the electrical charge pattern that
corresponds to the light image falling on the signal electrode.

Cross section of a vidicon tube and its associated deflection and focusing coils.

Photoconductor properties determine to a large extent the performance of the different types of
vidicon tubes. The first and still most widely used photoconductor is porous antimony
trisulfide. The latest photoconductors are the lead oxide, selenium-arsenic-tellurium, cadmium
selenide, zinc-cadmium telluride, and silicon diode arrays.

Silicon intensifier

The silicon intensifier camera tube utilizes a silicon diode target, but bombards it with a
focused image of high-velocity electrons. Each high-energy electron can free thousands of

70
electron carriers in the silicon wafer (compared to one carrier per photon of light on a silicon
diode vidicon). This high amplification allows the camera to operate at light levels below that
of the dark-adapted eye. The silicon intensifier tube is utilized for nighttime surveillance and
other extremely low-light-level television uses in industrial, scientific, and military
applications.

Solid-state imagers

These are solid-state devices in which the optical image is projected onto a large-scale
integrated-circuit device which detects the light image and develops a television picture signal.
Typical of these is the charge-coupled-device imager. The term charge-coupled device (CCD)
refers to the action of the device which detects, stores, and then reads out an accumulated
electrical charge representing the light on each portion of the image. The device detects light
by absorbing it in a photoconductive substrate, such as silicon. The charge carriers generated
by the light are accumulated in isolated wells on the surface of the silicon that are formed by
voltages applied to an array of electrodes on top of an oxide insulator formed on the surface of
the silicon. A practical CCD imager consists of a structure that forms several hundred thousand
individual wells or pixels, and transfers the charges accumulated in these pixel wells out to an
output amplifier in the proper sequence. See also Charge-coupled devices.

THE TELEVISION CAMERA

The television camera is the first tool used to produce a television program. Most cameras
have three basic elements: an optical system for capturing an image, a pickup device for
translating the image into electronic signals, and an encoder for encoding signals so they may
be transmitted.

OPTICAL SYSTEM

The optical system of a television camera includes a fixed lens that is used to focus the scene
onto the front of the pickup device. Color cameras also have a system of prisms and mirrors
that separate incoming light from a scene into the three primary colors: red, green, and blue.
Each beam of light is then directed to its own pickup device. Almost any color can be
reproduced by combining these colors in the appropriate proportions. Most inexpensive

71
consumer video cameras use a filter that breaks light from an image into the three primary
colors.

PICKUP DEVICE

The pickup device takes light from a scene and translates it into electronic signals. The first
pickup devices used in cameras were camera tubes. The first camera tube used in television
was the iconoscope. Invented in the 1920s, it needed a great deal of light to produce a signal,
so it was impractical to use in a low-light setting, such as an outdoor evening scene. The
image-orthicon tube and the vidicon tube were invented in the 1940s and were a vast
improvement on the iconoscope. They needed only about as much light to record a scene as
human eyes need to see. Instead of camera tubes, most modern cameras now use light-
sensitive integrated circuits (tiny, electronic devices) called charge-coupled devices (CCDs).

When recording television images, the pickup device replaces the function of film used in
making movies. In a camera tube pickup device, the front of the tube contains a layer of
photosensitive material called a target. In the image-orthicon tube, the target material is photo
emissive—that is, it emits electrons when it is struck by light. In the vidicon camera tube, the
target material is photoconductive—that is, it conducts electricity when it is struck by light. In
both cases, the lens of a camera focuses light from a scene onto the front of the camera tube,
and this light causes changes in the target material. The light image is transformed into an
electronic image, which can then be read from the back of the target by a beam of electrons
(tiny, negatively charged particles).

The beam of electrons is produced by an electron gun at the back of the camera tube. The
beam is controlled by a system of electromagnets that make the beam systematically scan the
target material. Whenever the electron beam hits the bright parts of the electronic image on the
target material, the tube emits a high voltage, and when the beam hits a dark part of the image,
the tube emits a low voltage. This varying voltage is the electronic television signal.

A charge-coupled device (CCD) can be much smaller than a camera tube and is much more
durable. As a result, cameras with CCDs are more compact and portable than those using a
camera tube. The image they create is less vulnerable to distortion and is therefore clearer. In a
CCD, the light from a scene strikes an array of photodiodes arranged on a silicon chip.
Photodiodes are devices that conduct electricity when they are struck by light; they send this
electricity to tiny capacitors. The capacitors store the electrical charge, with the amount of
charge stored depending on the strength of the light that struck the photodiode. The CCD
converts the incoming light from the scene into an electrical signal by releasing the charges
from the photodiodes in an order that follows the scanning pattern that the receiver will follow
in re-creating the image.

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ENCODER

In color television, the signals from the three camera tubes or charge-coupled devices are first
amplified, and then sent to the encoder before leaving the camera. The encoder combines the
three signals into a single electronic signal that contains the brightness information of the
colors (luminance). It then adds another signal that contains the code used to combine the
colors (color burst), and the synchronization information used to direct the television receiver
to follow the same scanning pattern as the camera. The color television receiver uses the color
burst part of the signal to separate the three colors again.

Charge-coupled device

A specially developed CCD used for ultraviolet imaging in a wire bonded package.
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A charge-coupled device (CCD) is an image sensor, consisting of an integrated circuit
containing an array of linked, or coupled, light-sensitive capacitors. This device is also known
as a Color-Capture Device.

The capacitor perspective is reflective of the history of the development of the CCD and also is
indicative of its general mode of operation, with respect to readout, but attempts aimed at
optimization of present CCD designs and structures tend towards consideration of the
photodiode as the fundamental collecting unit of the CCD. Under the control of an external
circuit, each capacitor can transfer its electric charge to one or other of its neighbours. CCDs
are used in digital photography and astronomy (particularly in photometry, sensors, medical
fluoroscopy, optical and UV spectroscopy and high speed techniques such as lucky imaging).

History

The CCD was invented in 1969 by Willard Boyle and George E. Smith at AT&T Bell Labs.
The lab was working on the picture phone and on the development of semiconductor bubble
memory. Merging these two initiatives, Boyle and Smith conceived of the design of what they
termed 'Charge "Bubble" Devices'. The essence of the design was the ability to transfer charge
along surface of a semiconductor. As the CCD started its life as a memory device, one could
only "inject" charge into the device at an input register. However, it was immediately clear that
the CCD could receive charge via the photoelectric effect and electronic images could be
created. By 1970 Bell researchers were able to capture images with simple linear devices; thus
the CCD was born. Several companies, including Fairchild Semiconductor, RCA and Texas
Instruments, picked up on the invention and began development programs. Fairchild was the
first with commercial devices and by 1974 had a linear 500 element device and a 2-D 100 x
100 pixel device. Under the leadership of Kazuo Iwama, Sony also started a big development
effort on CCDs involving a lot of money. Eventually, Sony managed to mass produce CCDs
for their camcorders. Before this happened, Iwama died in August 1982. Subsequently, a CCD
chip was placed on his tombstone to acknowledge his contribution]

In January 2006, Boyle and Smith received the Charles Stark Draper Prize which is presented
by the National Academy of Engineering for their work on the CCD.

Physics of operation

A CCD is an isolated cable made of a semiconductor surrounded by ring electrodes. The low
amount of free charge carriers and the finite polarization of the insulator and the
semiconductor only disturb the electric field generated by the electrodes weakly. Free carriers
in the semiconductor cannot pass the insulator, they are said to be confined transversally. The
ring shaped electrodes are used to produce a sine shaped potential along the cable. Electrons
drift to the potential hills and holes to the valleys, they are said to be confined longitudinally.
An alternating field on the electrodes makes the valleys and hills move along the cable
carrying the charge carriers with them.

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Real CCDs are no round cables due to production issues. There are connections where charge
carriers are injected. For readout the small field disturbance generated by the carried charge is
sensed (see MOSFET). At the end of the cable the carriers are dropped onto a metal electrode.

The photoactive region of the CCD is, generally, an epitaxial layer of silicon. It has a doping of
p+ (Boron) and is grown upon the substrate material, often p++. In buried channel devices, the
type of design utilized in most modern CCDs, certain areas of the surface of the silicon are ion
implanted with phosphorus, giving them an n-doped designation. This region defines the
channel in which the photogenerated charge packets will travel. The gate oxide, i.e. the
capacitor dielectric, is grown on top of the epitaxial layer and substrate. Later on in the process
polysilicon gates are deposited by chemical vapor deposition, patterned with photolithography,
and etched in such a way that the separately phased gates lie perpendicular to the channels.
The channels are further defined by utilization of the LOCOS process to produce the channel
stop region. Channel stops are thermally grown oxides that serve to isolate the charge packets
in one column from those in another. These channel stops are produced before the polysilicon
gates are, as the LOCOS process utilizes a high temperature step that would destroy the gate
material. The channels stops are parallel to, and exclusive of, the channel, or "charge carrying",
regions. Channel stops often have a p+ doped region underlying them, providing a further
barrier to the electrons in the charge packets (this discussion of the physics of CCD devices
assumes an electron transfer device, though hole transfer is possible).

One should note that the clocking of the gates, alternately high and low, will forward and
reverse bias the diode that is provided by the buried channel (n-doped) and the epitaxial layer
(p-doped). This will cause the CCD to deplete, near the p-n junction and will collect and move
the charge packets beneath the gates – and within the channels – of the device.

It should be noted that CCD manufacturing and operation can be optimized for different uses.
The above process describes a frame transfer CCD. While CCDs may be manufactured on a
heavily doped p++ wafer it is also possible to manufacture a device inside p-wells that have
been placed on an n-wafer. This second method, reportedly, reduces smear, dark current, and
infrared and red response. This method of manufacture is used in the construction of interline
transfer devices.

Architecture

The CCD image sensors can be implemented in several different architectures. The most
common are full-frame, frame-transfer and interline. The distinguishing characteristic of each
of these architectures is their approach to the problem of shuttering.

In a full-frame device, all of the image area is active and there is no electronic shutter. A
mechanical shutter must be added to this type of sensor or the image will smear as the device
is clocked or read out.

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With a frame transfer CCD, half of the silicon area is covered by an opaque mask (typically
aluminum). The image can be quickly transferred from the image area to the opaque area or
storage region with acceptable smear of a few percent. That image can then be read out slowly
from the storage region while a new image is integrating or exposing in the active area. Frame-
transfer devices typically do not require a mechanical shutter and were a common architecture
for early solid-state broadcast cameras. The downside to the frame-transfer architecture is that
it requires twice the silicon real estate of an equivalent full-frame device; hence, it costs
roughly twice as much.

The interline architecture extends this concept one step further and masks every other column
of the image sensor for storage. In this device, only one pixel shift has to occur to transfer from
image area to storage area; thus, shutter times can be less than a microsecond and smear is
essentially eliminated. The advantage is not free, however, as the imaging area is now covered
by opaque strips dropping the "fill factor" to approximately 50% and the effective quantum
efficiency by an equivalent amount. Modern designs have addressed this deleterious
characteristic by adding microlenses on the surface of the device to direct light away from the
opaque regions and on the active area. Microlenses can bring the fill factor back up to 90% or
more depending on pixel size and the overall system's optical design.

The choice of architecture comes down to one of utility. If the application cannot tolerate an
expensive, failure prone, power hungry mechanical shutter, then an interline device is the right
choice. Consumer snap-shot cameras have used interline devices. On the other hand, for those
applications that require the best possible light collection and issues of money, power and time
are less important, the full-frame device will be the right choice. Astronomers tend to prefer
full-frame devices. The frame-transfer falls in between and was a common choice before the
fill-factor issue of interline devices was addressed. Today, the choice of frame-transfer is
usually made when an interline architecture is not available, such as in a back-illuminated
device.

Applications

CCDs containing grids of pixels are used in digital cameras, optical scanners and video
cameras as light-sensing devices. They commonly respond to 70% of the incident light
(meaning a quantum efficiency of about 70%) making them more efficient than photographic
film, which captures only about 2% of the incident light. As a result CCDs were rapidly
adopted by astronomers.

"One-dimensional" CCD from a fax machine.

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An image is projected by a lens on the capacitor array, causing each capacitor to accumulate an
electric charge proportional to the light intensity at that location. A one-dimensional array, used
in line-scan cameras, captures a single slice of the image, while a two-dimensional array, used
in video and still cameras, captures the whole image or a rectangular portion of it. Once the
array has been exposed to the image, a control circuit causes each capacitor to transfer its
contents to its neighbour. The last capacitor in the array dumps its charge into an amplifier that
converts the charge into a voltage. By repeating this process, the control circuit converts the
entire contents of the array to a varying voltage, which it samples, digitizes and stores in
memory. Stored images can be transferred to a printer, storage device or video display. CCDs
are also widely used as sensors for astronomical telescopes, and night vision devices.

An interesting astronomical application, called "drift-scanning", is to use a CCD to make a

fixed telescope behave like a tracking telescope and follow the motion of the sky. The charges
in the CCD are transferred and read in a direction parallel to the motion of the sky, and at the
same speed. In this way, the telescope can image a larger region of the sky than its normal field
of view.

CCDs are typically sensitive to infrared light, which allows infrared photography, night-vision
devices, and zero lux (or near zero lux) video-recording/photography. Because of their
sensitivity to infrared, CCDs used in astronomy are usually cooled to liquid nitrogen
temperatures, because infrared black body radiation is emitted from room-temperature sources.
One other consequence of their sensitivity to infrared is that infrared from remote controls will
often appear on CCD-based digital cameras or camcorders if they don't have infrared blockers.
Cooling also reduces the array's dark current, improving the sensitivity of the CCD to low light
intensities, even for ultraviolet and visible wavelengths.

Thermal noise, dark current, and cosmic rays may alter the pixels in the CCD array. To counter
such effects, astronomers take an average of several exposures with the CCD shutter closed
and opened. The average of images taken with the shutter closed is necessary to lower the
random noise. Once developed, the “dark frame” average image is then subtracted from the
open-shutter image to remove the dark current and other systematic defects in the CCD (dead
pixels, hot pixels, etc.).

CCD cameras used in astrophotography often require very sturdy mounts to cope with
vibrations and breezes, along with the tremendous weight of most imaging platforms. To take
long exposures of galaxies and nebulae, many astronomers use a technique known as auto-
guiding. Most autoguiders use a second CCD chip to monitor deviations during imaging. This
chip can rapidly detect errors in tracking and command the mount's motors to correct for them.

Color cameras

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A Bayer filter on a CCD an RGBE filter on a CCD CCD-Color sensor

Digital color cameras generally use a Bayer mask over the CCD. Each square of four pixels
has one filtered red, one blue, and two green (the human eye is more sensitive to green than
either red or blue). The result of this is that luminance information is collected at every pixel,
but the color resolution is lower than the luminance resolution. Better color separation can be
reached by three-CCD devices (3CCD) and a dichroic beam splitter prism, that splits the image
into red, green and blue components. Each of the three CCDs is arranged to respond to a
particular color. Some semi-professional digital video camcorders (and most professionals) use
this technique. Another advantage of 3CCD over a Bayer mask device is higher quantum
efficiency (and therefore higher light sensitivity for a given aperture size). This is because in a
3CCD device most of the light entering the aperture is captured by a sensor, while a Bayer
mask absorbs a high proportion (about 2/3) of the light falling on each CCD pixel. Since a
very-high-resolution CCD chip is very expensive as of 2005, a 3CCD high-resolution still
camera would be beyond the price range even of many professional photographers. There are
some high-end still cameras that use a rotating color filter to achieve both color-fidelity and
high-resolution. These multi-shot cameras are rare and can only photograph objects that are not
moving.

