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Cramsession
Contents Abstract:
Contents .............................. 1
This Cramsession will help you to
Cisco Device Operation........... 2 prepare for Cisco exam #350-001, the
CCIE written exam. Exam topics include,
General Networking Theory .... 5
Cisco Device Operation, General
Bridging & LAN Switching ....... 8 Networking Theory, Bridging & LAN
Switching, Internet Protocol, IP Routing
IP Routing Protocols..............17
Protocols, Desktop Protocols,
Desktop Protocols.................26 Performance Management, WAN, LAN,
Security, and Multiservice.
Performance Management .....28
WAN ...................................29
LAN ....................................33
Security ..............................35
TACACS (Terminal Access
Controller Access Control
System) ..............................35
Multiservice .........................36
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BrainBuzz Cramsession: Cisco Certified Internetwork Expert 2
Mode Prompts
Monitor mode rommon 1 >
User mode router>
Privileged mode router#
Global configuration mode router(config)#
Interface configuration mode router(config-if)#
Sub-interface configuration mode router(config-subif)#
Line configuration mode router(config-line)#
Router configuration mode router(config-router)#
IPX router configuration mode router(config-ipx-router)#
Passwords
Things to know:
• The user mode password is the only one that cannot be created in the setup
dialogue.
• All passwords can be encrypted.
• A password can be set for individual lines.
• If no password is set on the vty lines there is no telnet access into this router.
• Router(config)# service password-encryption – encrypts all passwords in the
configuration file.
Types of passwords:
• Exec – used to restrict access to the EXEC mode, the basic console on the
router.
• Enable – used to restrict access to the privileged EXEC mode where changes
to the router configuration can be made.
• Enable Secret – Similar to the Enable password, but they are encrypted so
they cannot be read.
Register Values
• 0x2102 – Default mode
• 0x2142 - The value used to recover passwords
Debug
By default, all debug information goes to the console port on a Cisco router only. To
view debug messages from a VTY session, you must issue the “terminal monitor”
command.
Router# debug serial interface - monitors keepalives on an interface.
To reduce the impact of a debug command on the CPU of the router, use the
scheduler-interval command and be sure to use the debug command as specifically
as possible.
• No message sequencing
• No delivery guarantee
• Higher layer is responsible for error recovery, flow control, and reliability
Routing / Switching
• Routing is defined as a Layer-3 activity.
• Bridging is defined as a Layer-2 activity.
• Switching is defined as a Layer-2 activity. Switching is often called micro-
segmentation, in that each switched port is basically its own bridged domain.
Reliability of Protocols
• TCP and LLC Type 2 are reliable protocols because they are layer four
protocols
• IP, UDP, and Frame Relay are NOT reliable protocols because they are layer
three protocols
802.x Protocols
802.2 Link Layer Control (LLC)
802.3 CSMA/CD Access Method (Ethernet)
802.4 Token Ring Bus
802.5 Token Ring
802.6 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
802.7 Broadband
802.8 Fiber-optic LANs
802.9 Integrated Voice & Data
802.10 LAN/MAN Security
802.11 Wireless
802.12 VGAnyLAN
Passive Interface
When enabled on an interface this command allows the interface to hear routing
updates, but not repeat them. This helps to control routing updates.
Example: Router(config-router)# passive-interface s0
Connectivity
(Diagram A-1)
Bridging techniques
Transparent Bridging (TB) – As the name implies, this type of bridging is
transparent to the end devices. The end devices are unaware that when they
communicate they are not local to one another. This functionality is not enabled by
default on Cisco routers, but can be turned on when needed.
When a device wishes to communicate, it will send out a broadcast to search for the
requested destination address. When a Transparent Bridge sees the first broadcast
from a device, it extracts the MAC address from the packet and enters it into its
forwarding table, the list of devices on each interface. This process of determining
what devices exist on each of the bridge’s ports is called learning.
If the bridge receives a broadcast with a destination address that is in its forwarding
table it forwards the broadcast only to that one interface. If it is not in the table, it
repeats the broadcast out of all of its interfaces (except the one on which it was
received). This process is called flooding.
