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3
3
Chapter 3
Outline
State functions and exact differentials •
The temperature dependence of the •
enthalpy
The relation between Cv and Cp •
כל פונקצית מצב –היא פונקציה שאינה תלוית מסלול.
V2 , P2 , T2 למצב סופי
V1 , P1 , T1 שינוי ממצב התחלתי -
יהיה זהה ללא תלות בדרך ותהליך.
להדגיש -עבודה אינה פונקצית מצב.
מצב. חום אינו פונקצית
∆U =UfUi ∫ dU = Uf − Ui
As the volume and temperature of a system
are changed, the internal energy changes. An
adiabatic and a nonadiabatic path are shown
as Path 1 and 2, respectively: they correspond
to different values of q and w but to the same
value of U.
An exact differential = an infinitesimal quantity which, when
integrated, gives a result that is independent of the path between the
initial and final state.
final
∆U = ∫ dU = U
initial
final − U initial
q= ∫ dq ≠ q
initial
final − qinitial
( f ) y, z או
Relations between partial derivatives
∂F ∂F
1( If F is a function of x and y, then the differential of F will be: dF = dx + dy
∂X y ∂y x
2 2
∂ F ∂ F
2( If F is a state function, the differential of F is exact, and fulfills: =
∂x∂y ∂y∂x
In another way:
∂G ∂H
dF = G)x, y(dx + H)x, y(dy is exact, if =
∂y x ∂x y
∂F ∂F ∂F ∂y
3( When x is changed at constant z )z is dependent of x and y(, then: = +
∂x z ∂x y ∂y x ∂x z
∂x ∂y
4( The inverter: =1
∂y z ∂x z
∂x ∂x ∂z
5( The permuter: =−
∂y z ∂z y ∂y x
6( By combining relation no. 5 and relation no. 4 we obtain Euler’s chain relation:
∂x ∂y ∂z
= −1
∂y z ∂z x ∂x y
אנחנו רוצים לחשב את ∆Uו ∆Hלתהליכים שונים.
הנגזרות הנדרשות
∂U ∆U
CV =
∂T V, ∂T , p
עפ"י כללי הנגזרות
∂U ∂U ∂V
= CV +
∂T p ∂V T ∂T p
∂U
עבור גז אידיאלי= 0 :
∂V T
עבור גז ריאלי זה יגזר לפי פונקצית המצב.
∂U
בהמשך. אנו נלמד איך מחשבים
∂V T
∂U ∂P
T =T V לפי שעה ניתן לתת את התשובה - P :
∂V ∂T
אנו רוצים לחשב עוד נגזרות ,הן של אנטלפיה והן של אנרגיה
חופשית.
∂P
לפי אותו הטריק בטבלה ,הבה נראה מה המשמעות של
∂T
T
הנגזרות . ננסה לשחק עם הביטוי הזה באמצעות כללי
.כלל השרשרת של אוילר
∂P ∂V
= −1
∂T V ∂T ∂P T
∂V P
?? עוזר לנו
∂P ∂V ∂V
= − אפשרות נוספת
∂T V ∂T P ∂P T
∂V
= αV מכירים
∂T P
∂V
מה זה
∂ P T
תשובה:
עוד גדל פיסיקלי חשוב ביותר :מקדם הדחיסיות האיזותרמית.
1 ∂V
K =−
V ∂P T
H = g ) P, T ( f )V , T ( = U שהרי
1
∂H ∂T ∂T ∂H ∂T
= = − = − CP
∂P T ∂P ∂H P ∂P H ∂T P ∂P H
∂T H
∂T
ולראות האם יש לגדל הזה ∂P H כדי למצוא את
משמעות פיסיקלית עלינו עלינו לעשות את ניסוי ג'אול
.תומפסון
מדחום התפשטות גז דרך נחיר!!