Two Amazing Things about the Brain

Let's start at the beginning with a quick note about your brain. There are two amazing
things about your brain that make television possible. By understanding these two
facts, you gain a good bit of insight into why televisions are designed the way they
are.
The first principle is this: If you divide a still image into a collection of small
colored dots, your brain will reassemble the dots into a meaningful image. This
is no small feat, as any researcher who has tried to program a computer to
understand images will tell you. The only way we can see that this is actually
happening is to blow the dots up so big that our brains can no longer assemble them,
like this:
Most people, sitting right up close to their computer screens, cannot tell what this is a
picture of -- the dots are too big for your brain to handle. If you stand 10 to 15 feet
away from your monitor, however, your brain will be able to assemble the dots
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In the image and you will clearly see that it is the baby's face. By standing at a
distance, the dots become small enough for your brain to integrate them into a
recognizable image. Televisions and computer screens (as well as newspaper and
magazine photos) rely on this fusion-of-small-colored-dots capability in the human
brain to chop pictures up into thousands of individual elements.
On a TV or computer screen, the dots are called pixels. The resolution of your
computer's screen might be 800x600 pixels, or maybe 1024x768 pixels.
The human brain's second amazing feature relating to television is this: If you divide
a moving scene into a sequence of still pictures and show the still images in
rapid succession, the brain will reassemble the still images into a single
Moving scene. Take, for example, these four frames from the example video:
You will see that it is rising in these four frames. The toy also moves forward very
slightly. By putting together 15 or more
Subtly different frames per second, the brain integrates them into a moving scene.
Fifteen per second is about the minimum possible -- any fewer than that and it looks
jerky. When you download and watch the MPEG file offered at the beginning of this
section, you see both of these processes at work simultaneously. Your brain is fusing
the dots of each image together to form still images and then fusing the separate
Still images together into a moving scene. Without these two capabilities, TV as we
know it would not be possible.

Infrared Remote Controls: Inside

The dominant remote-control technology in home-theater applications is infrared (IR).
Infrared light is also known as plain-old "heat." The basic premise at work in an IR
remote control is the use of light to carry signals between a remote control and the
device it's directing. Infrared light is in the invisible portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum.

79
An IR remote control (the transmitter) sends out pulses of infrared light that represent
specific binary codes. These binary codes correspond to commands, such as Power
On/Off and Volume Up. The IR receiver in the TV, stereo or other device decodes the
pulses of light into the binary data (ones and zeroes) that the device's microprocessor
can understand. The microprocessor then carries out the corresponding command.
To get a better idea of how the process works, let's take a look inside a typical remote
control -- the universal remote that came with the author's digital cable box. The basic
parts involved in sending an IR signal include:
• Buttons
• Integrated circuit
• Button contacts
• Light-emitting diode (LED)

To find out more about the parts on a remote-control circuit board, check out Inside a
TV Remote Control.
On the component side, the infrared receiver sits on the front of the device where it
can easily see the signal coming from the remote control.
You've probably noticed that some remotes only work when you're pointing them
directly at the receiver on the controlled device, while others work when you're

80
pointing them in the general vicinity of the receiver. This has to do with the strength of
the transmitting LED. A remote with more than one LED and/or a particularly powerful
LED produces a stronger, broader signal.
Now let's find out how these parts work together to allow pulses of light to change the
channel on a cable box.

7.

Infrared Remote Controls: The Process

Pushing a button on a remote control sets in motion a series of events that causes the
controlled device to carry out a command. The process works something like this:
• You push the "volume up" button on your remote control, causing it to
touch the contact beneath it and complete the "volume up" circuit on the
circuit board. The integrated circuit detects this.
• The integrated circuit sends the binary "volume up" command to the LED
at the front of the remote.
• The LED sends out a series of light pulses that corresponds to the binary
"volume up" command.
One example of remote-control codes is the Sony Control-S protocol, which is used
for Sony TVs and includes the following 7-bit binary commands:
Button Code
1 000 0000
2 000 0001
3 000 0010
4 000 0011
Channel up 001 0000
Channel down 001 0001
Power on 001 0101
Power off 010 1111
Volume up 001 0010
Volume down 001 0011
Source: ARRLWeb

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The remote signal includes more than the command for "volume up," though. It carries
several chunks of information to the receiving device, including:
• a "start" command
• the command code for "volume up"
• the device address (so the TV knows the data is intended for it)
• a "stop" command (triggered when you release the "volume up" button)
So when you press the "volume up" button on a Sony TV remote, it sends out a series
of pulses that looks something like this:

Sony TV remotes use a space-coding method in which the

length of the spaces between pulses of light represent a one or
a zero.

When the infrared receiver on the TV picks up the signal from the remote and verifies
from the address code that it's supposed to carry out this command, it converts the
light pulses back into the electrical signal for 001 0010. It then passes this signal to
the microprocessor, which goes about increasing the volume. The "stop" command
tells the microprocessor it can stop increasing the volume.
Infrared remote controls work well enough to have stuck around for 25 years, but they
do have some limitations related to the nature of infrared light. First, infrared remotes
have a range of only about 30 feet (10 meters), and they require line-of-sight. This
means the infrared signal won't transmit through walls or around corners -- you need a
straight line to the device you're trying to control. Also, infrared light is so ubiquitous
that interference can be a problem with IR remotes. Just a few everyday infrared-light
sources include sunlight, fluorescent bulbs and the human body. To avoid interference
caused by other sources of infrared light, the infrared receiver on a TV only responds
to a particular wavelength of infrared light, usually 980 nanometers. There are filters
on the receiver that block out light at other wavelengths. Still, sunlight can confuse the
receiver because it contains infrared light at the 980-nm wavelength. To address this
issue, the light from an IR remote control is typically modulated to a frequency not
present in sunlight, and the receiver only responds to 980-nm light modulated to that

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frequency. The system doesn't work perfectly, but it does cut down a great deal on
interference.
While infrared remotes are the dominant technology in home-theater applications,
there are other niche-specific remotes that work on radio waves instead of light
waves. If you have a garage-door opener, for instance, you have an RF remote.

The remote control's job is to wait for you to press a key, and then to translate that
key-press into infrared (pronounced "infra-red") light signals that are received by the
TV. When you take off the back cover of the control you can see that there is really
just 1 part visible: a printed circuit board that contains the electronics and the
battery contacts.

The components that you see here are typical for most remotes. You can see an
integrated circuit (also known as a chip) labeled "TA11835". The chip is packaged in
what is known as an 18 pin Dual Inline Package, or a DIP. To the right of the chip
you can see a diode, a transistor (black, with three leads), a resonator (yellow), two
resistors (green) and a capacitor (dark blue). Next to the battery contacts there is a
resistor (green) and a capacitor (tan disk). In this circuit, the chip can detect when a
key is pressed. It then translates the key into a sequence something like morse code,
with a different sequence for each different key. The chip sends that signal out to the
transistor to amplify the signal and make it stronger.

83
The Circuit Board
When you unscrew the circuit board and take it out, you can see that the circuit board
is a thin piece of fiber glass that has thin copper "wires" etched onto its surface.
Electronic parts are assembled on printed circuit boards because they are easy to
mass produce and assemble. In the same way that it is relatively inexpensive to print
ink onto a sheet of paper, it is inexpensive to "print" copper wires onto a sheet of fiber
glass. It is also easy to have a machine drop the parts (the chips, transistors, etc.)
onto the sheet of fiberglass and then solder them on to connect them to the copper
wires.

When you look at the board, you can see a set of contact points for the buttons. The
buttons themselves are made of a thin rubbery sheet. For each button there is a black
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conductive disk. When the disk touches the contacts on the printed circuit board, it
connects them and the chip can sense that connection.

At the end of the circuit board there is an infrared LED, or Light Emitting Diode. You
can think of an LED as a small light bulb. Many LEDs produce visible light, but a
remote's LED produces infrared light that is invisible to the human eye. It is not
invisible to all eyes, however. For example, if you have a camcorder it can see the
infrared light. Point your remote at the camera and push a button. You will be able to
see the infrared light flashing in the viewfinder. The receptor in the TV is able to see
infrared light as well.
So the basic operation of the remote goes like this: You press a button. When you do
that you complete a specific connection. The chip senses that connection and knows
what button you pressed. It produces a morse-code-line signal specific to that button.
The transistors amplify the signal and send them to the LED, which translates the
signal into infrared light. The sensor in the TV can see the infrared light and "seeing"
the signal reacts appropriately.
7.

85
COLOR SIGNAL PRODUCTION AND ULTIMATE COLOR VIDEO BASE BAND

• WE HAVE SEEN HOW THE Y, R-Y, B-Y SIGNALS ARE PRODUCED AND WHY
G-Y IS NOT TRANSMITTED.
• TO REMEMBER AGAIN Y= 0.3R+0.59G+0.11B.
• R-Y = 0.7R-0.59G-0.11B,
• B-Y= -0.3R-0.59G+0.89B
• G-Y= -0.3R+0.41G-0.11B
• FROM ABOVE WE OBTAIN R =0.7(R-Y)-0.3(G-Y)-0.3(B-Y)
• G =-0.59(R-Y)+0.41(G-Y)-0.59(B-Y)
• B =-0.11(R-Y)-0.11(G-Y)+0.89(B-Y) WHEN R-Y,G-Y,B-Y ≠ 0
• FOR A PICTURE WITH NO COLOR R=G=B=Y AND R-Y=G-Y=B-Y=0
• THEREFORE THE COLOR DIFFERENCE SIGNAL WILL BE ZERO FOR A
MONOCHROME TV

PRODUCTION OF Y AND COLOR DIFFERENCE SIGNALS

• SEE FIG 1 .THE MATRIX OF R1,R2,R3 WILL BE SUCH THAT THE RESISTORS GIVE THE
FACTORS OF VOLTAGES VR,VG,VB AS R1 YIELD 0.3.R2 YIELD 0.59 AND R3 YIELD O.11

DESATURATION OF COLORS

• CONSIDER A COLOR MAGENTA(PURPLE) WHICH IS DESATURATED

• THIS MEANS THAT THE ORIGINAL COLOR PURPLE IS AN ADDITION OF RED AND
BLUE.DE SATURATION MEAN ADDITION OF WHITE COLOR.EVEN IF GREEN IS
ADDED IT MEAN DILUTION AS BECAUSE THE R,B ALREADY AVAILABLE WILL NOW
MIX WITH G AND THE PROPORTION R,G,B WHICH IS WHITE WILL DILUTE THE
PURPLE COLOR.THE REMAINING RED AND BLUE ARE TRUE HUE FOR PURPLE.
• IF R=0.7 G=0.2 B=0.6 THEN WHITE LIGHT MIXTURE WILL BE G+B+R=0.2G+0.2R+0.2B
REMAINING 0.5R AND 0.6 B REPRESENT MAGENTA HUE.
• THE VALUE OF Y=0.3R+0.59G+0.11B=0.3(0.7)+0.59(0.2)+0.11(0.6)=0.394VOLTS
• R-Y =0.7-0.394=0.306V,B-Y=0.6-0.394=0.206V,G-Y=-0.51(R-Y)-0.186(B-Y)=-0.194V
• POLARITY OF A COLOR DIFFERENCE SIGNAL CAN BE + OR –VE DEPENDING ON THE
HUE THEY REPRESENT.AS A RULE FOR A PRIMARY ITS COMPLIMENTARY CONTAIN
TWO OTHE PRIMARIES.
• R-Y REPRESENT PURPLISH RED HUE WHEREAS –(R-Y) REPRESENT BLUISH GREEN
HUE.FIG 2

CHROMINANCE SIGNAL GENERATION AND PROCESSING

• COLOR SIGNAL SHOULD BE ACCOMODATED WITHIN THE 5 MHz BAND FOR

MONOCHROME COMPATABILITY

86
 • THE Y SIGNAL EXTENDS PTO 4 MHz WITH GOOD ENERGY CONTENT.THEREFORE
THE COLOR CARRIER SHOULD BE AROUND 4 MHz AND COLOR CARRIER IS
CHOSEN AS 4.433.MHz
• THE COLOR BW IS LIMITED TO 1.5 MHz SINCE THE HUMAN EYE IS NOT
SENSITIVE TO FINE DETAILS OF COLOR WHEN THE PICTURE ELEMENT IS VERY
SMALL IN SIZE(0.2mm)
• WE CAN SEE THAT UNLIKE AUDIO AND VIDEO Y SIGNAL WHICH ARE ONLY ONE
,THE COLOR SIGNALS ARE TWO AND IT IS NOT POSSIBLE TO MODULATE 2
SIGNALS ON ONE CARRIER RIGHT AWAY.
• THIS PROBLEM IS SOLVE BY KEEPING ONE CARRIER AS PHASE ZERO(COS WT)
AND THE OTHER PHASE SHIFTED TO 90 DEGREES.(SINWT)
• THE CARRIER IS AMPLITUDE MODULATED (QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE
MODULATION),CARRIER SUPRESSED(AS IT DOES NOT CARRY A INFORMATION
AND SHOULD NOT BE IN THE BASE BAND WGHICH ONLY CONTAIN THE VIDEO
INFORMATION)
• THE CHROMA SIGNAL( VECTOR PRODUCT OF U AND V SIGNAL) ARE ADDED TO
THE Y SIGNAL ALONG WITH THE H AND V SYNC PULSES AND THE COLOR BURST
TO FORM THE COMPOSITE COLOR VIDEO SIGNAL(CCVS)
• TYPICAL MODULATION CIRCUIT IS SHOWN IN FIG 3
• THE MODULATION PRODUCTS OF U AND V ARE AT 90 DEG AND REVOLVE IN
OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS WRT SUB CARRIER.
2
• THE VECTOR C= ( B −Y ) + ( R −Y ) 2 , α= tan-1(R-Y/B-Y)

• THE AMPLITUDE OF C DETERMINES THE SATURATION OF COLOR AND THE

PHASE THE HUE.MAX AMP MEAN PURITY OF COLORS NO AMPLITUDE MEAN NO
COLOR BUT GREY VALUES.
• SINCE PHASE IS AN IMPORTANT FACTOR IN DETERMINING THE COLOR IT IS
IMPORTANT TO MAINTAIN THE COLOR CARRIER PHASE WITHIN TOLERENCE
LIMITS.ANY DEVIATION WILL LEAD TO DEVIATION IN COLOR

CHOMINANCE SIGNAL .PHASOR LOCATION OF DIFFERENT COLORS

• ASSUMING R=G=B=1V (100% AMPLITUDE FOR PURE COLORS THEN B-Y= -0.3 AND R-
2
Y=0.7.THEN FOR R C= ( −0.3) + (0.7) 2 , =±0.76 V i.e. 76%
2 2
• SIMILARLY FOR GREEN C= (−0.59) + (−0.59) =±0.83 V 83%

2 2
• FOR BLUE C= (−0.89) + (−0.11) ==±0.89V 89%

• THIS MEAN THAT R VARY ON 0.3V LUMINOUS SIGNAL AT =±0.76 V i.e. 76% AND BLUE
VARY AT 0.11.OF LUMINOUS SIGNAL AT ==±0.89 89%
• AND GREEN VARY OVER 0.59 OF LUMINOUS SIGNAL AT =±0.83 V 83%
• SEE FIG 4 FOR DETAILS .THE FIG SHOWN IS FOR RF MODULATION. THIS WILL GET
REVERSED FOR A VIDEO WAVE FORM