Ripping up a RIF
This will seem complicated, but once you understand how RIFs are defined, simple
practice will drive home the necessary techniques
The first bit of the first byte of the source address is the Routing Information
Indicator (RII), which is exactly what it sounds like; it indicates that what follows is a
RIF. If this bit is a 1, the frame is a RIF; if the bit is a 0, it is not.
Here are the component parts of the first 2 bytes of a RIF, called the RCF (Routing
Control Field):
1. The first 3 bits define what kind of RIF is being examined:
• 0xx – single route frame
• 10x – all-routes explorer frame
• 11x – spanning explorer frame
2. The next 5 bits show the length of the RIF. This indicates how many bytes of
bridge/ring numbers follow.
3. The next single bit shows direction:
• 0 – read from left-to-right
• 1 – read from right-to-left
5. The last four bits are not relevant. They are reserved for future use.
Here’s an example of a RIF: 0810.0011.0023.0040
Translating the first two bytes (0810) to binary gives us: 0000.1000.0001.0000
Rip it up to define:
Type RIF Length Direction Frame Length Not used
000 01000 0 000 0000
The rest of the RIF is called the RDF (Route Descriptor Field) and reading it is easy.
The first three digits of each two-byte grouping are the ring number (in
hexadecimal). The last digit is the bridge number (again, in hex). A zero in the
bridge number designation indicates that the destination ring has been reached.
Notice that since only four bits are used for the ring number, and zero is already
taken, the only bridge numbers available are hex 1 through F (1 to 15 in decimal).
Rip it up to define:
Type RIF Length Direction Frame Length Not used
000 01010 0 001 0000
The Nice-try rule: SRB only runs on Token Ring networks, so Ethernet devices
do not use RIFs. If you are looking at a network diagram and see that one of the
hosts is on an Ethernet segment, remember that RIFs are irrelevant.
The Roadblock rule: In a DLSw environment the RIF is terminated at the DLSw
router (the definition of DLSw occurs later in this document).
conversion from Ethernet frames to Token Ring frames (bit ordering); adjusts the
MTU sizes (default for Token Ring is 4,464 bytes, Ethernet 1.500 bytes); and adds
and removes RIFs, as necessary. To the Token Ring devices the Ethernet segment
looks like an SRB domain using a pseudo ring.
The IP network being traversed is considered one hop, using the concept of a virtual
ring. Though RIFs pass through the network, they are calculated as if the entire IP
network is one hop using this concept, and all acknowledgements are local,
conserving valuable WAN bandwidth.
Ethernet networks can be traversed as long as the local router is running SR/TLB.
Additional tools available with DLSw+ include: Dynamic peers, peers on demand,
backup peers and the ability to load balance connections.
Encapsulated Bridging
Used to bridge over an IP Backbone or FDDI Backbone.
LAN Switching
All nodes on an Ethernet network can transmit at the same time, so the more nodes
you have the greater the possibility of collisions happening, which can slow the
network down.
LAN Segmentation: breaking up the collision domains by decreasing the number of
workstations per segment.
Switching – examines MAC address. Works like a massive multiport bridge. Switching
types:
• Store-and-Forward – copies entire frame into buffer, checks for CRC errors.
Higher latency. Used by Catalyst 5000 switches
• Cut-Through – reads only the destination address into buffer, and forwards
immediately. Low latency
IP Routing Protocols
• Static Routes
• OSPF
• ISIS
• EIGRP
• RIP
• IGRP
Common IP Ports
20/21 FTP
23 Telnet
25 SMTP
37 Time Service
49 TACACs
53 DNS
68 BootP Client
67 BootP Server
69 TFTP
161 SNMP
To configure a router to pass bootp packets (DHCP requests) you can use the “ip
helper-address x.x.x.x” command.
Addressing issues
CIDR - Classless Inter-domain Routing, CIDR used by BGP ver4.
Route Summarization
Reducing the number of networks being advertised between routers simplifies the
routing table, reduces memory and CPU requirements, and makes the network more
logical. This results in enhancing network performance and reclaiming bandwidth
that would otherwise be used to pass routes back and forth.