∆T
כחשבון אינפיטסימאלי. ואנו מחפשים
∆P
∂H α
= CP − • µ JT • CP
∂T V K
α µ JT
= CP)1 - (
k
∆U = 3 R∆T עבור גז אידיאלי מונו אטומי
2
∆H = ∆U + nR∆T
אם ∆H
התהליך עצמו -זרימה דרך נחיר שווה ל 0
∆T הרי
מודדים
∆P
∆H = 0
מה קורה עם גז אידיאלי מהו
מקדם גאול תומפסון שלו? } ∆U = 0
∆T = 0
עבור גז אידיאלי. µJT = 0
µ JT = 0 עבור גז אידיאלי
The principle of the Linde refrigerator is
shown in this diagram. The gas is
recirculated and, so long as it is beneath
its inversion temperature, it cools on
expansion through the throttle. The
cooled gas cools the highpressure gas,
which cools still further as it expands.
Eventually liquefied gas drips from the
throttle.
CV -ו Cp ההבדל בין
∂U ∂U
Cp − CV = −
∂T P ∂T V
H = U + PV
∂U ∂PV ∂U
Cp − Cv = − −
∂T P ∂T P ∂T V
∂U ∂U ∂U
− = αV
∂T P ∂T V ∂V T
∂U ∂U
= CV + αV
∂T P ∂V T
∂PV ∂V
= P
∂T P ∂T P
∂U עכשיו
CP − CV = αV + αPV =
∂V T
∂U
= αV +P
∂V T
∂U
וכרגע אין לנו את הכלים לחשב נתקענו שוב עם
∂V T
את זה.
1
= T2 = TV
PV
=R
1 T
P
וכך אפשר למצוא את C P − CVלכל גז ריאלי
עבור כל משואת מצב נתונה ועל פיה.
T2
w=T 1 ∫ CV dT
Wadiabatic = CV∆T אם Cקבוע אז
?
dT V1 dV
CVT 1 T2
∫ = −nR V2 ∫
T V
T2 V2
CV ln = − nR ln
T1 V1
CV Cm
C= = מולרי
nR R
T2 V2
ln = ln
T1 V1
c c
V2T2 =V1T1
1
V2 c
T2 =
V1
1
V1 c
W = CV ( T2 − T1 ) = CV −1
V2
Cp 1
γ= Cp − CV = R ⇒ = γ − 1
CV C
γ −1
W = CVT1 V V − 1
1 2
PV נציב
←T
R
P1V1 T1
=
R2V2 T2
עבור התפשטות אדיאבטית
1
T1 V2 C
=
T2 V1
γ −1
V1 / V
2
γ −1
P1V1 V2 γ γ
= P1V1 = P2V2 = const
P2V2 V1
γ −1
w = CV T1}P2 / }γ − 1
P1
γ >1
לכן שיפוע אדיאבטה גדול משיפוע איזותרמה.בתהליכים
הפיכים היוצאים מאותו מצב התחלתי.
על תהתלמידים להכין כתרגיל בית את הטבלה הבאה
w Q
סוג התהליך עבודה חום ∆U ∆T ∆H
התפשטות כנגד
ואקום o o o o o
תהליך איזותרמי
∂U
?
∂P
∂U =T −P
For ideal gases: =0 For real gases:
∂V T ∂V T ∂T V
∂P R
For example, for Van der Waals gas: =
∂T V V − b
∂U R RT RT a a
so: =T −P = − + 2 = 2
∂V T V−b V−b V−b V V
1 ∂V ∂V
Expansion coefficient: α= = αV
V ∂T P ∂T P
∂U
=? ∂P ∂T ∂V
∂T P According to the Euler’s chain relation: ⋅ ⋅ = −1
∂T V ∂V P ∂P T
continue
1 ∂V
Isothermal compressibility Κ T = −
V ∂P T
∂V
∂P α
so: = − ∂T P =
∂T V ∂V Κ
∂P T
Therefore:
∂U ∂ ∂U
= C V dT + dV =
∂T T ∂T ∂V T P
∂U ∂V ∂P α
= CV + = C V + T − P αV = C V + T − P αV
∂V T ∂T P ∂T V Κ
For a perfect gas, the internal energy is independent
of the volume (at constant temperature). If attractions
are dominant in a real gas, the internal energy
increases with volume because the molecules
become further apart on average. If repulsions are
dominant, the internal energy decreases as the gas
expands.