87
PAL CODER
• CODER MEAN TRANSLATE OR PREPARE A PROGRAMME .IN TV IT MEAN
GENERATION OF THE COLOR COMPOSITE VIDEO SIGNAL FROM 3 OUTPUTS OF A
CAMERA.THIS INCLUDE GAMMA CORRECTION,
MATRIXING(ADDITION),WEIGHTING,,QUADRATURE MODULATION, COMBINING
AND INTERLEAVING WITH Y SIGNAL ALONG WITH H AND V SYNC AND COLOR
BURST.
• IN PAL CODER THERE IS AN ADDITIONAL FUNCTION TO CHANGE THE PHASE OF
ONE OF THE MODULATOR (V) TO +90 AND -90(PHASE ALTERNATION ON EVERY
HORIZONTAL LINE.
• THIS IS DONE TO CANCEL ANY PHASE ERRORS THAT MAY OCCUR DURING
TRANSMISSION AND CORRECT THE HUE ERRORS. FIG 7
• THE U SIGNAL (B-Y) IS WEIGHTED AS 0.493 (B-Y) AND V SIGNAL AS 0.877(R-Y).
• THE MATRIX NETWORK WHOSE INPUT IS R, G, B PRODUCES WEIGHTED U AND V
SIGNALS, THE Y SIGNALAND THE H AND VPULSES WITH THE COLOR BURST ADDED.
• THE U SIGNAL AFTER FILTERING (UPTO 1.5 MHz) IS FED TO A BALANCED
MODULATOR WITH SUB CARRIER FREQ∟0.THE OUTPUT IS A SUPRESSED CARRIER
MODULATED PRODUCT OF DSB(VSB IN PAL B AND DSB IN PAL I)OF ±1.5MHz BW AT 0
DEG CARRIER PHASE.
• THE V SIGNAL IS FED TO ANOTHER MODULATOR WHERE THE CARRIER IS PHASE
SHIFTED AT +90 ON ONE LINE AND PHASE SHIFTED AT -90 ON THE NEXT LINE
THROUGH A SWITCH WHICH FREQUENCY OF SWITCHING IS 15/2=7.8 KHz.(2 H LINE
SWITCHING) ½ LINE FREQUENCY.
• THE OUTPUT IS A MODULATION PRODUCT OF (VSB IN PAL B AND DSB IN PAL I) OF
±1.5MHz BW WITH PHASE ALTERNATING FROM +90 TO -90 DEG CARRIER PHASE.
• THE OUTPUTS ARE ADDED BY AN ADDER AND SENT TO A HARMONIC FILTER TO
FILTER UNWANTED FREQUENCIES OUTSIDE 5 MHz BW AND INTERLEAVED WITH
THE Y SIGNAL WHICH HAS THE COMPOSITE WAVE FORM CONTAING THE H AND V
BLANKING PULSES.
• THE Y SIGNAL IS DELAYED BY A DELAY LINE (A DELAY OF ONE H LINE TO TAKE
CARE OF THE PROCESSING DELAY OF THE COLOR PROCESSED SIGNAL) BEFORE
MIXING WITH THE MODULATED COLOR DIFFERENCE SIGNALS AND FINALLY
AMPLIFIED BY A VIDEO AMPLIFIER.
• FIG 8 AND 9 SHOW THE DIFFERENT MODULATION PRODUCTS AND THE VALUES OF
AMP AND PHASE OF DIFFERENT COLORS.

BANDWIDTH OF COLOR DIFFERENCE SIGNALS

• IT IS KNOWN THAT THE EYE’S PERCEPTION TO COLORS IS LIMITED TO AREAS

OF 0.2CM WIDE OR MORE ONA 50 CM SCREEN.
• ON SCANNING SUCH A DIMENTION OF 0.2CM THE FREQUENCY GENERATED DO
NOT EXCEED 0.5 MHz.
• THE EYE ALSO FAILS TO PERCEIVE MAGENTA(PURPLE) AND GREEN-YELLOW
HUES FROM GREYS.EVEN RED AND CYAN ALSO DO NOT APPEAR AS COLORS
AND APPEAR AS GREY AT MORE FINER DETAILS OF PICTURE CELLS (0.2cm)

88
 • THUS FOR VERY FINE DETAILS PRODUCED BY FREQUENCIES FROM 1.5 TO 0.5
MHz ALL PERSONS OF NORMAL VISION ARE COLOR BLIND AND SEE ONLY
CHANGES IN BRIGHTNESS OF THE COLOR AREAS.
• THUS A TOTAL BW OF 2 MHz IS ALLOWED FOR COLOR DIFFERENCE SIGNALS.
• IN PAL B SYSTEM COLOR SUB CARRIER IS 4.43MHz.THE CHROMINANCE SIGNAL
IS VSB WITH LSB AT 1 MHz AND USB AT 0.57 MHz. PAL I USES ±1.07 MHz (5.5-4.43)
FIG 11
• FIG 12 SHOW COMPLTE COLOR SIGNAL FROM CAMERA TO TRANSMITTE RF
COLOR MODULATED.
• FIG 10 SHOWS THE SIMPLE COLOR TRANSMITTER.

COLOR TV SYSTEMS
• NTSC(NATIONAL SYSTEM TELEVISION COMMITTEE)
• PAL(PHASE ALTERATION LINE BY LINE) SYSTEM
• SECAM(SEQUENTIAL COLOR A MEMOIRE) SYSTEM
• IN THIS SYSTEM THER PHASE ANGLES ARE MEASURED RELATIVE TO –(B-Y)
SIGNAL OR –B-Y) TO B-Y AXIS
• THE U SIGNALIS ON B-Y AXIS AND THE R-Y SIGNAL AT 90 DEG TO B-Y AXIS IN PAL
SYSTEM.
• THE SIGNALS IN NTSC SYSTEM ARE KNOWN AS I AND Q SIGNALS FIG 13 THE Q
SIGNAL IS AT 33 DEG WRT U SIGNAL AND I SIGNAL IS AT 33 DEG AWAY FROM V (R-Y)
SIGNAL
• I=V COS 33-V SIN33=0.6R-0.28G-0.32B
• Q=-V COS 33+VSIN 33
• Q=0.21R-0.52G+0.31G
•
• Q SIGNALS COVERS REGIONS AROUND MAGENTA (REDDISH BLUE) AND YELLOW
GREEN SHADES.
• I SIGNAL COVERS ORANGE SIGNALS AND COMPLIMENTARY BLUE GREEN (CYAN)
HUES LOCATED AT –I SIGNAL.
• SINCE EYE IS CAPABLE TO RESOLVE DETAILS IN THIS REGION IT IS ALLOWED A
BAND WIDTH OF 1.5MHz
• EYE IS LESS SENSITIVE TO COLOR S AT AROUND ±Q SIGNAL AXIS AND THEREFORE
Q IS ALLOWED A BAND WIDTH OF ±0.5 MHz AROUND SUB CARRIER.BOTHY I AND Q
ARE ACTIVE UPTO ±0.5 MHz AND THEY COMBINE TO PRODUCE ALL COMBINATION
OF COLORS.
• THE FACT IS ONLY ONE COLOR DIFFERENCE SIGNAL IS NEEDED WHEN THE
COLOR IS AMIXTURE OF ONLY TWO COLORS.
• Q SIGNAL HAS ABW IN DSB OF ±0.5 MHz AND I SIGNAL HAS A USB +0.5 MHz AND A
LSB AT 1.5 MHz AROUND SUB CARRIER FREQUENCY
• I SIGNAL IS A FORM OF VESTIGAL SIDE BAND. ABAND WIDTH OF 2 MHz IS ENOUGH
WITH A SAVING OF 1 MHz(A BW OF 3 MHz IS REQUIRED IF R-Y AND B-Y ARE
TRANSMITTED DIRECTLY

89
FREQUENCY OF COLOR CARRIER OF NTSC SYSTEM
• THE FREQUENCY IS WORKED OUT AS PER EQUATION
(2n+1)fh/2={(2X227)+1}X15750/2=3.583125 MHz
• THE NTSC LINE FREQUENCY IS 525X60/2=15750 Hz
• TO AVOID INTERCARRIER BEATBETWEEN SOUND CARRIER AND COLOR CARRIER
I.E.,4.5-3.58=0.92 MHz THE fh IS CHANGED TO 286TH HARMONIC OF 4.5
MHz=4.5/286=15734.26HZ.THIS IS CLOSE TO 15750 Hz
• THE NEW fh REQUIRE CHANGE IN VERTICAL (FIELD) FREQUENCY WHICH IS
15734.26/262.5=59.94 HZ .THE CHANGE OF 0.06HZ HAS NO EFFECT ON THE SYSTEM.
• THE NEW COLOR FREQUENCY WITH 15734.26Hz IS
(2n+1)fh/2={(2X227)+1}Xfh/2=455X15734.26/2=3.579545MHz(4.5MHz/15750)
NTSC CODER
• FIG 14 SHOW THE ENCODING PROCESS IN NTSC SYSTEM
• A SUITABLE MATRIX IS USED TO GET I AND Q SIGNALS DIRECTLY FROM
CAMERA OUTPUT.
• I= 0.6R-0.28G-0.32B
• Q=0.21R-0.52G+0.31G
• THE CAMERA OUTPUTS R, G, B ARE INVERTED WHEREEVER REQUIRED TO
OBTAIN I AND Q SIGNALS OUT OF MATRIX.
• THE SUBCARRIER TO I MODULATOR IS PHASE SHIFTED TO 57DEG FROM COLOR
BURST
• FOR Q MODULATORS THE SUB CARRIER IS FURTHUR SHIFTED BY 90 DEG OF I
MODULATION CARRIER.
NTSC COLORE RECEIVER

• FIG 15 SHOWS THE NTSC COLOR RECEIVER.

DECODING OF CHROMA SIGNAL.
• THE CHROMA SIGNAL HAS COLOR INFORMATION IN ACTIVE PORTION OF LINE
ALONG WITH Y SIGNAL
• THE COLOR BURST IS AVILABLE AT THE BLANKING PORTION OF
LINE.THEREFORE THE COLOR MODULATION AND BURST ARE NOT PRESENT AT
THE SAME TIME.
CHROMINANCE BAND PASS AMPLIFIER

• THIS IS A BP AMPLIFIER WITH 2 MHz BW.THE COLOR BURST IS PREVENTED

FROM APPEARING AT THE OUT PUT BY H PULSES WHICH DISABLE THE
AMPLIFIER DURING BLANKING PERIOD.
• THE BLANKING PULSES ARE APPLIED TO COLOR KILLER CIRCUITS WHICH
IN TURN BIAS THE CROMINANCE AMPLIFIER DURING THESE PERIODS.

COLOR DEMODULATORS.

• SYNCHRONOUS DEMODULATORS ARE USED TO DETECT THE COLOR

SIGNALS.CARRIER IS REINSERTED IN THE DEMODULATOR CIRCUIT FOR

90
 DETECTING THE R-Y AND B-Y COLOR DIFFERENCE SIGNALS. FIG 15 SHOWS
THE DETAILS.
• SYNCHRONOUS DEMODULATOR MEANS THAT BOTH PHASE AND AMPLITUDE
ARE DETECTED IN SYNCHRONISM.
• THE I DEMODULATOR HAS APHASE SHIFT OF 57 DEG fsc=0
• Q DEMODULATOR IS DELAYED BY 90+57=147 DEG FOR DETECTING THE Q
COLOR SIGNALS.
• THE I AND Q DEMODULATORS CONVERT THE CHROMA SIGNALS IN TO
RIGHT ANGLE COMPONENTS.
COLOR MATRIX

• THE MATRIX IS DESIGNED TO PRODUCE R-Y, B-Y, G-Y SIGNALS FROM I

AND Q SIGNALS.
• WHILE AMPLIFYING THE R-Y SIGNAL IS BOOSTED TO 1/0.877=1.14
WEIGHTING FACTOR RESTORATION WHILE B-Y SIGNAL A FACTOR OF
2.03(1/0.493) AND G-Y IS REDUCED BY ITS OUTPUT BY 0.7(70%) IN RELATION
TO R-Y AND B-Y SIGNALS
• THE GRIDS AND CATHODES FORM ANOTHER MATRIX.
• CATHODE IS FED WITH –Y SIGNAL AND THE GRIDS POSITIVE COLOR
DIFFERENCE SIGNALS R-Y,B-Y,G-Y SOTHAT THE COMBINATION OF GRID
CATHODES PRODUCE R,B,G SIGNALS.{(R-Y)-(-Y)}=R ETC., ARE THE TRUE
VALUE OF HUE OF R,B,G WHICH MAKE UP[ MTHE CURRENT OF
ELECTRON BEAMS TO STIKE THE RESPECTIVE PIGMENTS R,G,B
PHOSPERS.

COLOR CONTROLS

• CONTROLS ARE PROVIDEDIN FRONT OF THE RECEIVER WHICH CONTROL THE

GAIN OF THE CHROMINANCE BP AMPLIFIER.THE AMPLITUDE CONTROL
CONTROLS SATURATION AND THE PHASE CONTROL THE HUE OR TINT OF THE
COLOR.
• THE TINT CONTROL VARIES THE 3.58 MHz OSCILLATOR PHASE WRT COLOR BURST.
LIMITAION OF NTSC SYSTEM

• SENSITIVE TO TRANSMISSIONPATH DIFFERENCES WHICH INTRODUCE PHASE

ERRORS.
• AT TRANSMITTER WHEN CHANGES TAKE PLACE BETWEEN PROGRAMMES JERKS
ARE NOTICED.

PAL COLOR SYSTEM

• THE COLOR SIGNALS U AND V ARE WEIGHTED.

• THEREIS NO PHASE SHIFT OF 33 DEG IN PAL AS IN NTSC
• ON MODULATION THE U AND V SIGNALS HAVE A BW OF 1.3 MHz
• THE LSB IS 1.3 MHz FOR BOTH U AND V SIGNALS WHEN ATTENUATION STARTS.
• THE USB IS 0.57 MHz (5-0.43) WHEN ATTENUATION STARTS.

91
 • COLOR CARRIER FREQUENCY IS 4.43361875MHz
• IT IS AN 1/4TH LINE FREQUENCY INSTEAD OF ½ LINE OFFSET OF NTSC SYSTEM
• THE WEIGHTED B-Y AND R-Y SIGNALS ARE MODULATED IN SAME WAY AS NTSC
SYSTEM(Q A M) BUT WITH A DIFFRENCE THAT THE PHASE OF THE V MODULATOR
IS REVERSED FROM +90 TO -90 AT LINE FREQUENCY RATE CALLED PHASE
ALTERATION LINE BY LINE.
• THIS TECHNIQUE OF MODULATION CANCELS THE PHASE ERRORS IN
TRANSMISSION SYSTEM.
• THE SWITCHING ACTION OCCURS AT BLANKING INTERVAL TO AVOID ANY VISIBLE
DIFFERENCE.
• CPAL=USINWscT ± V COS WscT = (U2+V2)1/2 SIN ( Wsc ±θ) WHERE θ =TAN-1 (V/U)
PAL BURST

• IF PAL SIGNAL IS APPLIED TO A NTSC DEMODULATOR THE U(B-Y) SIGNAL WILL BE

U BUT THE V OUTPUT(R-Y) WILL BE ALTERNATING AS +V AND _V FROM LINE TO
LINE
• THEREFORE THE PAL V DEMODULATOR SHOULD BE SWITCHED AT ½ HORIZONTAL
LINE FREQUENCYI.E AT 15.625/2=7.8 KHz TO GIVE ALWAYS +VE OUTPUT OF V ON ALL
SCANNING LINES.
• A COLOR BURST OF 10 CYCLES OF 4.33 MHz IN THE BACK PORCH OF THE
BLANKING PULSE IS SENT AT START OF EACH LINE.TO SYNCHRONISE THE COLOR
CARRIER DETECTION AT THE RECEIVER.
• FIG 16 AND 17 GIVES THE DETAILS.
• CANCELLATION OF BURST PHASES
• THE CHROMA SIGNAL DURING TRANSMISSION IS SUSCEPTIBLE TO PHASE ERRORS.
• IN PAL SYSTEM THIS IS PROTECTED. SEE FIG 18.THIS SHOW THE PHASES OF U AND
V AMPLITUDES ON TWO LINES.OF A FIELD.SINCE NO ERRORS THE SYNC
DETECTION YIELD TRUE HUE COLOR SIGNALS U AND V
• NOW SUPPOSE PHASE ERROR HAS OCCURRED AS SHOWN IN FIG 19 THEN THE U
AND V SIGNAL HAVE AMPLITUDE AND PHASE CHANGES .IN NTSC THERE IS NO
MECHANISM TO CORRECT THE ERRORS SO THE COLOR SUFFERS THE HUE.
• IN PAL THE NET RESULTANT VALUES AFTER PHASE ERROERS WILL BE AT R1 AND
R2 FIG 19 AND WE CAN SEE THAT THEY ARE CLOSE ENOUGH.
• THE EYE WILL NOW PERCEIVE THE COLOR THAT IS BETWEEN R1 AND R2 .SINCE
THE LINES ARE SCANNED VERY FAST THE EYE WILL PERCEIVE THE COLOR
BETWEEN R1 QND R2 WITHOUT MUCH DIFFRENCE IN HUE.
• IN PAL THE DIFFERENCE IS MINIMUM BECAUSE OF PHASE ALTERNATION
WHEREAS IN NTSC IT IS MAXIMUM
PAL D COLOR SYSTEM

• IN SIMPLE PAL SYSTEM THE EYE IS GIVEN THE JOB OF AVERAGING THE
COLORS FOR CORRECT HUE.
• HOWEVER OVER CERTAIN LIMITS THE EYE SEES EFFECTS OF COLOR CHANGES
ON ALTERNATE LINES.
• IF THE AVERAGING IS DONE BEFORE AND SENT FOR DISPLAY THE COLORS
REPRODUCTION IS FOUND TO E BETTER IN HUE.