Access Lists
Used to permit or deny traffic based on the source network/subnet/host address.
Things to know:
• The wildcard mask, which looks like a reversed subnet mask, defines which
bits of the address are used for the access list decision-making process.
• Lists are processed top-down. In other words, the first matching rule
preempts further processing.
• Only one access list is allowed per port/per direction/per protocol.
• Remember that there is an implicit deny at the end of all access lists.
• The last configured line should always be a permit statement.
• Standard lists will most likely be placed close to the destination.
• Extended lists will most likely be placed close to the source.
• If the access-group command is configured on an interface and there is no
corresponding access-list created, the command will be executed and permit
all traffic in and out.
• An Access Class limits VTY (telnet) access.
• A Distribution List filters incoming or outgoing routing updates.
IP Routing Protocols
Methods for avoiding routing loops
Holddowns – Learned routes are held incommunicado for a period of time to
prevent updates advertising networks that are misbehaving.
Poison reverse – Similar to split horizon, but instead of ignoring the update, the
route is advertised back to the originating interface as a poisoned reverse update.
The originating router gets its own route back, but with the time-to-live field
exceeded, so the route is removed from the table. When the routers re-converge,
the holddown timers have expired. This helps to more quickly clear bad routes from
the list being passed back and forth between the routers.
Administrative Distance
Determines the level of trust each routing protocol will be given when a route is
advertised from more than one. The primary AD’s are:
Directly Connected 0
Static 1
EBGP 20
EIGRP (Internal) 90
IGRP 100
OSPF 110
ISIS 115
RIP 120
EGP 140
EIGRP (External) 170
IBGP 200
BGP Local 200
Unknown 255
RIP
There are two versions of RIP - version 1 and 2. RIPv2 is classless and supports a
variable subnet mask. Both use hop count as the only metric and have a time to live
of 15 hops. A hop is basically one pass through a router. Updates include the entire
routing table, and are sent out every 30 seconds.
RIP requires neither an AS or Process ID number.
Example: Router(config)# router rip
Configuring a default route in RIP:
Example: Router(config)# ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 10.10.10.1
Peer Relationships:
OSPF hello packet information must be the same on all routers in an area for peering
relationships to be formed. This information includes:
• Hello/Dead Interval
• Area ID
• Authentication Password
• Stub Area Flag
Router Types:
• Internal Router (LSA Type 1 or 2) – Routers that have all their interfaces in
the same area. They have identical link-state databases and run single copies
of the routing algorithm.
• Backbone Routers (LSA Type 1 or 2) – Routers that have at least one
interface connected to area 0.
• Area Border Router (LSA Type 3 or 4) – Routers that have interfaces attached
to multiple areas. They maintain separate link-state databases for each area.
Connection to area 0 - The main dictate in OSPF is that multiple areas all
connect directly to the backbone area. The connection to the backbone area is via
an ABR, which is resident in both areas and holds a full topological database for each
area. A remote network can connect to area 0 via a virtual link, essentially a tunnel
through the ABR in the intermediate area. From the viewpoint of OSPF, it has a
direct connection.
Packets designated to a different AS (Autonomous System) are forwarded to an ABR,
which sends the packet through the backbone area (area 0) to the destination
network ABR, which forwards it to the appropriate host. All packets that pass
between ASs must pass through the backbone area when being forwarded from one
area to another. The ABRs have the responsibility for maintaining the routing
information between areas.
To set a designated router in an OSPF network, you can set the priority or use the
router with the highest loopback address. Setting the priority to 0 makes the router
ineligible to become the DR. To make an OSPF router the designated router, set the
priority with the highest value:
Example: Router(config)# ip ospf priority 100
LSA Types:
• Router link entry - This is a Type 1 LSA. Broadcast only in a specific area.
Contains all the default link state information. Generated by each router for
each area to which it belongs. It describes the states of the router’s link to
the area. These are only flooded within a particular area. The link status and
cost are two of the descriptors provided.
• Network entry - This is a Type 2 LSA. Multicast to all area routers in a multi-
access network by the DR (Designated Router). Contains network specific
information. They describe the set of routers attached to a particular network
and are flooded only within the area that contains the network.