A schematic diagram of the apparatus used by Joule in
an attempt to measure the change in internal energy
when a gas expands isothermally. The heat absorbed
by the gas is proportional to the change in temperature
of the bath.
1 ∂V
Expansion coefficient: α =
V ∂T P
1 ∂V 1 ∂) nRT / P ( nR 1
For perfect gas: α = = = =
V ∂T P V ∂T P PV T
∂H
Changes in the enthalpy at constant volume:
αμ
= 1 − C P
∂T V Κ T
1 ∂V
Isothermal compressibility: Κ T = −
V ∂P T
1 ∂V 1 ∂ )nRT / P ( nRT 1 1
For perfect gas: Κ T = − =− =− − 2 =
V ∂P T V ∂P T V P P
∂H ∂H ∂H ∂H
=? The differential of H)P,T( is: dH = dT + dP = C P dT + dP
∂T V ∂T P ∂P T ∂P T
∂H ∂ ∂H ∂H ∂P
so: = C P dT + dP = C P + = .....
∂T V ∂T ∂P T V ∂P T ∂T V
? α
∂H ∂P ∂T Κ
According to the Euler’s chain relation: ⋅ ⋅ = −1
∂P T ∂T H ∂H P
∂H ∂T ∂H
so: = − ⋅ = −μ JT ⋅ C p
∂P T ∂P H ∂T P
∂H ∂ ∂H ∂H ∂P
Therefore: = C P dT + dP = C P +
∂T V ∂T ∂P T V ∂P T ∂T V
α α
= C P − μ JT ⋅ C p ⋅ = C P 1 − μ JT ⋅
Κ Κ
The Joule – Thompson effect
The Joule Thompson effect is the change in temperature that occurs when a gas expands
adiabatically through a throttle from a high pressure to a low pressure. The magnitude of the
effect is determined by the Joule Thompson coefficient.
∂T
μ JT =
∂P H
A diagram of the apparatus used for
measuring the JouleThomson effect. The
gas expands through the porous barrier,
which acts as a throttle, and the whole
apparatus is thermally insulated. This
arrangement corresponds to an isenthalpic
expansion (expansion at constant enthalpy).
Whether the expansion results in a heating or
a cooling of the gas depends on the
conditions.
For perfect gases, no interactions, so,
when P changes dT=0, and:
∂T
μ JT = =0
∂P H
For real gases,
when attraction interactions are dominant, as
P T, so:
∂T
> 0, μ JT > 0
∂P H
The sign of the JouleThomson coefficient depends on the
conditions. Inside the boundary, the shaded area, it is positive and
outside it is negative. The temperature corresponding to the
boundary at a given pressure is the `inversion temperature' of the
gas at that pressure. For a given pressure, the temperature must
be below a certain value if cooling is required but, if it becomes too
low, the boundary is crossed again and heating occurs. Reduction
of pressure under adiabatic conditions moves the system along
one of the isenthalps, or curves of constant enthalpy. The
inversion temperature curve runs through the points of the
isenthalps where their slopes change from negative to positive.
The relation between Cv and Cp
∂H ∂U
C p − CV = −
∂T P ∂T V
∂U ∂ ( pV ) ∂U
= + −
∂T P ∂T P ∂T V
∂ ( pV ) ∂V
=p = αpV C p − CV = α)p + π T (V
∂T P ∂T P
∂P
When: π T = T −P
∂T V
∂P
We get: C p − CV = αTV
∂T V
∂P α
Since: =
∂T V Κ T
α2
Then: C p − CV = VT = nR )for perfect gases(
Κ
Perfect Gas
ΔT Q W ΔU ΔH
Irreversible isothermal
expansion
0 P ex ΔV − P ex ΔV 0 0
)P, T constant(
Reversible isothermal
Vf Vf
expansion
)T constant(
0 nRTln
Vi
− nRTln
Vi
0 0
Irreversible adiabatic
−P ex ΔV
expansion
0 C V ΔT C V ΔT C P ΔT
)P constant, dq=0( CV
Reversible adiabatic W
expansion
)dq=0( CV 0 C V ΔT C V ΔT C P ΔT
Example:
An ideal gas undergoes the following reversible
processes:
• From an initial state of 70 ºC and 1 bar, it is
compressed adiabatically to 150 ºC.