92
 • SO THE SYSTEM HAS BEEN MODIFIED BY DELAYING THE SIGNALBY A DELAY
LINE AND DOING AVERAGING FIRST AND THEN PRESENTS IT TO THE COLOR
DISPLAY DEVICE WHICH PRESENTS IT TO THE EYE.
• FIG 20 GIVES THE CIRCUIT THAT DOES THE JOB.
• FOR CONVENEINCE THE U AND V SIGNALS ARE ASUMED +VE AND CORRESPOND
TO SOME SHADE OF MAGENTA(PURPLE).FOR FIRST LINE U AND V ARE AT +90
DEG AND THE RESULTANT VECTOR IS U+jV.THIS IS CALLED NTSC LINE .
• BUT ON NEXT LINE IT IS U-j V AND THIS IS CALLED THE PAL LINE. FIG 20 SHOW
HOW THE U+jV and U-j V ARE SENT DIRECT AND BY A DELAY LINE AND THEN
ADDED TO GET U SIGNAL AND SUBTRACTED TO GET V SIGNAL FINALLY THEY
ARE AMPLIFIED TO GIVE THE U AND V OUTPUTS.
• TO PERMIT PRECISE ADDITION AND SUBTRACTIONTHE DELAY INTRODUCED
SHOULD BE TO EXACT NUMBER OF HALF CYCLES OF CHROMINANCE SIGNALS
• THE EXACT VALUE FOR A 4.43361875 MHz WAVE WILL BE: THE EXACT NUMBER
OF CYCLES IN 64μs WILL BE 4.43361875x106X64 X10-6=283.7485498Hz.THE DELAY
WILL BE 283.75/fsC=(283.75/4.43361875) =63.943 μs

EFFECT OF AVERAGE MDULTION

• AS AN EXAMPLE FOR A HUE MAGENTA B-Y=R-Y=0.59.∴ U+Jv=0.59+j0.59. c=

2 2
=0.83∟45 WRT B-Y AXIS
0.59 +0.59
• THE PAL LINE WILL BE U-Jv AND C WILL BE -45DEG WRT B-Y AXIS IF THERE IS NO
PHASE SHIFT DUE TO TX PATH.
• IF A PHASE ERROR δ=+15DEG OCCUR THEN THE NTSC LINE WILL BE
AT60DEG(45+15) AND PAL LINE WILL BE AT -30DEG(-45+15).
• THE NEW VALUES OF C ON NTSC LINE WILL BE UA=C COS 60=0.83X0.5=0.415 AND
VA=C SIN 60=0.83X0.866=0.718
• ON PAL LINE UB=CCOS (-30)=0.718,VB=C SIN(-30)=-0.415
• THE ADDER OUTPUT WILL BE (UA+jVA) +(UB+jVB)=1.133+j0.303.SIMILARLY THE
SUBTRACTOR OUTPUT WILL BE (UA+jVA)-(UA-j VB ) =-0.303+j1.133
• THE U DEMODULATOR IGNORES THE j V COMPONENT WHILE THE V
DEMODULATOR IGNORES THE U COMPONENT
• AVERAGING U AND V WE HAVE (UA+UB)/2=1.133/2=0.567
2 2
• AND (VA+VB)/2=1.133/2=0.567.THE VALUE OF C= =0.8
0.567 +0.567
• A DEVIATION OF --0.03 BUT WE COULD SEE THE ANGLE REMAIN THE SAME AS
TAN-1 (0.567/0.567)=1 AS BEFORE.
• THEREFORE IN PAL PHASE ERRORS ARE THE MINIMUM.

COLOR SUB CARRIER GENERATION

93
 • WE HAVE TO MAINTAIN CORRECT RELATION SHIP BETWEEN fsc,fh AND fv
• THEREFORE FROM fsc FREQUENCY IS COUNTED DOWN TO OBTAIN fh TO FEED
TO SYNC GENERATOR.
• THE COLOR CARRIER IS THE A LITTLE MORE THAN 283RD HARMONIC OF
(2n + 1)
fh(5.5MHz-0.57 MHz)/15625=283.5.THE EXACT FREQUENCY IS fsc=[{( ) + ¼}fh
2
((2 X 283) + 1)
+fv/2] =[{( ) + ¼}15625 +50/2] =4433618.75Hz=4.43361875 MHz
2
• FIRST THE PAL fsc IS GENERATED IN A XTAL OSCILLATOR.THE VALUE OF Fh=
[4433618.75 − 25]x 4
[FSC-25] x4/1135 i.e. = = 15625 Hz
1135
• PAL CODER

• SEE FIG 21.GAMMA CORRECTED R G B SIGNALS ARE MATRIXED TO FORM Y

SIGNAL AND WEIGHTED COLOR DIFFERENCE SIGNALS.THE BW OF U AND V
SIGNALS ARE RESTRICTED TO 1.3 MHz BY LPF.IN THE PROCESS THE COLOR
SIGNAL FACES ASMALL DELAY WRT Y SIGNAL .IN ORDER TO COMPENSATE FOR
THE DELAY A DELY LINE IS INTRODUCED IN THE Y SIGNAL PATH.
• THE WEIGHTED COLOR DIFFERENCE SIGNALS ARE ADDED WITH THE
BURST,ONE IN IN-PHASE FOR U BALANCED MODULATOR AND THE OTHER
WITH+90 AND -90 FOR THE V BALANCED MODULATOR.
• THE SWITCHING CYCLE WILL BE ½ LINE FREQUENCY –7.8 KHz
• THE OUTPUT OF SYNCHRONOUS MODULATORS ARE MATRIXED TO GET THE R-Y
AND B-Y SIGNALS.
• THE COLOR CARRIER IS OBTAINED FROM 10 PULSES OF THE BURST GATE
AVILABLE AT THE BACK PORCH OF BLANKING SIGNAL

PAL DECODER

• FIG 22 SHOW THE DETAILS.THE COMPOSITE COLOR VIDEO SIGNAL IS OBTAINED

AFTER VIDEO DETECTOR AND VIDEO AMPLIFIER AND FED TO THE BURST
BLANKING AND CHROMA BP AMPLIFIER.
• THIS IS TUNED TO ACCEPT ONLY CHROMINANCE SIGNAL OUT OF THE CCVS.THE
CENRE FREQUENCY IS 4.433 MHz WITH A BW OF ± 1 MHz. THE COLOR BURST IS NOT
ALLOWED INSIDE THE AMPLIFIER.THE COMPOSIT SIGNAL IS PASSED ONLY
DURING ACTIVE PORTION OF THE H LINE AND DURING BLANKING PERIOD THE
AMPLIFIER CKT IS TUNED OFF. BY SUITABLE TRIGGERING OF THE AMPLFIER.

COLOR KILLER CIRCUIT.

• THE PURPOSE OF THE COLOR KILER CKT IS TO KEEP THE AMPLIFIER OFF WHEN
THERE IS NO COLOR SIGNAL AND TP PREVENT ANY LUMINANCE SIGNAL GOING
THROUGH THE U AND V DEMODULATORS AND GET DEMODULATED AND PRODUCE
FAKE COLORS.
• THE KILLER CKT IS ACTIVATED BY THR 7.8 KHz TUNED AMPLIFIER WHICH INTURN
DEPEND ON AVAILABILITY OF COLOR BURST.THE C K CIRCUIT IN A WAY AN
94
 ELECTRONIC SWITCH WHICH CLOSES FOR COLOR SIGNAL AND OPENS FOR A
MONOCHROME TRANSMISSION

7.8 KHz TUNED AMPLIFIER

• THE PAL SWINGING BURST INTRODUCED IN THE TRANSMITTER HAS A SWING OF

±45DEG ABOUT THE – (B-Y) AXIS FROM LINE TO LINE.
• THUS IT SINGS AT ½ fh=7.8KHz.THE GATED BURST AMPLIFIER IS FED WITH THE
TIMED PULSES FROM LINE TIME (H TIME) BASE CKT.
• THESE PULSES NORMALLY PERMIT OPERATION OF THE AMPLIFIER ONLY WHEN
COLOR BURST IS PRESENT.
• THUS COLOR BURST SIGNAL IS SEPARATED BY THE GATED BURST AMPLIFIER AND
FED CONTINIOUSLY TO THE PHASE DISCRIMINATOR CKT WHICH DEVELOPES A
VOLTAGE ACROSS THE TUNED CKT THAT VARIES AT 7.8KHz
• THIS VOLTAGE FEEDS THE COLOR KILLER CKT AND THE IDENT AMPLIFIER,
WHICH INTURN KEEP THE BP AMPLIFIER ON.
• IF 7.8 kHz CKT HAS NO OUTPUT, THEN THE COLOR KILLER CKT DISENABLES THE
BP AMPLIFIER.
• INDENT CKT AND PHASE SHIFTING CKT

• FIG22 SHOW THE SINGLE POLE TWO WAY SWITCH TO SHOW THE ALTERNATE
REVERSAL OF THE SUB CARRIER PHASE BEFORE APPLYING TO V MODULATOR.
• THYE SWITCH IS ACTUALLY A BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATORTRIGGERED BY H
PULSES AND WHOSE OUT PUT IS fh/2=7.8.KHz
• HOWEVER IT IS NECESSARY THAT BOTH SEQUENCE AND SWITCHING REMAIN
SYNCHRONISED.
• FOR THIS THE IDENT OR IDENTIFICATION SIGNAL IS DELOPED AT THE OUTPUT
OF 7.8 KHz AMPLIFIER.
• THIS IS A DESCRIMINATOR CIRCUIT WHICH DEVELOPES A DC OUTPUT OF
PARTICULAR POLARITY.THIS TRIGGERS THE 7.8 KHz MULTIVIBRATOR (ELEC
SWITCH) IN SUCH A WAY THAT SUB CARRIER SWITCHES AT THE CORRECT TIME
AND PHASE SEQUENCE.
• THIS ENSURES THAT THE SYSTEM DEMODULATORS ARE FED WITH CORRECT
COLOR FREQ AND PHASE OF SUB CARRIER FOR PROPER DEMODULATION OF U
AND V SIGNALS.

SEPARATION OF U AND V SIGNALS.

• THE U AND V ARE SEPARATED BY ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION METHOD AND FED
TO U AND V SYNCHRONOUS DEMODULATORS

SYNCHRONOUS DEMODULATORS

• THE INCOMING SIGNALS U OR V AND THE LOCALLY GENERATED 4.433 COLOR

CARRIER (SYNCHRONISED WITH COLOR BURST) ARE MIXED TOGETHER AND THE
BEAT FREQUENCY IS THE BASE BAND OF THE COLOR VIDEO SIGNAL OF ±1 MHZ.

95
 • THE U DEMODULATOR IS FED BY fsc OF ZERO PHASE SHIFT AND IT YIELDS B-Y
SIGNAL AND THE V DEMODULATOR OF v90 PHASE SHIFT ALTERNATING ON EVERY
LINEAND IT YIELDS R-Y SIGNAL.
• THESE COLOR DIFFERENCE SIGNALS ARE FED TO A MATRIXING NETWORK AND
AMPLIFIERS WHICH GENERATE THE G-Y SIGNAL AND ALSO MAHKES NECESSARY
AMPLITUDE CORRECTION FOR DE WIEGHTING THE U AND V SIGNALS TO
RESTORE THE ORIGINAL VALUES.
• THE THREE COLOR DIFFERENCE SIGNALS ARE FED TO THE CORRESPONDING
GRIDS OF THE PICTURE TUBES AND THE MIX WITH THE –Y SIGNAL FED TO THE
CTHODE TO YIELD THE R,G,B SIGNAL WHICH MODULATE THE ELECTRONIC BEAM
TO STRIKE THE R,G,B PHOSPERS AND PRODUCE THE DESIRED PICTURE.
• MERITS AND DEMERITS OF PAL SYSTEM
• PROBLEM OF DIFFERENTIAL ERROR IS AVOIDED.
• USE OF PAL D SYSTEM IN RECEIVERS REDUCES HUE ERROR EFFECTS AND
MANUAL CONTROL USED IN NTSC SYSTEM FOR HUE CONTROL IS NOT NECESSARY
IN PAL SYSTEM
• REDUCTION IN VERTICAL RESOLUTION BY DELAY LINE USE.
• USE OF DELAY LINE, PHASE ALTERNATION MAKES THE RECEIVER CKT MORE
COMPLICATED.

SECAM SYSTEM

• IN SECAM SYSTEM ONLY ONE COLOR DIFFERENCE SIGNAL IS TRANSMITED AT A

TIME. (PAL AND NTSC BOTH ARE SENT SIMULTANEOUSLY).
• THE SUBCARRIER FREQ IS FM MODULATED.THE MAGNITUDE OF FREQUENCY
DEVIATION SHOWS THE SATURATION AND RATE OF DEVIATION THE HUE.
• IF R-Y IS TRANSMITTED ON ONE LINE B-Y IS TRANSMITTED ON NEXT LINE.
• IF Nth LINE CARRY THE R-Y SIGNAL IT WILL CARRY B-Y SIGNAL IN THE (n+1) th
LINE WHICH IS IN NEXT FIELD OF THE PICTURE (ODD & EVEN WILL BW IN TWO
FIELDS).
• AT RECEIVER A DELAY LINE OF 64 MICRO S IS USED TO AS AONE LINE MEMORY
FOR DEMODULATION OF U AND V SIGNALS FOR SIMULTANEOUS DEMODULATION.
• SECAM III
• IT IS A625 LINE 50 FIELD SYSTEM OF 8MHz BW WITH SOUND CARRIER AT 5.5 MHz.
COLOR SC FREQ IS 4.4375 MHz. THE Y SIGNAL IS OBTAINED SIMILAR TO PAL
SYSTEM.WIEGHTING FACTORS ARE DR=1.9(R-Y),DB=1.5(B-Y)
• FIG 23 AND 24 GIVE DETAILS OF CODE AND DECODERS.
• IN ORDER TO SUPRESS THE DOT PATTERN ON A MONO CROME TV 2 DIFFERENT
SUB CARRIERS ARE USED.282fsc=4.40625MHz FOR R-Y SIGNAL AND 272fsc=4.25MHz
FOR B-Y SIGNAL.
• THE BW OF COLOR SIGNALS IS ± 1.5MHz
• THE WEIGHTING FACTORS ARE -1.9(R-Y) TO KEEP MODULATION +VE EVEN FOR –ve
VALUES OF R-Y AND DB =1.5(B-Y)
• THE DEVIATIONALLOWED ARE 280 DR KHz FOR R-Y AND 230 DB FOR B-Y. MAX
DEVIATION ALLOWED IS 500 KHz IN ONE DIRECTION AND 350 IN THE OTHER.
• THE SWITCHING OF DR AND DB TAKES PLACE BYLINE PULSES.