• Summary entry - Type 3 LSAs have route information for the internal
networks and are sent to the backbone routers. Type 4 LSAs have information
about the ASBRs. This information is broadcast by the ABR, and it will reach
all the backbone routers.
• Autonomous system entry - This is a Type 5 LSA. It come from the ASBR and
has information relating to the external networks.
No special commands are required to turn a router into an ABR or ASBR. The router
takes on this role by virtue of the areas to which it is connected. As a reminder, the
basic OSPF configuration steps are as follows and you would simply add another
network statement for the ABR or ASBR to cover another area.
Remember that OSPF has a process ID (BGP, EIGRP and IGRP have AS numbers; RIP
requires neither)
Example: Router (config)# router ospf 1
Attributes of BGP
• Routers are considered to be peers or neighbors whenever they open up a
TCP session to exchange routing information.
• When routers communicate for the first time, they exchange their entire
routing table. From then on, they send only incremental updates.
• Uses TCP as its transport protocol, via port 179.
Configuring BGP
Enable BGP using a local BGP AS number assigned by InterNIC:
Router(config)# router bgp <AS-number>
Remember that BGP, EIGRP and IGRP have AS numbers (OSPF has a process ID, RIP
requires neither). Example: Router (config)# router bgp 1
Specify BGP neighbors and peers (peers use the local BGP AS-number):
Router(config)# neighbor <address> remote-as <AS-number>
Path Selection:
BGP will select one path as the best path. This path is put into the BGP routing table
and then propagated to its neighbors. The criteria for selecting the path for a
destination is:
• If the path specifies a next hop that is not accessible the update is dropped.
• The path with the largest weight is preferred.
• If the weights are the same, the path with larger local preference is preferred.
• If the local preference is the same, then prefer the path that originated on
this router.
• If no route originated on this router, then prefer the one with shortest
AS-path.
• If they have the same AS_path, then prefer the path with the lowest origin
path.
• If the origin codes are the same, then prefer the path with the lowest MED.
• If the MED is the same, then prefer an external path to an internal path.
• If these are the same, then prefer a path through the closest IGP (Interior
Gateway Protocol) neighbor.
• Lastly, prefer path with the lowest IP address, as specified by the BGP router
ID.
A BGP peer group is a defined group of BGP neighbors that are configured to share
the same update policies. Instead of defining the same policies for each individual
neighbor, you define a peer group name and assign policies to the peer group itself.
IBGP
• Exchanges information within the same AS between routers.
• Is more flexible, scalable, and more efficient for controlling the exchange of
information within an AS.
• Shows a consistent view of the AS to external neighbors.
EBGP
• Used when routers belong to different ASs and exchange BGP updates.
• BGP Synchronization rule:
If an AS provides transit service to another AS, then BGP should not
advertise the route until all of the routers within this AS have learned
the route through the IGP.
• When to disable synchronization:
o Your AS does not transfer traffic from one AS to another.
o All the transit routers on your AS are running BGP.
BGP synchronization
BGP must be synchronized with the IGP (Interior Gateway Protocol, such as OSPF or
EIGRP). To do this it waits until the IGP has propagated routing information across
the autonomous system before advertising transit routes to other ASs.
Confederations
Confederations eliminate the need to fully mesh BGP communications by splitting a
single AS into what amount to sub-AS’s and using EBGP between them; although to
external AS’s the entire confederation grouping looks like a single AS.
Route Reflectors
Defined central points of distribution for routers within an AS. In other words, it
receives data and distributes it to other routers. This eliminates the need for a fully
meshed BGP environment.
Policy Routing
Policy routing is a means of controlling routes. It relies on the source, or source and
destination, of traffic rather than destination alone. Policy routing can be used to
control traffic inside an AS as well as between ASs. Policy routing is a glorified form
of static routing, and has many of the same types of problems.
EIGRP is a stable and scalable Cisco proprietary protocol that combines the
advantages of link state and distance vector routing protocols. It supports automatic
route summarization and VLSM addressing.