• The gas is cooled from 150 to 70 ºC at
constant pressure.
• The gas is expanded isothermally to its
original state.
-Calculate W, Q, ΔU and ΔH for each of the three processes and for the entire cycle.
Take Cv,m = 3/2 R.
-Repeat these calculations for the same changes in state accomplished irreversibly,
provided that the efficiency of each process is 80 percent compared with the
reversible operation.
Solution :Consider first the reversible (b) Constant-pressure cooling:
.operation of the cycle ΔH = Q = C p ΔT = 20.785)70 − 150(
3 5 = −1663)J(/)mol(
C p,m = C v,m + R = R+R = R
2 2 ΔU = C V ΔT = 12.471)70 − 150(
3 = −998)J(/)mol(
C v,m = 8.314 = 12.471)J(/)mol °K(
2 W = Q − ΔU = −1663 − ) −998( = −665)J(/)mol(
5
C p,m = 8.314 = 20.785)J(/)mol °K( (c) Isothermal expansion:
2
• adiabatic compression: ΔT = 0 so, for ideal gases :
For 1 mol of an ideal gas : ΔH = C p ΔT = 0
ΔU = − W = C v ΔT = 12.471)150 − 70( ΔU = C V ΔT = 0
= 998)J(/)mol( P3
Q = W = RT ln
ΔH = C p ΔT = 20.785)150 − 70( P1
= 1663)J(/)mol( 1.689
= 8.314)343( ln = 1495)J(/)mol(
1
Q=0
For the entire cycle:
γ/)γ −1(
T Q = 0 - 1663 + 1495 = -168)J(/)mol(
P2 = P3 = P1 2
T1 W = -998 - 665 + 1495 = -168)J(/)mol( = -Q
2.5
150 + 273 ΔU = 998 - 998 + 0 = 0
= 1 = 1.689 bar
70 + 273 ΔH = 1663 - 1663 + 0 = 0 State functions!!!
If the same states changes are carried out by irreversible process, the property changes
of the steps will be identical with those already calculated. However, the values of Q
.and W will be different
•The original adiabatic compression: (c) Isothermal expansion:
This process can no longer be adiabatic. For As work is done by the system in this
the reversible adiabatic compression, W was process, the irreversible work is less
–998 J/mol. If the process is 80% efficient than the reversible work:
compared with this, so: W = 0.80)1495( = 1196)J(/)mol(
− 998 Q = ΔU + W = 0 + 1196 = 1196)J(/)mol(
W= = −1248 )J()mol(
0.80
∆U = 998 )J()mol(
Q = ∆U + W = 998 - 1248 = -250 )J()mol(
mRΔT
Wa = m ∫ PdV = mP Δ V =
M
J
when : R = 8.314 , m = 400 gr, M = 28;
mol°K
Wa =
( 400) )8.314()0 - 27( = −3207 J
28
Q a = mΔ H a = mC p ΔT
7
= ( 400 ) ( 8.314/28)( 0 − 27 ) = −11224J
Step a : 2
From the first law :
27 °C, 1.35 atm const
P → 0 °C, 1.35 atm
m∆U a = Q a − Wa = −11224 − )−3207( = −8017J
Step b :
1 Also,
0 °C, V2 const
T
→ 0 °C, V3 = V2 m∆U a = mC V ΔT
2
Step c : 5
= ( 400 ) ( 8.314/28)( 0 − 27 ) = −8017 J
0 °C, V3 const
V
→ 27 °C, V4 = V3 2
Step d :
4 = T1
27 °C, V4 T → 27 °C, 1.35 atm
Step b: reversible isothermal compression :Step d
7
= ( 400 ) ( 8.314/28)( 27 − 0) = 11224J
2