96
 • TO IDENTIFY WHERE THE DR AND DB ARE SENT IDENTIFICATION SIGNALS ARE
SENT IN VERTICAL BLANKING INTERVAL.

MERITS AND DEMERITS OF SECAM SYSTEM

1. SINCE FM IS USED THE HUE ERRORS ARE MINIMISED.

2. SINCE NO TWO COLOR DIFF SIGNALS ARE PRESENT TOGETHER CROSS

MODULATION OF COLOR SIGNALS DOES NOT TAKE PLACE.

3. NO NEED OF QAM AT TRANSMITTER AND SYNC DEMODS AT RECEIVERS.

AND THE RECEIVER IS CHEAP.

• THE TABLE 25 SHOWS THE COMPARISON OF THE 3 COLOR SYSTEMS.

GAMMA CORRECTION

• THE TV SYSTEM SHOULD BE LINEAR THEN ONLY THE INPUT SIGNAL WILL
BE TRUTHFULLY REPRODUCED AT THE RECEIVER.
• THE LIGHT EMMITED BY THE CAMERA TUBE SHOULD BE DIRECTLY
PROPORTIONAL TO THE LIGHT INCIDENT ON IT.HOWEVER THIS DOEN
NOT HAPPEN AS THE BEAM CURRENT IS NOT LINEARLY RELATED TO THE
GRID AND CATHODE VOLTAGES.THE RELATION BETWEEN LUMINANCE L
OS SCREEN AND THE GRID TO CATHODE VOLTAGE VG IS EXPRESSED AS L
α (VG ) γ WHERE γ VARY BFRO 2 TO 2.6 FROM TUBE TO TUBE .IN ORDER TO CORRECT THE
NON LINEAR ERROR THE REVERSE
OF CAMERA END CHARACTERISTICS IS DONE
AT RECEIVER .THIS IS GAMMA CORRECTION. THE SYSTEM’S LINEARITY
IS THUS MAINTAINED.

COLOR DIFF SIGNAL IS ZERO FOR B AND W HOW

R=1 B=1 G=1 FOE PEAK WHITE.

Y=0.3®+0.59(G)+0.11(B)= 0.3(1)+0.59(1)+0.11(1)=1NOW R-Y=1-1=0,B-Y=1-1=0,G-Y=1-

1=0.

ANGLE SUBTENDED BY ONE PICTURE CELL IS , THEN AB IS

AB=ЛxD/(180x60) . FOR A DISTANCE D= 2.5 m THE SIZE OF PIXEL AB IS

AB=2.5Xл/(180X60)=0.073cm.THE NO. OF PIXELS IN A 50 CM TV IS :THE WIDTH OF TV IS 40
CM THE HEIGHT IS 30CM.THE NO. OF PIXELS IN HEIGHT IS 40/0.073 AND IN HEIGHT IS
30/0.073.TOTAL PIXELS WILL BE (40x30)/(0.073x0.073)=2 26 000 PIXELS.

97
 A
α
B
D

PERSISTANCE OF VISION

WHRN EYE SEES LIGHT IT CONTINU TO SEE IT FOR 60 ms AFTER THE LIGHT SOURCE IS
REMOVED.THIS IS CALLED PERSISTANCE OF VISION.

THIS IS THE REASON WHY EYE IS CAPABLE OF SEEING PICTURES WHEN MOVED ONE BY
ONE AT A PARTICULAR RATE(EX. IN TV 2 FIELDS EACH AT 20 ms, A TOTAL OF 40 ms OF ONE
FRAME I.E THE TOTAL PICTURE IS PRESENTED BEFORE 60 MS).

FLICKER

THE PERSISTANCE OF VISION IS MORE FOR DARKNESS THAN FOR BRIGHT LIGHT.THE
RESULT IS A PHENOMENON CALLED FLICKER.IT MEANS DARK INTERVALS BETWEEN
BRIGHT PICTURES BECOME VISIBLE FOR SHORT TIME AND APPEAR AS FLICKER.IF RATE
OF PROJECTION IS DOUBLED(SAME PICTURE IS SHOWN TWICE BEFORE NEXT PICTURE
COMES ) FILICKER IS AVOIDED.IN CINEMA A SHUTTER FLICKS THE PICTURE TWICE. IN
TV 2 FIELDS ARE PRESENTED EACH 20 ms OF THE SAME PICTURE.
THIS ALSO HAS RELATION O FREQUENCY.
FREQUENCY LIGHT LUMINANCE THRESHOLD
30 Hz - 1 CD/SQ.M
50Hz 10 CD/SQ.M
60 Hz 50 CD/SQ.M

COLOR TEMPERATURE
A TUNGTEN FILAMENT EMITS LIGHT ON HEATING.THE COLOR OF LIGHT COMING OUT
OF THE FILAMENT DEPEND ON THE TEMPERATURE OF THE FILAMENT.
AT LOW TEMPERATURE IT IS RED AND AS TEMPERATURE INCRESES THE COLOR
CHANGES TO GREEN,BLUE ETC AND FINALLY WHITE.
A BLACK BODY(COLD) RADIATES INFRA RED AT 2000DEG K,RED AT 4000 DEG K AND
WHITE AT 6000 DEG K. FIG 1.4(P15)

COMPLIMENTARY COLORS

WHEN TWO PRIMARY COLORS OF EQUAL INTENSITY ARE MIXED THEN THE RESULTANT
COLOR IS CALLED COMPLIMENTARY COLOR

R+G= YELLOW

G+B= CYAN

B+R= MAGENTA(PURPLE)

98
99
WHEN WHITE LIGHT IS INCIDENT ON GREEN OBJECT R AND B ARE ABSORBED AND
GREEN IS REFLECTED.IN THE CENTRE RGB ARE ABSORBED AND NO LIGHT IS
REFLECTED INDICATING BLACK.

SECONDARY COLORS OF ADDING MIXING ARE CALLED PRIMARY COLORS OF

SUBTRACTIVE MIXING

W-R=CYAN |
W-G=MAGENTA | PRIMARY COLORS OF SUBTRACTIVE MIXING
W-B=YELLOW |
W-R-G=W-YELLOW=B |
W-B-G=W-CYAN=R | PRIMARY COLORS OF ADDITIVE MIXING
W-R-B= W-MAGENTA=G |
W-R-G-B=BLACK

LUMINANCE.

BRIGHTNESS IS DEFINED AS THE ATTRIBUTE OF A VISUAL SENSATION ACCORDING TO

WHICH AN AREA APPEARS TO EMIT MORE OR LESS LIGHT. BECAUSE BRIGHTNESS
PERCEPTION IS VERY COMPLEX, A MORE TRACTABLE QUANTITY LUMINANCE WHICH IS
RADIANT POWER WEIGHTED BY A SPECTRAL SENSITIVITY FUNCTION THAT IS
CHARACTERISTIC OF VISION. THE LUMINOUS EFFICIENCY OF THE STANDARD OBSERVER
IS DEFINED NUMERICALLY, IS EVERYWHERE POSITIVE, AND PEAKS AT ABOUT 555 NM.
WHEN INTEGRATED USING THIS CURVE AS A WEIGHTING FUNCTION, THE RESULT IS
LUMINANCE, DENOTED Y.( SUM OF G =0,59,B=0.11,R=0.3 )

100
THE MAGNITUDE OF LUMINANCE IS PROPORTIONAL TO PHYSICAL POWER. IN THAT
SENSE IT IS LIKE INTENSITY. BUT THE SPECTRAL COMPOSITION OF LUMINANCE IS
RELATED TO THE BRIGHTNESS SENSITIVITY OF HUMAN VISION.

STRICTLY SPEAKING, LUMINANCE SHOULD BE EXPRESSED IN A UNIT SUCH AS

CANDELAS PER METER SQUARED, BUT IN PRACTICE IT IS OFTEN NORMALIZED TO 1 OR
100 UNITS WITH RESPECT TO THE LUMINANCE OF A SPECIFIED OR IMPLIED WHITE
REFERENCE. FOR EXAMPLE, A STUDIO BROADCAST MONITOR HAS A WHITE REFERENCE
WHOSE LUMINANCE IS ABOUT 100 CD*M -2, AND Y = 1 REFERS TO THIS VALUE.

IF CAMERA OUT PUT IS R,G,B=1 THEN OUTPUT OF CAMERA IS REDUCED BY THE

WEGHTING FACTORS TO GET THE VALUE OF Y=0.59G+0.11B+0.3R

IF RGB ARE EACH 1 THEN Y=0.59+O.11+0.3= 1

GREY TONES
THREE PRIMARY COLORS CAN PRODUCE ANY OTHER COLOR BY MIXING AT
APPROPIATE PROPORTION.
THAES COMPONENT VALUES ARE CALLED TRSTIMULUS VALUES 30% RED 59% GREEN
AND 11% BLUE.RED AT 700NM GREEN AR 546 NM AND BLUE AT 435.8 NM
IF THE BRIGHTNESS OF THE COLOR IS REDUCED BY A COMMON FACTORTHE
RESULTANT EILL SHOW A SHADES OF WHITE LIKE LIGHT GREY ,GREY,DARK GREY ETC.
IF BRIGHTNESS OF ALL COLORS ARE ZERO THE RESULT IS B;ACK.
IF 1 LUMEN OF LIGHT GIVE WHITE THE 0.8 LUMEN WILL GIVE LIGHT GREY.
0.8x0.3+0.8x0.59+0.8x0.11=0.24+0.47+0.088=0.8= LIGHT GREY.
SIMILARLY 0.2 LUMEN WILL GIVE AS PER THE ABOVE EQN. Y=0.2 A DARK GREY
EXAMPLE
DETERMINE THE COLOR AND SATURATION IF 1 LUMEN OF EACH R AND G AND 0.2 LUMEN
OF BLUE ARE IMPRESSED ON THE EYE.
THE 0.2 FACTOR WILL CONTRIBUTE TO THE DILUTION OF COLOR AS A WHITE GREY
TONE .THE RED AND BLUE WILL CONTRIBUTE 0.2 EACH FOR THE GREY TONE IN
ADDITION TO BLUE.THEREFORE THE REMAINING LUMEN OF RED AND GREEN ARE 1-
0.2=0.8 OF RED AND 1-0.2=0.8 OF GREEN.
THE LUMINOUS VALE WILL FOLLOW THE EQN 0.2x0.3+0.2x0.59+0.2x0.11=0.2 A DARK GREY
TONE.
THE COLOR YELLOW WILL BE 0.8 REDx0.3 +0.8 GREEN x0.59=0.24+0.48=0.712 OF LUMINOUS
THE ORIGINAL YELLOW WILL HAVE 0.3x1 OF RED AND 0.59x1 OF GREEN =0.89 .THERE IS A
REDUCTION IN HUE OF 0.89-0.712=0.178
THE PERCENTAGE OF YELLOW AFTER DILUTION ( SATURATION )WILL BE
0.712/(0.712+0.2)=78%
CCVS
LUMINANCE SIGNAL Y AND CHROMA SIGNAL C(U AND V COMPONENTS) ARE ADDED C IS
INTERLEAVED ON Y.THE BLANKING AND SYNC PULSES AND COLOR BURSTS ARE
MULTIPLEXED.
THE RESULTANT OUT PUT IS COLOR COMPOSIT VIDEO SIGNAL
COLOR BURST
THE SUB CARRIER SIGNAL IS PASSED THROUGH A LOGIC GATE WHICH OPENS FOR A 8 TO
10 CYCLES OF PERIOD OF THE COLOR FREQUENCY{(10/44336187.5)}x1000000 MICRO
SECOND.=0.225 MICRO SECOND FOR 10 CYCLES.
THE OUTPUT OF LOGIC GATE IS TIME MULTIPLEXED WITH THE BLANCKING SIGNAL
PLACED ON THE BACK PORCH OF B SIGNAL
101
SYNC PULSES
THEY ARE DERIVED BY DIVIDING THE SUB CARRIER FREQUENCY AND ARE ADDED TO
THE Y SIGNAL.
ADJUSTMENT OF WHITE BALANCE.
VIDEO SIGNALS FROM CAMERA OUTPUT REPRESENT VOLTAGES DIREDTLY
PROPORTIONAL TO THE INTENSITY OF THE LIGHT OR BRIGHTNESS OF THE PRIMARY
COLORS R G B.BUT THE VOLTAGE OUTPUT OF CAMERA SHOULD DEPEND ON
SENSITIVITY OF EYE.THIS IS DONE BY ADJUSTING THE CAMERA OUTPUTS BY
WEIGHTING FACTORS 0.3 FOR RED AND 0.59 FOR GREEN AND 0.11 FOR BLUE BY A
RESISTANCE MATRIX.,.
THIS OUT PUT SHOULD BE SAME FOR INDOOR WHITE LIGHT AND OUT DOOR WHITE
LIGHT.THE CAMERA IS TURNED TOWARDS A WHITE LIGHT AND THE LEVELS ADJUSTED
FOR A WHITE PICTURE.
THE COLOR DIFF SIGNALS WILL BE ZERO FOR WHITE AS RGB WILL BE ONE AND WHITE
ALSO 1.

LUMINANCE SIGNALS FOR DIFFERENT COLORS –COLOR STAIR CASE DIAGRAM

THE LUMINANCE FOR YELLOW WILL BE THAT THE CAMERA WILL GIVE 1 V RED AND 1V
GREEN AND 0V BLUE.
THE MATRIX WILL BE 0.3x1+0.59 x1+0.11x1=0.89VTHE COLOR SIGNAL WILL FLUCTUATE
OVER THE ABOVE LUMINANCE VALUES WITH AMPLITUDE AND PHASE AS PER THE
FOLLOWING
2
• C= ( B −Y ) + ( R −Y ) 2 , α= tan-1(R-Y/B-Y)
FOR YELLOW R-Y=0.3-0.89= -0.59 AND B-Y=0.11-0.89= -0.78. AND C=

( B −Y ) 2 + ( R −Y ) 2 ,= (−0.78) 2 + (−0.59) 2 = +/-0.978

THE PEAK VALUE IS 0.89+0.978=1.868 AND PEAK –VE VALUE IS 0.89-0.978=0.088

THE PICTURE GIVE THE VARIOUS VALUES OF GREY SIGNALS FOR DIFFERENT COLORS

YELLOW=R+G=0.89,WHITE R+G+B IN PROPER FACTORS,CYAN G+B=0.7,GREEN

0.59,MAGENTA R+B=0.41,RED 0.3,BLUE 0.11 BLACK=0
EXAMPLE
102
FIND THE PEAK VALUE OF RESULTANT SIGNAL WHEN SATURATED BLUE COLOR IS
ADDED TO LUMINANCE SIGNAL.
FOR BLUE R=0,G=0 B=1
Y=0+0+0.11x1=0.11
B-Y=1-0.11=0.89,R-Y=0-0.11= -0.11 C=+/- 0.9.PEAK VALUE WILL BE 0.9+0.11=1.01PEAK –VE
VALUE WILL BE 0.11-0.9=-0.79

CHROMINANCE SIGNAL

WHEN LIGHT FALL ON ACOLOR CAMERA ON A PIXEL THE COMPOSIT COLOR OF PIXEL IS
BROKEN INTO R G B COMPONENTS.(DIRECTLY IF R G B PHOSPERS ARE AVAILABLE IN A
PIXEL) AND VOLTAGES FOR R G B ARE PRODUCED PROPORTIONAL TO THE INTENSITY OF
THE R G B OF THE PARTICULAR PIXEL..THESE VOLTAGES TAKEN INDIVIDUALLY
REPESENT PRIMARY COLORS PRESENT IN THE COMPOSITE HUE OF THE PIXEL.