EIGRP was designed to overcome scaling limitations of IGRP. This was achieved by
implementing:
• The Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL)
• Loop-free networks
• Incremental updates
• The holding of information about neighbors as opposed to the entire network
Types of Successors
• Successor - A route selected as the primary route to use to reach a
destination. Successors are the entries kept in the routing table.
• Feasible Successor - A backup route. Multiple feasible successors for a
destination can be retained, kept in topology table.
Features of EIGRP
• Neighbor Discovery/Recovery: Routers dynamically learn of other routers on
their directly attached networks by sending a 'Hello Packet'. As long as the
neighbor receives these packets the router is assumed to be 'alive'.
• Reliable Transport: Ordered delivery of EIGRP packets to neighbors is
guaranteed. For better efficiency, reliable transport is provided only when it is
needed.
• DUAL (Diffusing Update Algorithm): Tracks all the routes advertised by all
neighbors. DUAL will use the metric to select an efficient path. It selects
routes to be inserted into the routing table based on feasible successors.
• Protocol Dependent Modules: These are responsible for the network layer.
The IPX EIGRP module is responsible for sending and receiving EIGRP packets
that are encapsulated in IPX.
Tables
Neighbor table – The current state of all the router’s immediately adjacent
neighbors.
Topology table - This table is maintained by the protocol dependent modules and is
used by DUAL. It has all the destinations advertised by the neighbor routers.
Routing table - EIGRP chooses the best (successor) routes to a destination from the
topology table and places these routes in the routing table. The routing table
contains:
• How the route was found
Choosing routes
DUAL selects primary and backup routes based on the composite metric and ensures
that the selected routes are loop free. The primary routes are then moved to a
routing table. The rest (up to 6) are stored in the topology table.
EIGRP uses the same composite metric as IGRP to determine the best path. The
default criteria used are:
• Bandwidth - the smallest bandwidth cost between source and destination
• Delay - cumulative interface delay along the path
• Reliability - worst reliability between source and destination based on
keepalives
• Load - load on a link between source and destination based on bits per
second on its worst link
• MTU - the smallest Maximum Transition Unit
Remember that BGP, EIGRP and IGRP have AS numbers (OSPF has a process ID, RIP
requires neither). Example: Router (config)# router eigrp 1
Desktop Protocols
IPX (Internet Packet Exchange)
IPX is Novell’s network layer protocol. An IPX address consists of two parts, the
network ID followed by a host ID taken from the MAC address of the device.
The default Cisco encapsulation type are:
• Ethernet - Novell-Ether, the Novell-specific version of IEEE 802.2 standard
• Token Ring – SAP
• FDDI – SNAP
Things to know:
• The Cisco router does not forward SAP broadcasts, but constructs its own SAP
table and broadcasts that every 60 seconds (by default).
• Only one encapsulation type is allowed per network. You can have several
networks running on the same wire, but they must have different network
addresses.
• The IPX address is 80 bits long; 32 for network bits, 48 for host bits.
• To load balance you must use the “ipx maximum-paths {number}” command
and all parallel paths must have the same tick count and the same hop counts
as the tick and hop counts are used by IPX as a metric.
Example:
Router(config)# ipx routing
Router(config)# interface E0
Router(config-if)#ipx network badbed (network name in hexadecimal)
Routing IPX
IPX can use these routing protocols:
• Static Routes
• IPX RIP – Similar to IP RIP
• IPX EIGRP – The IPX version of Cisco’s proprietary routing protocols (see later
in this document)
• IPX NLSP – An IPX link-state routing protocol
• IPXWAN - A protocol that negotiates end-to-end options for new links before
IPX traffic can traverse the WAN link
IPX Split Horizon is not supported in any of the IPX feature sets
IPX supports load balancing; though not default, it must be configured
AppleTalk
The proprietary protocol stack developed by Apple Computer. Designed to be easy
to use for the end-user, it has often been seen as the bane of the Network Engineer.
Besides being complicated to configure, it is very chatty (a bandwidth hog).
AppleTalk can run over most physical media:
• EtherTalk = running over Ethernet
• TokenTalk = running over Token Ring
• FDDITalk = running over, you guessed it, FDDI
AppleTalk Protocols
• DDP (Datagram Delivery Protocol) – Layer 3 protocol. AppleTalk equivalent
to IP or IPX.