FOR SAKE OF COMPATABILITY OF B AND W TV THESE 3 COLORS ARE NOT SENT

DIRECTLY BUT CONVERTING THEM INTO COLOR DIFFERENCE SIGNALS R-Y,G-Y,B-
Y.THEY ARE OBTAINED BYAS PER FIGURE

AS WE SEE ONLY R-Y AND B-Y ARE TRANSMITTED AS WE CAN GET G-Y FROM R-Y AND B-Y

TRICHROMATIC VALUES AND COLOR TRIANGLE

WE KNOW THAT 1 EACH OF R G B DOES NOT PRODUCE 1 UNIT OF WHITE NOR 1/3 OF R G B
PRODICE 1 UNIT OF WHITE .IT IS THE FACTORS 0.3R,0.59G,0.11B(.299, 0.587 and 0.114
EXXACT) PRODUCE THE RESULTANT WHITE ACCORDING TO TRISTIMULUS VALUE OF
THE EYE.
THESE COEFFICIENTS 0.3,0.59,0.11.ARE DIFFICULT TO HANDLE. TO MAKE IT
CONVIENIENT A TRICHROMATIC VALUES ARE INTRODUCED.
IN THIS 1/3 TR+1/3 TG+1/3TB PRODUCE WHITE WHERE T TAKES CARE OF THE
WEIGHTING FACTORS.

103
THE COEFFICIENTS USED INT UNITS ARE DENOTED BY x,y,z IN TERMS OF TRISTIMULUS
VALUES x’,y’,z’ WHERE x=x’/x’+y’+z’, y= y’/x’+y’+z’ AND z=z’/x’+y’+z’ ADDING x+y+z GIVE

1.THE x y z CAN BE REPRESENTED IN A COLOR TRIANGLE IN 2 DIMENSION AS SHOWN.

IN THE TRIANGLE EXTREME AXIS REPRESENT 1 R,G,B(ON Z AXIS)

THE COORDINATES ARE 0,1,0 FOR PY GREEN,1,0,0 FOR PY RED AND 0,0,1, FOR BLUE.

THE OTHER CLORS ARE YELLOW IS x=0.5, y=0.5 AND z=0=(1-(0.5+0.5)) R+G

CYAN x=0,y=0.5 z+1-0.5-0= 0.5 r+b, MAGENTA x=0.5,y=0,z=1-0.5=0.5 R+B AND FOR WHITE IT IS
x=y=z=1/3

CHROMOSITY DIAGRAM

104
SPECTRAL AND NON SPECTRAL COLORS

SPECTRAL COLORS ARE THOSE COLORS WHICH LIE ON PERIPHERY OF THE HORSE
SHOEOF THE CHROMOSITY DIAGRAM.ALL PRIMARY COLORS AND MIXURES OF OF R,G
AND B-G ARE SPECTRAL COLORS.

THERE IS GRADUAL INCREASE IN WAVE LENGTH AS WE MOVE FROM BLUE TO GREEN

AND THEN RED.COLORS PRODUCEED BY MIX OF R AND B FALL ON BOTTOM LINE OF
HORSE SHOE OF THE CHROMOSITY DIAGRAM .THESE COLORS R AND B ARE AT
EXTREME WAVELENGHTS OF VISIBLE SPECTRUM AND PRODUCE WIDE RANGE OF
COLORS OF FREQUENCIES VARYING FROM 435.8nm TO 700 nm. WIDE BAND.THESE COLRS
ARE NOT VISIBLE IN RAIN BOW NOR IN THE SPECTROSCOPE.

THESE COLORS CALLED PURPLE COLORS ARE KNOWN AS NON SPECTRAL COLORS.

COLOR CIRCLE .THE CHROMOSITY DIAGRAM CAN BE CONVERTED IN TO A CIRCLE

SHOWING PY COLORS AS RADIAL VECTORS.SATURATION IS GIVEN BY LENGTH AND HUE
BY THE PHAE ANGLE.IF ONE END OF DIAGONAL GIVE PY COLOR THE OTHER END GIVE
THE COMPLIMENTARY COLOR.RED COMP CYAN, BLUE COMP YELLOW GREEN COM
MAGENTA. THE R-Y AND B-Y OCCUPY THE Y AND X AXIS RESPECTIVELY.

CAMERA (VISION PICKUP DEVICES)

• THE EYE OF THE TV SYSTEM IS THE CAMERA.IT IS A TRANSDUCER WHICH

CONVERTS THE VARIATION OF LIGHT INTENSITY TO VARIATION OF ELECTRIC
CURRENT OR VOLTAGE(VIDEO SIGNAL)
• THE CAMERA TUBE SHOULD CONSIST OF
• PHOTO SENSITIVE TARGET PLATE CAPABLE OF CONVERTING OPTICAL IMAGE TO
ELECTRIC CHARGE IMAGE. GREATER THE BRIGHTNESS THE GREATER IS THE
CHARGE PRODUCED ON THE TARGET PLATE.

105
 • STORAGE OF CHARGE ON THE TARGET PLATE TILL SUCH TIME (ABOUT 60ms OF
RETENSION TIME OF THE EYE) IT IS NEUTRALISED BY THE SCANNING ELECTRON
BEAM.
• NEUTRALISATION OF CHARGE AT EVERY POINT OF TARGET PLATE IN QUICK
SUCCESSION BY SCANNING BEAM CAUSING CURRENT TO FLOW THROUGH THE
LOAD RESISTOR.
• THERE ARE TWO METHODS BY WHICH THIS CAN BE ACHIEVED.
1. PHOTO EMMISSION

LIGHT INCIDENT ON THE PHOTO CATHODE MAKES ELECTRON COME OUT OF

IT.THE ENERGY OF ELECTRONICSIS PROPORTIONAL TO LIGHT INTENSITY
FALLING ON THE TARGET CELL.IMAGE ORTHICON CAMERA WORK ON THIS
PRINCIPLE.

2. PHOTO CONDUCTION

IMAGE ORTHICON

• DEVELOPED BY RCA(RADIO CORPORATION OF AMERICA)IN 1945

• THE TRANSDUCER IS THE PHOTO CATHODE.
• IT CONSISTS OF A COATING OF BISMUTH-SILVER-CAESIUM COMPOUND ON
THE INSIDE OF GLASS PLATE(TOWARDS SCANNING SIDE)
• WHENLIGHT FALLS ON THE CATHODE PLATE KEPT AT -400V FROM THE
SCENE OF THE PICTURE IN FRONT OF GLASS THE PHOTONS HIT THE

106
 PHOTO CATHODE COATING AND ELECTRONS ARE RELEASED FROM THE
PHOTO CONDUCTIVE COATING.
• THE NO. OF ELECTRONS EMITTED DEPEND ON THE INTENSITY OF
LIGHT.(ENERGY OF PHOTONS)
• ONCE THE ELECTRONS ARE RELEASED FROM THE CATHODE THE PLATE
BECOME POSITIVELY CHARGED.THE POSITIVE CHARGE VARYING AT
DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE GLASS FRAME DEPENDING ON THE PICTURE
DARKNESS OR BRIGHTNESS AT PIXEL LEVEL.
• BEING A CONDUCTOR THE CATHODE CAN NOT RETAIN THE CHARGE.SO
THE ELECTRONS COME OUT OF OF THE CATHODE AS PARALLEL BEAMS.
• THESE ELECTRONS ARE ACCELERATED TOWARDS A TARGET PLATE MADE
OF OF n TYPE SILICON (COATED ON A GLASS PLATE) KEPT AT 0 V (400V +VE
WRT CATHODE) AND HIT THE TARGET AT DIFFERENT INTENSITIES AS PER
THE PICTURE BRIGHTNESS VARIATIONS.
• ON IMPINGEMENT OF THESE PRIMARY ELECTRONS SECONDARY
ELECTRONS ARE EMIITED FROM THE SILICON PLATE (TARGET PLATE)
MORE IN NUMBER.
• THE SECONDARY ELECTRONS ARECOLLECTED BY THE WIRE MESH AND
RETURNED TO PHOTO CATHODE AND THE ELECTRONS ARE REPLENISHED.
• THE TARGET SILICON PLATE IS NOW DEFICIENT OF ELECTRONS
ACCORDING TO THE LIGHT INTENSITY OF THE PUCTURE AND IS +VE LY
CHARGED AS PER VARIATION OF THE PIXEL BRIGHTNESS VALUES AND IS
PROPORTIONAL TO EVERY STRIKING ELECTRON.
• THE WIE MESH IS AT +400V POTENSIAL AND THEREFORE (+800V WRT
CATHODE) THE SECONDARY ELECTRONS WILL BE IMMEDIATELY DRAWN
AWAY WITHOUT AGAIN REACHING THE SILICON TARGET.
• THE SIZE OF THE TARGET PLATE IS 4 MICRONS (4X10-6 METERS) AND IS SO
THIN THAT THE +VE CHARGE ON ONE SIDE OF THE PLATE EXTENDS TO
THE OTHER SIDE.
• THUS THE CHARGE IMAGE OF THE ORIGINAL PICTURE IS STORED ON THE
GLASS PLATE.
• THE CHAEGE REMAIN STORED BECAUSE IT IS GLASS TILL IT IS
NEUTRALISED BY THE SCANNING ELECTRON BEAM.
•
• NEUTRALISATION
• THE CHARGE FROM THE TARGET PLATE IS NEUTRALISED BY THE
SCANNING ELECTRON BEAM.
• THE BEAM CONSISTS OF ELECTRONS EMIITED BY THE THERMIONIC
TUBE(VACUUM) THNGSTEN CATHODE CONTROLLED BY GRID G1 KEPT AT
-50VWRT CATHODE.(USUALLY CATHODE WILL BE AT 50V AND GRID AT 0V)

107
 • THE SANNING BEAM MOVES HORIZONTALLY AND VERTICALLY BY THE H
SAW TOOTH AND V SAW TOOTH WAVE FORM FROM THEIR RESPECTIVE
DEFLECTION COILS LOCATED ON THE OUTER PORTION OF THE PICTURE
COIL.
• THE ELCTRON BEAM REACH THE TARGET AT A PONT BEAM SPOT AT 0
VELCITY DU TO DECREASING VOLTAGES 120 V G4 AND 40V G5.
• THE BEAM RICH IN ELECTRON NEUTRALISES VE CAHRGE BY LEAVING AS
MANY ELCTRONS AS REQUIRED ON THE TARGET.THEY ARE RETURNED TO
GRID G2 +300V (CATCHES THE RETURN BEAM)
• THE HIGH ENERGY ELECTRONS OF THE RETURN BEAM STRIKING G2
EMITS SECONDARY ELECTRONS WHICH ARE MULTIPLIED BY DYNODES
D1, THEN BY D2, D3, D4, AND D5.
• EACH DYNODE PROVIDE MULTIPLICATION OF 4 AND A TOTAL
MULTIPLICATION OF 4 5 =1024.
• THE MULTIPLIED ELCTRONS ARE ATRACTED BY THE FINAL ANODE KEPT
AT 1500V.
• THE CURRENT OF THE ORDER OF 5µA FOR WHITE BRIGHT SCENE AND 30
µA FOR BLACK SCENE.
• IN THIS CASE THE CONCEPT OF BLACK CURRENT DOES NOT ARISE.
• THE PEAK TPO PEAK CURRENT OF 25 A IS THE VIDEO SIGNAL .IF RL=20K
OHMS THE VIDEO VOLTAGE PEAK TO PEAK WILL BE 500 mv.

VIDICON CAMERA TUBE.

• IT USES THE PRINCIPLE OF ELCTRON CONDUCTION.

• THE PHOTO SENSITIVE TARGET IS ANTIMONY TRISULPHIDE.(A
SEMICONDUCTOR)
• WHEN LIHT FALLS ON IT THE NO. OF FREE ELECTRONS CREATED INSIDE
THE SEMICONDUCTOR IS PROPORTIONAL TO THE LIGHT INTENSITY
INCIDENT ONIT.
• BRIGHTER THE LIGHT GREATER THE FREE ELECTRONS.
• The signal output is developed directly from the target of the tube and is generated by a
low-velocity scanning beam from an electron gun.
• The target generally consists of a transparent signal electrode deposited on the faceplate
of the tube and a thin layer of photoconductive material, which is deposited over the
electrode.

108
• The photoconductive layer serves two purposes. It is the light-sensitive element, and it
forms the storage surface for the electrical charge pattern that corresponds to the light
image falling on the signal electrode.
• Photoconductor properties determine to a large extent the performance of the different
types of vidicon tubes. The first and still most widely used photoconductor is porous
antimony trisulfide. The latest photoconductors are the lead oxide, selenium-arsenic-
tellurium, cadmium selenide, zinc-cadmium telluride, and silicon diode arrays.
• THE CAMERA CONSIST OF A FACE PLATE MADE OF OPTICALLY PURE
GLASS., A TARGET PLATE WHICH HAS TWO LAYERS FACING THE FACE
PLATE IS THE TIN OXIDE LAYER WHICH IS TRANSPARENT TO LIGHT AND IS
A GOOD CONDUCTOR OF ELECTRICITY.THIS LAYER IS CALLED SIGNAL
PLATE.THE ELCTRICAL CONNECTION IS MADE FROM THIS LAYER BY A
TERMINAL WHICH IS A CONDUCTING METAL RING SURROUNDING THE
TUBE.
• THE OTHER LAYER AT THE BACK OF TARGET PLATE (FACING ELECTRON
GUN) IS A COATING OF ANTIMONY TRISUPHIDE, A SEMI CONDUCTOR IN
PRESENCE OF LIGHT FREE ELECTRONS ARE CREATED IN IT AND IN
ABSENCE OF LIGHT THIS ACTS AS AN INSULATOR. (20 M OHMS) ON BRIGHT
LIGHT IT IS AROUND 2 M OHMS.THE VALUE VARY FRON 2 TO 20 M OHMS
FROM WHITW TO GREY AND BLACK.
• THE TUBE CONSIST OF A INDIRECTLY HEATED CARHODE CONTROL GRID
G1 ACCELERATOR GRID G2 (300V), A FOCUS GRID G3 (260V) SICE LOWER
THAN G2 SLOWS DOWN THW ELECTRONS CONVERGING THEM TO THE
CENTRE OF THE BEAM.THE WIRE MESH IS AT 50V AND THEY SLOW DOWN
THW ELECTRONS SUCH THAT THEY LAND ON THE TARGET AT ZERO
VELOCITY PERPENDICULAR TO THE TARGET.
• THE DEFLECTION COILS MOVE THE BEAM HORIZONTALLY AND
VERTICALLY TO PROVIDE THE SCANNING OF THE WHOLE PICTURE AT THE
TARGET.
• ALIGNMENT COILS ALIGN THE BEAM AT THE CENTRE OF THE TUBE IN
ABSENCE OF VOLTAGES ON THE DEFLECTION COILS.
• PRINCIPLE OF WORKING
• THE SIGNAL PLATE IS KEPT +VE BY EXTERNAL SUPPLY 50V.
• WHEN LIGHT PRODUCES FREE ELECTRONS IN THE SEMI CONDUCTOR
(PHOTO CONDUCTIVE LAYER) THEY MOVE TO THE SIGNAL LAYERE LAYE
OF TARGET PLATE.
• THEREIS A DEFICIENVY OF ELECTRONS IN THE PHOTO LAYER AND THIS
SIDE OF PALTE BECOME +VELY CHARGED.
• WHITE PRODUCES MAX OF +VE CHARGES, BLACK THE LEAST.
• THE SCANNING BEAM NEUTRALISES THE +VE CHARGES TO PRODUCE THE
SIGNAL CURRENT.
• THIS TUBE HAS LOW BLACK CURRENT UNLIKE I.O
109
• FOR WHITE NEUTRALISATION MORE ELECTRONS ARE CONSUMED (LESS
CURRENT) AND FOR BLACK LESS ELECTRONS ARE CONSUMED (MORE
CURRENT).
• THEREFORE THE VIDEO SIGNAL WILL BE REVERSE OF ACTUAL VIEO
WAVEFORM.
• SEE FIGS 4.7, 4.8, 4.8 AND THE PARAMETERS OF VIDICON TUBE.
• IMAGE LAG IN VIDICON
• THIS CAMERA SUFFERS FROM IMAGE LAG.
• WHEN A BRIGHT LIGHT IS INCIDENT ON THETARGET SEMICONDUCTOR A
LARGE NO. OF FREE ELECTRONS ARE CREATED AND SMALL FRACTION OF
THESE ARE NOT ABLE TO GO TO SIGNAL PLATE(TIN OXIDE).THIS MEANS
PART OF THE TOTAL OMAGE IS RETAINED AS A FADED IMAGE. FOR A FEW
PART OF A SECOND EVEN AFTER THE ORIGINAL IMAGE IS SCANNED AND
MOVED OUT.
• THIS IMAGE LAG IS THE DISADVANTAGE OF THE VIDICON.
• THE REMEDY IS NOT TO EXPOSE IT ON BRIGHT LIGHT.
• ADVANTAGES
1. LIGHT AND EASILY POTABLE
2. S/N BETTER THAN I.O
3. NO GHOST,NO HALO
4. RESOLUTION BETTER THAN IO
5. SPECTRAL RESPONSE CLOSER TO EYE.
6. SENSITIVITY CAN BE ADJUSTED BY CHANGING TARGET VOLTAGE AS
PER ILLUMINATION OF THE SCENE.
7. NO GAMMA CORRECTION IS REQUIRED AS THER IS NO NON
LINEARITY.

• DISADVANTAGES
1. SENSITIVITY THOGH GOOD BUT LESS THAN IO
2. IMAGE LAG IS SEVERE.EVEN BURN IN OF IMAGE MAY OCCUR.
3. DARK CURRENT OF 20 nA IS HIGH COMPARED TO OTHR CAMERA
TUBES.

THE VIDICON IS USED WIDELY FOR OUTDOOR AND INDOOR

RECORDING.

PLUMBICON CAMERA TUBE.

• DEVELOPED IN 1963 BY PHILIPS.

• TO ELIMINATE IMAGE LAG EFFECT IN VIDICON A LESD MONOXIDE IS
SANDWITCHED BETWEEN n AND p TYPE MATERIAL (PIN-P-INTRINSIC-n)

110
• CONSTRUCTION GLASS PLATE OPTICALLY PURE.INSIDE PLATE TIN OXIDE
(CONDUCTOE IS COATED) IT IS TRANSPARENT TO LIGHT ALSO. (SIMILAR
TO VIDICON).THIS IS CONNRCTED BY METAL RING TO LOAD.THIS IS
SIGNAL PLATE.
• A LAYER OF INTRINSIC PBO IS DEPOSITED AND THIS IN COMBINATION
WITH SIO2 BECOME A n TYPE DEVICEON OTHER SIDE OF SIO2 WHERE THE
SIO2 AND PBO DIFFUSE.
• THE OTHER SIDE OF PBO MATERIAL IS DOPED WITH p TYPE MATERIAL.
• THE WHOLE ASSEMBLY BECOME PIN DIODE.PBO ANDWITCHED BETWEEN
n AND p TYPE MATTERIAL.
• VOLTAGES INDIRECTLY HEATED CATHODE 50V CONTROL GRID G1 (0)V
ACCELERATIG GRID G2 300VFOCUS GRID 260V MESH G4 400V SIGNAL
PLATE 50V(NOTE SAME VOLTAGE OF CATHODE AND SIGNAL PLATE THAT
MAKE ELECTRON BEAM TO LAND ON TARGET AT ZERO VELOCITY.
• ELECTRONS ARE GUIDED BT G1 ACCELERATED BY G2, FOCUSSED BY G3
(260V LOWER VOLTAGE TO SLOW DOWN ELECTRON FOR FOCUSSING) AND
MAGNETIC FOCUS COILS TO MAKE THE BEAM TO FOCUS AT CENTRE OF
TUBE.
• A GLASS DISC WITH BLACK COATING IS USED TO REMOVE HALO EFFECT.
• WHEN LIGHT FALLS ON THE TARGET-NTYPE MATERIALTHROUGH SIO2
CONDUCTOR FREE ELECTRONS ARE RELEASED .THEY MOVE ON THE
POTENSIAL AND SPACE GRADIENT AVAILABLE IN THE INTRINSIC
LAYERPBO AND REACH THE P TYPE MATERIAL(UNLIKE VIDICON WHERE
THERE IS NO SUCH SPACE IS AVAILABLE AND THIS PRODUCE IMAGE LAG
ON BRIGHT SCENES)
• THE ELECTRONS RELEASED MAKE THE DEVICE RESISTANCE LOW
COMPAREDTO THE IDLE SITUATION WHEN NO LIGHT FALL.
• THE PIN DIODE ACTS AS A CAPACITOR BECAUSE THE INTRINSIC MATERIAL
IS 20M OHS WHWN NO CONDUCTION TAKE PLACE AND DECREASES TO 2 M
OHMS WHEN CONDUCTION DUE TO WHITE LIGHT TAKES PLACE.
• THE RESISTANCE VARY FROM 2 TO 20 MOHMS ACROOS THE CAPACITOR
AND THE POTENCIAL ACROSS THE CAPACITOR VARY FROM0V (NO LIGHT)
AND 40V (LIGHT) YIELDING SIGNAL VOLTAGE VARYING FROM 0-40V
• HALO EFFECT OF PLUMBICON
• LEAD OXIDE AT LEFT SIDE OF TARGET PLATE REFECTS RED LIGHT FROM
EXTREME CORNERS OF THE TUBEPRODUCING RED HALO EFFECT OVER
THE PICTURE
• IF A GLASS PLATE WITH BLACK COATING IS PLACE EXACTLY AT
THEOUTER PORTION OF THE TUBE THE RED LIGHT IS ABSORBED AND
HALO EFFECT IS REMOVED.
• THE CAMERA HAS LESS THAN 2% IMAGE LAG COMPARED TO VIDICON 20%
111
 • ADVANTAGES
• SENSITIVITY 400MICRO A/LUMEN(100 MICRO A FOR VIDICON)
• S/N 47DB.IMAGE LAG LOW.NO GHOST
• DARK CURRENT 1 Na
• RESOLUTION 50 % AT 400 LINES.
• GAMMA 1.SMALL IN SIZE.
• DISADVANTAGES
• HALO EFFECT,REQUIRE A BLACK RING
• SENSITIVITY LESS THAN IMAGE ORTHICON
• SPECTRAL RESPONSE POOR FOR RED
• SIZE BIGGER THAN VIDICON.
• RESOLUTION LESS THAN VIDICON DUE TO SCATTERING OF LIGHT (THICH
TARGET)

SILICON VIDEO CAMERA.

• TARGET PLATE IS n TYPE SILICON WAFER COATED WITH SILICON DI OXIDE

(CONDUCTOR)
• A p TYPE MATERIAL IS DIFFUSED IN THE WAFER AT OPENINGS CREATING
PIXELS OF ABOUT 540X 540(300000)
• A FINE LAYER OF GOLD IS DEPOSITED OVER THE P TYPE CELLS.
• THE DIODES ARE REVERSE BIASED BY 10V AT SIGNAL PLATE n END.
• THE LIGHT INCIDENT ON THE N SIDE PRODUCES FREE ELCTRONS ON n
SIDE AND THEY INTURN PRODUCE HOLES AT p SIDE AND THUS THE p SIDE
IS +VELY CHARGED.
• ELECTRON BEAM SCAN THESE p CELLS AND THE VIDEO IS EXTRACTED
AND FED TO THE LOAD.
• 7 MICO A FOR WHITE LIGHT.LOW LAG OF IMAGE

CCD CAMERA (SOLID STATE DEVICE)

DETAILS.

• IN CONVENTIONAL CAMERA SCANNING METHOD IS USED TO EXTRACT

THE IMAGE.
112
• THE TUBE IS BULKY COMPLICATED.HAVING HIGH VOLTAGES.
• A DEVICE WAS DEVELOPED USING VLSI TO ARRAGE ONE PHOTO DIODE
FOR ONE PIXEL IN HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ROWS
• TYPICALLY A CHIP OF 8X 10MM CONTAIN 5x10 5 DODES
• WHEN AN IMAGE IS PROJECTED ON THE CHIP A +VE CHARGE IS
DEVELOPED AT EACH OF THE DIODE ARRAY.
• THESE CHARGES ARE TRANSFERRED INA SEQUENCIAL MANNER BY
TIMING PULSES OF H RETRACE AND V RETRACE RHTHYM
• SHIFT RECISTERS ARE USED FOR TRANSFERRING THE CHARGES AT THE
RHYTHMOF THE H CHARGES ROW BY ROW.
• ADVANTAGES
• NO ELCTRON BEAM SCANNING
• IMAGE LAG IS LOW
• HIGH RESOLUTION
• SENSITIVITY IS SAME AS TUBE CAMERA
• LOW VOLTAGE OPERATION AND LOW POWER CONSUMPTION

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The Scientist and Engineer's Guide to Digital Signal Processing
By Steven W. Smith, Ph.D.
Book Search:

• Home
• The Book by Chapters
o Chapter 1 - The Breadth and Depth of DSP
o Chapter 2 - Statistics, Probability and Noise
o Chapter 3 - ADC and DAC
o Chapter 4 - DSP Software
o Chapter 5 - Linear Systems
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o Chapter 8 - The Discrete Fourier Transform
o Chapter 9 - Applications of the DFT
o Chapter 10 - Fourier Transform Properties
o Chapter 11 - Fourier Transform Pairs
o Chapter 12 - The Fast Fourier Transform
o Chapter 13 - Continuous Signal Processing
o Chapter 14 - Introduction to Digital Filters
o Chapter 15 - Moving Average Filters
o Chapter 16 - Windowed-Sinc Filters

125
 o Chapter 17 - Custom Filters
o Chapter 18 - FFT Convolution
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• Contact

Chapter 23 - Image Formation & Display / Television Video Signals

Chapter 23: Image Formation & Display

Television Video Signals
Although over 50 years old, the standard television signal is still one of the most common way to
transmit an image. Figure 23-9 shows how the television signal appears on an oscilloscope. This is called
composite video, meaning that there are vertical and horizontal synchronization (sync) pulses mixed with the
actual picture information. These pulses are used in the television receiver to synchronize the vertical and
horizontal deflection circuits to match the video being displayed. Each second of standard video contains 30
complete images, commonly called frames. A video engineer would say that each frame contains 525 lines,
the television jargon for what programmers call rows. This number is a little deceptive because only 480 to 486
of these lines contain video information; the remaining 39 to 45 lines are reserved for sync pulses to keep the
television's circuits synchronized with the video signal.

Standard television uses an interlaced format to reduce flicker in the displayed image. This means that all the
odd lines of each frame are transmitted first, followed by the even lines. The group of odd lines is called the
odd field, and the group of even lines is called the even field.
126
Since each frame

single line is shown in the figure below. The sync pulse is separated from the active picture
information by the 'porches': the 'back' and 'front' porches. These avoid the picture detail affecting
the accuracy of the synchronisation. (A further feature of the back porch is the ability of this
otherwise unused period to include a phase reference signal for colour decoding in the PAL and
NTSC colour systems).

Interlace

Interlace was a technique developed in the

orders is used.)

127
The Appearance of a Raster on a CRT (with zero flyback

field syncs to ensure that the trailing edge of the integrated waveform is the same for both fields for
those circuits where this may be critical (e.g. where the area under the waveform can influence the
triggering point).

Field Sync Waveforms (CCIR 625 line system)

field syncs to ensure that the trailing edge of the integrated waveform is the same for both fields for
those circuits where this may be critical (e.g. where the area under the waveform can influence the
triggering point).

128
Field Sync Waveforms (CCIR 625 line system)

The equalisation pulses and the field sync are identical for both fields and are shown in detail below:

Designating Lines and Fields

Each line of a complete picture is individually numbered. Lines are always numbered consecutively
in time and not as displayed on the crt screen. However, since it is necessary to distinguish between
the two fields which go to make up each picture the terms 'odd' and 'even' are used. The 'odd' field
is defined as the one which ends in a half-line of picture information; whilst that which ends
in a full-line of picture information is termed

129
of even lines is called the even field.