• AARP (AppleTalk Address Resolution Protocol) – Equivalent to DHCP in the IP
world.
• RTMP (Routing Table Maintenance Protocol) – A distance vector routing
protocol in which routes are exchanged only with immediate neighboring
routers. Sends routing table information every 10 seconds.
Addressing
AppleTalk addresses are made up of 16-bit network numbers, 8-bit node numbers,
and 8-bit socket numbers.
Zone – A logical grouping of AppleTalk nodes.
Multicasting
PIM (Protocol Independent Multicast) – Used to forward multicast packets through a
network.
Performance Management
Queuing Methods
Weighted Fair Queuing (WFQ) – Most basic queuing option that gives high-
volume traffic a lower priority than lower-volume traffic. For example, a time
sensitive SNA conversation would have a higher priority then a file transfer where
latencies will probably not be noticed. WFQ is enabled by default on all Cisco routers
with link speeds of less than E1 (2.048MB).
WAN
Serial line conditions:
• Serial 0 line is down, line protocol is down - No cable or modem is connected.
• Serial 0 line is up, line protocol is up - The WAN service is working fine and
keepalives from the remote site are being sent and received.
• Serial 0 line is up, line protocol is down - A cable is plugged into the router,
but no keepalives are being received from the remote router.
• Serial 0 is administratively down, line protocol is down - The interface has to
have been enabled by the administrator.
ISDN
Provides digital service that runs over existing telephone networks. Normally used to
support applications requiring high-speed voice, video, and data communications for
home users, remote offices, etc.
Protocols standards
• E specifies ISDN on existing telephone technology.
• I specify concepts, terminology and services.
• Q specifies switching and signaling.
Graphic 2
TE1---|---S/T-----NT1---U---LT---V---ET
|
TE2---R---TA--|
Equipment
• TA – Terminal adapter converts from RS-232, V.35, and other signals into
BRI.
• TE1|2 - Terminal equipment 1 (integrated TA, understands ISDN) or 2 (needs
TA, predates ISDN).
• NT1 - Network termination type 1 – equipment that connects the subscription
4 wires to the 2 wire local loop.
Reference Points
• R reference points define the hand-off from non-ISDN equipment and the TA.
• S reference points define hand-off from user terminals to an NT2.
• T reference points define hand-off between NT1 and NT2.
• U reference points define hand-off between NT1 and line-termination
equipment in a carrier network. (Only US/Japan, where NT1 not provided by
carrier).
Channels
• B(earer) channel: Used for data transfer (voice or data).
• D(ata) channel: Used for control/signaling information using LAPD.
Types of Equipment
• CPE – Customer Premise Equipment (on-site).
• DCE – Data Communications Equipment. The devices and connections that
make up the network end of the user-to-network interface.
• DTE – Data Terminal Equipment. The devices and connections that make up
the user end of the user-to-network interface. Terminals, PCs, and routers
would be examples.
Flavors of ISDN
• BRI – 2B /1D (D = 16kb)
• PRI (T1) – 23B / 1D (D = 64kb)
• E1 (Europe) – 30B / 1D (D = 64kb)
Things to Know
• Encapsulation can be PPP, HDLC or LAPD, with the default encapsulation
method being HDLC. CHAP authentication is associated with PPP.
• A SPID is similar to a telephone number and is provided by Telco.
Frame-Relay
Frame-relay is a simple and streamlined layer2, connection-oriented access protocol,
meaning it only defines signaling and data formats between the DTE and the Frame
Relay Switch. It is closely related to X.25, but without the error correction and
retransmission overhead.
Things to Remember:
• LMI - Local Management Interface - control protocol for PVC setup and
management. Frame-relay LMI types used in Cisco routers are ansi, cisco and
q933a (default is cisco).
• The encapsulation types for frame-relay are cisco and Ietf (default is cisco).
• Data-Link Connection Identifiers (DLCI’s), are assigned by the carrier.
• Wide range of speeds from 56K over T1 (1.5Kbps) to DS3 (45Mbps)
• FCS - Frame Check Sequence, similar to CRC. Appended to every frame for
simple error checking.