Since each frame

130
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133
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135
How Plasma Displays Work
For the past 75 years, the vast majority of televisions have been built around the
same technology: the cathode ray tube
(CRT). In a CRT television, a gun fires a beam of electrons (negatively-charged
particles) inside a large glass tube. The
electrons excite phosphor atoms along the wide end of the tube (the screen), which
causes the phosphor atoms to light up.
The television image is produced by lighting up different areas of the phosphor
coating with different colors at different
intensities (see How Televisions Work for a detailed explanation).
Photo courtesy Sony
A plasma display from Sony
Cathode ray tubes produce crisp, vibrant images, but they do have a serious
drawback:
They are bulky. In order to increase the screen width in a CRT set, you also have to
increase the length of the tube (to give the scanning electron gun room to reach all
parts of
the screen). Consequently, any big-screen CRT television is going to weigh a ton and
take
up a sizable chunk of a room.
Recently, a new alternative has popped up on store shelves: the plasma flat panel
display. These televisions have wide screens, comparable to the largest CRT sets,
but
they are only about 6 inches thick. In this edition of HowStuffWorks, we'll see how
these
sets do so much in such a small space.
What is Plasma?
If you've read How Televisions Work, then you understand the basic idea of a
standard
television or monitor. Based on the information in a video signal, the television lights
up
thousands of tiny dots (called pixels) with a high-energy beam of electrons. In most
systems, there are three pixel colors -- red, green and blue -- which are evenly
distributed
on the screen. By combining these colors in different proportions, the television can
136
produce the entire color spectrum.
The basic idea of a plasma display is to illuminate tiny colored fluorescent lights to
form an image. Each pixel is made up of
three fluorescent lights -- a red light, a green light and a blue light. Just like a CRT
television, the plasma display varies the
intensities of the different lights to produce a full range of colors.
Tuning In
Most plasma displays aren't
technically televisions, because
they don't have a television tuner.
The television tuner is the device
that takes a television signal (the
one coming from a cable wire, for
example) and interprets it to create
a video image.
Like LCD monitors, plasma
displays are just monitors that
display a standard video signal. To
watch television on a plasma
display, you have to hook it up to a
The central element in a fluorescent light is a plasma, a gas made up of free-flowing
ions
(electrically charged atoms) and electrons (negatively charged particles). Under
normal
conditions, a gas is mainly made up of uncharged particles. That is, the individual gas
atoms
include equal numbers of protons (positively charged particles in the atom's nucleus)
and
electrons. The negatively charged electrons perfectly balance the positively charged
protons, so the atom has a net charge of zero.
If you introduce many free electrons into the gas by establishing an electrical voltage
across
it, the situation changes very quickly. The free electrons collide with the atoms,
knocking
loose other electrons. With a missing electron, an atom loses its balance. It has a net
positive charge, making it an ion.
In a plasma with an electrical current running through it, negatively charged particles
are
rushing toward the positively charged area of the plasma, and positively charged
particles
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137
Search HowStuffWorks & the Web
separate unit that has its own
television tuner, such as a VCR.
are rushing toward the negatively charged area.
In this mad rush, particles are constantly bumping into each other. These collisions
excite the gas atoms in the plasma,
causing them to release photons of energy. (For details on this process, see How
Fluorescent Lamps Work.)
Xenon and neon atoms, the atoms used in plasma screens, release light photons
when they are excited. Mostly, these
atoms release ultraviolet light photons, which are invisible to the human eye. But
ultraviolet photons can be used to excite
visible light photons, as we'll see in the next section.
Inside the Display
The xenon and neon gas in a plasma television is contained in hundreds of thousands
of tiny cells positioned between two
plates of glass. Long electrodes are also sandwiched between the glass plates, on
both sides of the cells. The address
electrodes sit behind the cells, along the rear glass plate. The transparent display
electrodes, which are surrounded by an
insulating dielectric material and covered by a magnesium oxide protective layer,
are mounted above the cell, along the
front glass plate.
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Both sets of electrodes extend across the entire screen. The display electrodes are
arranged in horizontal rows along the
screen and the address electrodes are arranged in vertical columns. As you can see
in the diagram below, the vertical and
horizontal electrodes form a basic grid.
To ionize the gas in a particular cell, the plasma display's computer charges the
electrodes that intersect at that cell. It does
this thousands of times in a small fraction of a second, charging each cell in turn.
When the intersecting electrodes are charged (with a voltage difference between
them), an electric current flows through the
gas in the cell. As we saw in the last section, the current creates a rapid flow of
charged particles, which stimulates the gas
atoms to release ultraviolet photons.
The released ultraviolet photons interact with phosphor material coated on the inside
wall of the cell. Phosphors are
substances that give off light when they are exposed to other light. When an ultraviolet
photon hits a phosphor atom in the
138
cell, one of the phosphor's electrons jumps to a higher energy level and the atom
heats up. When the electron falls back to
its normal level, it releases energy in the form of a visible light photon.
The phosphors in a plasma display give off colored light when they are excited. Every
pixel is made up of three separate
subpixel cells, each with different colored phosphors. One subpixel has a red light
phosphor, one subpixel has a green light
phosphor and one subpixel has a blue light phosphor. These colors blend together to
create the overall color of the pixel.
By varying the pulses of current flowing through the different cells, the control system
can increase or decrease the intensity
of each subpixel color to create hundreds of different combinations of red, green and
blue. In this way, the control system
can produce colors across the entire spectrum.
The main advantage of plasma display technology is that you can produce a very
wide screen using extremely thin
materials. And because each pixel is lit individually, the image is very bright and looks
good from almost every angle. The
image quality isn't quite up to the standards of the best cathode ray tube sets, but it
certainly meets most people's
expectations.
The biggest drawback of this technology has to be the price. With prices starting at
$4,000 and going all the way up past
$20,000, these sets aren't exactly flying off the shelves. But as prices fall and
technology advances, they may start to edge
out the old CRT sets. In the near future, setting up a new TV might be as easy as
hanging a picture!
To learn more about plasma displays, as well as other television technologies,
check out the links on the next page.
•Tube : The Invention of
!

The Cathode Ray Tube

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Almost all TVs in use today rely on a device known as the cathode ray tube, or CRT,
to display their images. LCDs and plasma displays are sometimes seen, but they are
still rare when compared to CRTs. It is even possible to make a television
screen out of thousands of ordinary 60-watt light bulbs! You may have seen
something like this at an outdoor event like a football game. Let's start with the CRT,
however, because CRTs are the most common way of displaying images today.
The terms anode and cathode are used in electronics as synonyms for positive and
negative terminals. For example, you
could refer to the positive terminal of a battery as the anode and the negative terminal
as the cathode.
Phosphor
A phosphor is any material that, when exposed to radiation, emits visible light. The radiation
might be ultraviolet light or a beam of electrons. Any fluorescent color is really a phosphor --
fluorescent colors absorb invisible ultraviolet light and emit visible light at a characteristic
color.
In a CRT, phosphor coats the inside of the screen. When the electron beam strikes the
phosphor, it makes the screen glow. In a black-and-white screen, there is one phosphor that
glows white when struck. In a color screen, there are three phosphors arranged as dots or
stripes that emit red, green and blue light. There are also three electron beams to illuminate the
three different colors together. There are thousands of different phosphors that have been
formulated. They are characterized by their emission color and the length of time emission
lasts after they are excited.
In a cathode ray tube, the "cathode" is a heated filament (not unlike the filament in a
normal light bulb). The heated filament is in a vacuum created inside a glass "tube."
The "ray" is a stream of electrons that naturally pour off a heated cathode into the
vacuum.
Electrons are negative. The anode is positive, so it attracts the electrons pouring off
the cathode. In a TV's cathode ray tube, the stream of electrons is focused by a
focusing anode into a tight beam and then accelerated by an accelerating anode. This
tight, high-speed beam of electrons flies through the vacuum in the tube and hits the
flat screen at the other end of the tube. This screen is coated with phosphor, which
glows when struck by the beam.
As you can see in this drawing, there's not a whole lot to a basic cathode ray tube.
There is a cathode and a pair (or more) of anodes. There is the phosphor-coated
screen. There is a conductive coating inside the tube to soak up the electrons that
pile up at the screen-end of the tube. However, in this diagram you can see no way to
"steer" the beam -- the beam will always land in a tiny dot right in the center of the
screen.
That's why, if you look inside any TV set, you will find that the tube is wrapped in coils
of wires. The following pictures give you three different views of a typical set of
steering coils:

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The steering coils are simply copper windings (see How Electromagnets Work for
details on coils). These coils are able to create magnetic fields inside the tube, and
the electron beam responds to the fields. One set of coils creates a magnetic
field that moves the electron beam vertically, while another set moves the beam
horizontally. By controlling the voltages in the coils, you can position the electron
beam at any point on the screen.
The Black-and-White TV Signal
In a black-and-white TV, the screen is coated with white phosphor and the electron
beam "paints" an image onto the screen
by moving the electron beam across the phosphor a line at a time. To "paint" the entire
screen, electronic circuits inside the TV use the magnetic coils to move the electron
beam in a "raster scan" pattern across and down the screen. The beam
paints one line across the screen from left to right. It then quickly flies back to the left
side, moves down slightly and paints another horizontal line, and so on down the
screen, like this:
In this figure, the blue lines represent lines that the electron beam is "painting" on the
screen from left to right, while the red dashed lines represent the beam flying back to
the left. When the beam reaches the right side of the bottom line, it has to move back
to the upper left corner of the screen, as represented by the green line in the figure.
When the beam is "painting," it is on, and when it is flying back, it is off so that it does
not leave a trail on the screen. The term horizontal retrace is used to refer to the
beam moving back to the left at the end of each line, while the term vertical retrace
refers to its movement from bottom to top. As the beam paints each line from left to
right, the intensity of the beam is changed to create different shades of black, gray
and white across the screen. Because the lines are spaced very closely together, your
brain integrates them into a single image. A TV screen normally has about 480 lines
visible from top to bottom. All TVs use an interlacing technique when painting the
screen. In this technique, the screen is painted 60 times per second but only half of
the lines are painted per frame. The beam paints every other line as it moves down
the screen -- for example, every odd-numbered line. Then, the next time it moves
down the screen it paints the even-numbered lines, alternating back and forth
between even-numbered and odd-numbered lines on each pass. The entire screen, in
two passes, is painted 30 times every second. The alternative to interlacing is called
progressive scanning, which paints every line on the screen 60 times per second.
Most computer monitors use progressive scanning because it significantly reduces
flicker.
Because the electron beam is painting all 525 lines 30 times per second, it paints a
total of 15,750 lines per second. (Some people can actually hear this frequency as a
very high-pitched sound emitted when the television is on.)
When a television station wants to broadcast a signal to your TV, or when your VCR
wants to display the movie on a video mesh with the electronics controlling the beam
so that the TV can accurately paint the picture that the TV station or VCR sends. The
TV station or VCR therefore sends a well-known signal to the TV that contains
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three different parts:
Intensity information for the beam as it paints each line l
Horizontal-retrace signals to tell the TV when to move the beam back at the end of
each line l
Vertical-retrace signals 60 times per second to move the beam from bottom-right to
top-left l
A signal that contains all three of these components is called a composite video
signal. A composite-video input on a VCR
is normally a yellow RCA jack. One line of a typical composite video signal looks
something like this:
The horizontal-retrace signals are 5-microsecond (abbreviated as "us" in the figure)
pulses at zero volts. Electronics inside
the TV can detect these pulses and use them to trigger the beam's horizontal retrace.
The actual signal for the line is a varying wave between 0.5 volts and 2.0 volts, with
0.5 volts representing black and 2 volts representing white. drives the intensity circuit
for the electron beam. In a black-and-white TV, this signal can consume about 3.5
megahertz (MHz) of bandwidth, while in a color set the limit is about 3.0 MHz.
A vertical-retrace pulse is similar to a horizontal-retrace pulse but is 400 to 500
microseconds long. The vertical-retrace pulse is serrated with horizontal-retrace
pulses in order to keep the horizontal-retrace circuit in the TV synchronized.
Adding Color
A color TV screen differs from a black-and-white screen in three ways:
There are three electron beams that move simultaneously across the screen. They
are named the red, green and blue beams. l
The screen is not coated with a single sheet of phosphor as in a black-and-white TV.
Instead, the screen is coated with red, green and blue phosphors arranged in dots or
stripes. If you turn on your TV or computer monitor and look closely at the screen with
a magnifying glass, you will be able to see the dots or stripes.
l
On the inside of the tube, very close to the phosphor coating, there is a thin metal
screen called a shadow mask. This mask is perforated with very small holes that are
aligned with the phosphor dots (or stripes) on the screen. l
The following figure shows how the shadow mask works:
When a color TV needs to create a red dot, it fires the red beam at the red phosphor.
Similarly for green and blue dots. To create a white dot, red, green and blue beams
are fired simultaneously -- the three colors mix together to create white. To
create a black dot, all three beams are turned off as they scan past the dot. All other
colors on a TV screen are combinations of red, green and blue.
A color TV signal starts off looking just like a black-and-white signal. An extra
chrominance signal is added by superimposing a 3.579545 MHz sine wave onto the
standard black-and-white signal. Right after the horizontal sync pulse, eight cycles of
a 3.579545 MHz sine wave are added as a color burst. Following these eight cycles,
a phase shift in the chrominance signal indicates the color to display. The amplitude
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of the signal determines the saturation. The following table shows you the relationship
between color and phase:
Color Phase
Burst 0 degrees
Yellow 15 degrees
Red 75 degrees
Magenta 135 degrees
Blue 195 degrees
Cyan 255 degrees
Green 315 degrees
A black-and-white TV filters out and ignores the chrominance signal. A color TV picks
it out of the signal and decodes it,
along with the normal intensity signal, to determine how to modulate the three color
beams.
Getting the Signal to You
Now you are familiar with a standard composite video signal. Note that we have not
mentioned sound. If your VCR has a yellow composite-video jack, you've probably
noticed that there are separate sound jacks right next to it. Sound and video are
completely separate in an analog TV. You are probably familiar with five different ways
to get a signal into your TV set:
Broadcast programming received through an antenna l
VCR or DVD player that connects to the antenna terminals l
Cable TV arriving in a set-top box that connects to the antenna terminals l
Large (6 to 12 feet) satellite-dish antenna arriving in a set-top box that connects to the
antenna terminals l
Small (1 to 2 feet) satellite-dish antenna arriving in a set-top box that connects to the
antenna terminals l
The first four signals use standard NTSC analog waveforms as described in the
previous sections. As a starting point, let's look at how normal broadcast signals arrive
at your house.
A typical TV signal as described above requires 4 MHz of bandwidth. By the time you
add in sound, something called a vestigial sideband and a little buffer space, a TV
signal requires 6 MHz of bandwidth. Therefore, the FCC allocated three bands of
frequencies in the radio spectrum, chopped into 6-MHz slices, to accommodate TV
channels:
54 to 88 MHz for channels 2 to 6 l
174 to 216 MHz for channels 7 through 13 l
470 to 890 MHz for UHF channels 14 through 83 l
The composite TV signal described in the previous sections can be broadcast to your
house on any available channel. The composite video signal is amplitude-modulated
into the appropriate frequency, and then the sound is frequency-modulated

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(+/- 25 KHz) as a separate signal, like this: To the left of the video carrier is the
vestigial lower sideband (0.75 MHz), and to the right is the full upper sideband (4
MHz).
The sound signal is centered on 5.75 MHz. As an example, a program transmitted on
channel 2 has its video carrier at 55.25 MHz and its sound carrier at 59.75 MHz. The
tuner in your TV, when tuned to channel 2, extracts the composite video signal
and the sound signal from the radio waves that transmitted them to the antenna.
VCRs are essentially their own little TV stations. Almost all VCRs have a switch on the
back that allows you to select
channel 3 or 4. The video tape contains a composite video signal and a separate
sound signal. The VCR has a circuit inside that takes the video and sound signals off
the tape and turns them into a signal that, to the TV, looks just like the broadcast
signal for channel 3 or 4.
The cable in cable TV contains a large number of channels that are transmitted on
the cable. Your cable provider could simply modulate the different cable-TV programs
onto all of the normal frequencies and transmit that to your house via the cable; then,
the tuner in your TV would accept the signal and you would not need a cable box.
Unfortunately, that approach would make theft of cable services very easy, so the
signals are encoded in funny ways. The set-top box is a decoder. You select the
channel on it, it decodes the right signal and then does the same thing a VCR does to
transmit the signal to the TV on channel 3 or 4.
Large-dish satellite antennas pick off unencoded or encoded signals being beamed
to Earth by satellites. First, you point the dish to a particular satellite, and then you
select a particular channel it is transmitting. The set-top box receives the signal,
decodes it if necessary and then sends it to channel 3 or 4. Small-dish satellite
systems are digital. The TV programs are encoded in MPEG-2 format and
transmitted to Earth. The set-top box does a lot of work to decode MPEG-2, then
converts it to a standard analog TV signal and sends it to your TV on channel 3 or 4.
Digital TV
The latest buzz is digital TV, also known as DTV or HDTV (high-definition TV). DTV
uses MPEG-2 encoding just like the satellite systems do, but digital TV allows a
variety of new, larger screen formats. The formats include:
480p - 640x480 pixels progressive l
720p - 1280x720 pixels progressive l
1080i - 1920x1080 pixels interlaced l
A digital TV decodes the MPEG-2 signal and displays it just like a computer monitor
does, giving it incredible resolution and stability. There is also a wide range of set-top
boxes that can decode the digital signal and convert it to analog to display it on
a normal TV. For more information, check out How Digital Television Works.
Monitors vs. TVs
Your computer probably has a "VGA monitor" that looks a lot like a TV but is smaller,
has a lot more pixels and has a much crisper display. The CRT and electronics in a
monitor are much more precise than is required in a TV; a computer monitor needs
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higher resolutions. In addition, the plug on a VGA monitor is not accepting a
composite signal -- a VGA plug separates
out all of the signals so they can be interpreted by the monitor more precisely. Here's
a typical VGA pinout:
pin 1 - Red video l
pin 2 - Green video l
pin 3 - Blue video l
pin 4 - Ground l
pin 5 - Self test l
pin 6 - Red ground l
pin 7 - Green ground l
pin 8 - Blue ground l
pin 9 - No pin l
pin 10 - Digital ground l
pin 11 - Reserved l
pin 12 - Reserved l
pin 13 - Horizontal sync l
pin 14 - Vertical sync l
pin 15 - Reserved l
This table makes the point that the signals for the three beams as well as both
horizontal and vertical sync signals are all transmitted separately.

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