• Frame Relay can use ISDN/LAPD, HDLC, and PPP.
There are four major layers in the ATM reference model (equivalent to the OSI
Model)
• Higher layers – ATM signaling, addressing and routing.
• AAL (ATM Adoption Layer) – Converts from higher level to ATM cells.
• ATM – Defines ATM cell relaying and multiplexing.
• Physical – Defines the physical network media and framing.
LAN
Token Ring
Token Ring is an older technology that is still prevalent in modern day networking,
and should be reviewed carefully when preparing for the CCIE certification track,
both written and lab.
TR is defined in both the original IBM specification and IEEE 802.5 and comes in two
speeds, the original 4 Mbps and later 16 Mbps versions. Token Ring is installed as a
physical star configuration in that all stations are attached to a MAU (Multi-station
Access Unit, similar to a hub in Ethernet); but a logical ring in that the token which
provides permission to speak travels from node to node.
When the token returns, these bits will tell the sender that the destination received
the token and copied the data from the token. For example, if the A bit is set (1) and
the C bit is not (0), that would mean that the destination or receiving station is
recognized, but cannot copy the data from the frame.
Collisions are impossible in a Token Ring network that is functioning normally. The
only time you might see them is when an error condition exists.
Early token release can be enabled in the TR configuration. This allows the token to
be available as soon as the data has been delivered.
Ethernet
Ethernet is the most common LAN technology currently available, and provides for
CSMA/CD, which will be explained later in this document. There are two flavors of
Ethernet: 802.3 and Ethernet version II. Both standards support multiple physical
media types. The primary differences are:
Ethernet II
• Specifies a type field, which contains a two-byte field to indicate protocol type
of the contents of the data (IP, IPX, DEC, etc.).
• Supports both layer 1 and 2 of the OSI model.
• Supports only 10Mb.
802.3
• Specifies a length field.
• Does not contain any information about protocol type.
• Has this information in the DSAP and SSAP (Destination Service Access
Protocol and Source Service Access Protocol) fields.
• Supports all of the OSI layer 1 functionality, and parts of layer 2.
• Supports 10Mb, 100Mb, and 1,000Mb (Gigabit Ethernet).
CSMA/CD
Since only one device can “talk” on an individual Ethernet segment, CSMA/CD is
used anytime two or more stations share the same segment and, by extension,
available bandwidth. CSMA/CD listens before transmitting. If a collision occurs it
backs off the clear line, waits a random period of time, and attempts to transmit
again.
EtherChannel
EtherChannel is a Cisco proprietary method for aggregating the bandwidth of up to
four Fast Ethernet channels on a switch and having them appear to be one logical
connection. The requirements are that all the ports be in the same VLAN, have the
same speed and duplex settings, and if the switch is not a Cat6000, that contiguous
ports be used. Besides increasing the bandwidth available between devices, this also
adds a level of protection, because if one of the links within the EtherChannel were
to go down, the traffic would continue to pass at the reduced rate without
interruption.
networks, and is still relevant in both real-life situations and in preparation for the
CCIE track.
It is based on a token-passing scheme similar to Token Ring, but with dual counter-
rotating rings that provide redundancy in the event of a fiber (or copper in the case
of CDDI) cut. The primary ring carries traffic; the secondary is the backup link. The
rings have a speed of 100Mbps, which was perfectly acceptable in the backbone until
the introduction of inexpensive Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet.
There are two types of devices on the network:
• DAS (Dual-Attached Station) – which would be attached directly to both rings.
• SAS (Single-Attached Station) - which would be connected to a concentrator.
Security
AAA (Authentication, Authorization and Accounting)
A standard feature set of software security tools that identify when users are logged
into a router; control each user’s authority level; and monitor user activity to provide
accounting information.
Multiservice
Voice/Video Protocols
Erlang B – A traffic model used by telephone system designers to estimate
the number of lines required for trunks.
Compression
The compress {predictor | stac} command can be used to enhance service on slow
point-to-point links using HDLC, PPP, and LAPB. This will cause an increase in CPU
utilization on the router.